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Section 1.1
1.1 What Is Earth Science?
1 FOCUS

Section Objectives
1.1 Define Earth science. Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy
What is the study of Earth ◆ Earth science Categorizing As you read about the
1.2 Describe the formation of science? different branches of Earth science, fill in the
◆ geology
Earth and the solar system. column with the name of each branch and list
How did Earth and the ◆ oceanography
solar system form? some of the things that are studied.
◆ meteorology
◆ astronomy geology a. ?
Reading Focus b. ? c. ?

Build Vocabulary L2 d. ? e. ?

f. ? g. ?
Word Parts Ask students to use a
dictionary to determine the meanings
of the following word parts:
geo- (Earth); astro- (outer space);
-ology (study of); -ography (study of);
-onomy (study of)
T he spectacular eruption of a volcano, the magnificent scenery of a
rocky coast, and the destruction created by a hurricane are all subjects
Based on this discussion and their prior
for Earth science. The study of Earth science deals with many fasci-
knowledge, have students predict the
nating and practical questions about our environment. What forces
meaning of this section’s vocabulary
produced the mountains shown on page 1? Why does our daily
words. Then, have students look up the
weather change? Is our climate changing? How old is Earth? How is
words in the Glossary to check their
predictions and make any necessary Earth related to the other planets in the solar system? What causes
corrections. Meteorology will likely ocean tides? What was the Ice Age like? Will there be another?
Figure 1 Scientists called Understanding Earth is not an easy task because our planet is always
present a problem, with most students paleontologists study fossils,
predicting that it is the study of meteors, which are signs of life in the
changing. Earth is a dynamic planet with a long and complex history.
rather than the study of the atmosphere. distant past, to find out how
life-forms have changed
through time.
Overview of Earth Science
Reading Strategy L2 Posing Questions What Earth science is the name for the group of sciences that deals with
questions do you have about Earth and its neighbors in space. Earth science includes many subdivi-
a. Earth, earthquakes, mountains, this fossil?
volcanoes, Earth’s history sions of geology such as geochemistry, geophysics, geobiology
b. oceanography and paleontology, as well as oceanography, meteorology, and
c. composition and movements of astronomy.
seawater, coastal processes, seafloor Units 1 through 4 focus on the science of geology, a word
topography, marine life that means “study of Earth.” Geology is divided into two
d. meteorology broad areas—physical geology and historical geology.
e. atmosphere, weather, climate Physical geology includes the examination of the materi-
f. astronomy als that make up Earth and the possible explanations for the
g. universe, solar system many processes that shape our planet. Processes below the
surface create earthquakes, build mountains, and produce vol-
2 INSTRUCT canoes. Processes at the surface break rock apart and create

Overview of 2 Chapter 1
Earth Science
Build Reading Literacy L1
Refer to p. 216D in Chapter 8, which
provides guidelines for comparing
and contrasting.
Compare and Contrast Have students
create a table to compare and contrast
physical geology and historical geology.
They should fill in their table as they
read the first part of this section. Areas
to consider include the focus of each
area and examples of what is studied.
Visual

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Use Community
different landforms. Erosion by water, wind, and ice results in differ- Resources L2
ent landscapes. You will learn that rocks and minerals form in response
The USGS (United States Geological
to Earth’s internal and external processes. Understanding the origin of
Survey) has a network of regional offices
rocks and minerals is an important part of understanding Earth.
where geologists study geological
In contrast to physical geology, the aim of historical geology is to phenomena at local, regional, and
understand Earth’s long history. Historical geology tries to establish a global levels. Their activities include
timeline of the vast number of physical and biological changes that monitoring earthquake activity,
have occurred in the past. See Figure 1. We study physical geology mapping subsurface rock formations,
before historical geology because we must first understand how Earth and providing the public with infor-
works before we try to unravel its past. mation about geologic events such
as floods and landslides. Ask a USGS
What are the two main areas of geology? geologist from a local office to talk to
the class about what geologists do at
their jobs. Ask students to prepare
Unit 5 is devoted to oceanography. Oceanography integrates the
questions in advance.
sciences of chemistry, physics, geology, and biology. Oceanographers Interpersonal
study the composition and movements of seawater, as well as coastal
processes, seafloor topography, and marine life. See Figure 2. Formation of Earth
Unit 6 examines the composition of Earth’s atmosphere. The com- L1
Build Reading Literacy
bined effects of Earth’s motions and energy from the sun cause the
atmosphere to produce different weather conditions. This, in turn, cre- Refer to p. 186D in Chapter 7, which
ates the basic pattern of global climates. Meteorology is the study of the provides guidelines for relating text
atmosphere and the processes that produce weather and climate. Like and visuals.
oceanography, meteorology also involves other branches of science. Relate Text and Visuals Have students
Unit 7 demonstrates that understanding Earth requires an under- Figure 2 Oceanographers study
turn ahead in the text to Figure 3 on p. 4
standing of Earth’s position in the universe. The science of astronomy, all aspects of the ocean—the for a visual representation of the nebular
the study of the universe, is useful in probing the origins of our own chemistry of its waters, the hypothesis. Have them read the figure
geology of its seafloor, the physics
environment. All objects in space, including Earth, are subject to the of its interactions with the
caption, then use the figure to describe
same physical laws. Learning about the other members of our solar atmosphere, and the biology of the major steps in the nebular hypothesis.
system and the universe beyond helps us to understand Earth. its organisms. (Solar system begins as cloud of dust and
Throughout its long existence, Earth has been changing. In fact, it is gases. Cloud starts to rotate and collapse.
changing as you read this page and will continue to do so. Sometimes the Heated center forms the sun. Cooling
changes are rapid and violent, such as when tornados, landslides, or creates solid particles. Collisions create
volcanic eruptions occur. Many changes, however, take place so grad- asteroid-sized bodies. Asteroids form the
ually that they go unnoticed during a lifetime. inner planets. Lighter materials and gases
form the outer planets.)
Formation of Earth Visual
Earth is one of nine planets that revolve around the sun. Our solar
system has an orderly nature. Scientists understand that Earth and
the other planets formed during the same time span and from the
same material as the sun. The nebular hypothesis suggests that
the bodies of our solar system evolved from an enormous rotating
cloud called the solar nebula. It was made up mostly of hydrogen
and helium, with a small percentage of heavier elements. Figure 3 on
page 4 summarizes some key points of this hypothesis.

Introduction to Earth Science 3

Customize for English Language Learners

Students should use the words and word Students should then use a dictionary to check
parts they just learned, along with their prior their definitions. Review the correct meanings
knowledge, to define the following words: of these words with students when they are
oceanographer, meteorologist, geography, finished.
geologist, geological, astronaut, astronomer.

Answer to . . .
The two main areas of
geology are physical
geology and historical geology.

Introduction to Earth Science 3

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Section 1.1 (continued)

A
Use Visuals L1
Figure 3 Have students study the
diagram illustrating the nebular
hypothesis. Ask: What do all stages of
this hypothesis have in common? (In
all stages, the system is spinning.) What
was the first stage in the develop-
ment of our solar system? (Our solar
system began as an enormous cloud of B
gas and dust.) Challenge students to
make a timeline or flowchart of the
key events in the formation of our
solar system. (Students should make a
timeline or flowchart based on steps A
through E given in the figure caption.)
Visual, Logical
C

Separation and Density L2

Purpose Students see how substances
separate based on density.
Materials 2 large glass jars with lids,
100 mL sand, 100 mL rock salt, 100 mL
sugar, 100 mL water, 100 mL vegetable D
oil, 100 mL corn syrup
Procedure At the start of the class,
place all of the solids in one jar and all
the liquids in another jar. Put the lids on
both jars and shake them carefully. Let
the jars settle during the class. Then,
have the students look at them. Ask:
Why did the liquids separate?
(Differences in density made the liquids E
rise or fall and separate.) Why didn’t the
solids separate? (The solid particles were
Figure 3 Formation of the Solar System According to the Nebular Hypothesis A Our solar system began as an
unable to move past each other.) What enormous cloud of dust and gases made up mostly of hydrogen and helium with a small percentage of heavier elements.
state was Earth most likely in when it B This cloud, called a nebula, started to rotate and collapse toward the center of the cloud. Heat was generated at the
center, which eventually formed the sun. C Cooling of the nebula caused rocky and metallic materials to form tiny solid
separated into layers? (The materials
particles. D Repeated collisions of these particles resulted in the formation of asteroid-sized bodies. E These asteroids
that made up Earth must have been eventually combined to form the four inner planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. The lighter materials and gases
molten or nearly molten.) combined farther away from the center to form the four outer planets—Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

Expected Outcome The liquids will

separate into different layers. The solids
will remain mixed. 4 Chapter 1
Visual, Logical

Facts and Figures

As Earth was forming, density differences eruption. This is an example of the principle
caused denser materials to sink to Earth’s core, of uniformitarianism, which is essential to the
while less dense materials escaped to the study of geology. This principle states that the
atmosphere. Density differences continue to processes that exist on Earth today are identical
shape Earth today. Today’s volcanic eruptions to the processes that existed on Earth in the
are generally caused by less dense magma and distant past. This principle allows geologists
gases rising up through the mantle until they to make useful inferences based on
penetrate the crust, resulting in a volcanic contemporary observations.

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Build Science Skills L2

High temperatures and weak fields of gravity characterized the
inner planets. As a result, the inner planets were not able to hold onto Inferring Based on the information in
the lighter gases of the nebular cloud. The lightest gases, hydrogen and this section, ask students to infer which
helium, were whisked away toward the heavier planets by the solar of Earth’s layers will be the densest.
wind. Earth, Mars, and Venus were able to retain some heavier gases Have students turn ahead in the text to
including water vapor and carbon dioxide. The materials that formed Figure 6 on p. 8 to see a diagram of
by outer planets contained high percentages of water, carbon dioxide, Earth’s layers.
ammonia, and methane. The size and frigid temperatures of the outer Logical
planets provided the surface gravity to hold these heavier gases.
3 ASSESS
Layers Form on Earth Shortly after Earth formed, the decay of
radioactive elements, combined with heat released by colliding particles, Evaluate
Understanding L2
produced some melting of the interior. This allowed the denser elements,
mostly iron and nickel, to sink to Earth’s center. The lighter, rocky com- To assess students’ knowledge of section
ponents floated outward, toward the surface. This sinking and floating content, ask them to answer the Key
is believed to still be occurring, but on a much smaller scale. As a result Concepts questions at the beginning
of this process, Earth’s interior is not made of uniform materials. It con- of this section.
sists of layers of materials that have different properties.
Reteach L1
Why does Earth have layers? Have students use Figure 3 to explain in
their own words the formation of our
solar system.
An important result of this process is that gaseous materials were
allowed to escape from Earth’s interior, just as gases escape today
during volcanic eruptions. In this way, an atmosphere gradually
formed along with the ocean. It was composed mainly of gases that Because Earth is an ever-changing
were released from within the planet. planet, all the spheres on Earth are
interactive and affect one another. To
understand Earth’s existence and history,
it is important to study all aspects of
Section 1.1 Assessment Earth together.

Reviewing Concepts 6. Inferring Would meteorology be a useful

science to apply to the study of planets such
1. What are the sciences that are included in
as Mercury and Mars? Explain.
Earth science?
7. Hypothesizing Suppose that as Earth
2. What topics are included in the study of
formed, all lighter elements were released to
physical geology?
surrounding space. How might this affect the
3. Explain how physical geology differs from structure of Earth today?
historical geology.
4. Describe the nebular hypothesis.

Critical Thinking
5. Forming Conclusions Explain why Earth is Summarizing Earth science is composed
called a dynamic planet. of many different areas of study. Why is it
important to include all of these areas in Answer to . . .
the study of Earth and the solar system?
Earth has layers because
denser elements sank to
Introduction to Earth Science 5 Earth’s center and less dense elements
floated to the surface.

4. This hypothesis suggests that the solar 6. It would not be very useful because these
Section 1.1 Assessment
system began as an enormous cloud of dust two planets have only very thin atmospheres.
1. Earth science includes many subdivisions and gas. The cloud began to rotate, heat was Very few meteorological processes are occur-
of geology such as geochemistry, geophysics, produced, and the cloud began to collapse ring on them.
geobiology, and paleontology, as well as toward the center. The sun formed at the 7. If all the lighter elements were no longer a
meteorology, oceanography, and astronomy. center from this heat. Cooling of the cloud part of Earth’s structure, Earth probably would
2. Physical geology includes processes that caused rocky and metallic materials to form not have layers defined by their density.
operate on and below Earth’s surface such as the inner planets. The outer planets formed
volcanoes, mountain building, erosion, and from lighter materials and gases.
earthquakes. 5. The surface of Earth is continually chang-
3. Historical geology’s aim is to understand ing due to its layered structure.
Earth’s history. Physical geology’s aim is to
understand the processes that shape Earth.
Introduction to Earth Science 5
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Earth’s Place in the Universe

For centuries, people who have gazed at the night omy are beginning to provide answers about the
Earth’s Place in sky have wondered about the nature of the universe, origin of the universe, the formation and evolution
the Universe L2 Earth’s place within it, and whether or not we are
alone. Today many exciting discoveries in astron-
of stars, and how Earth came into existence.

Background
The Milky Way is a collection of several
The realization that the universe is immense and nuclei to form helium. During this process, called
hundred billion stars, the oldest of
orderly began in the early 1900s. Edwin Hubble and nuclear fusion, matter is converted to energy. Stars
which is about 10 billion years. It is one other scientists demonstrated that the Milky Way begin to die when their nuclear fuel is used up.
of a cluster of approximately 28 galaxy is one of hundreds of billions of galaxies, Massive stars often have explosive deaths. During
galaxies, called the Local Group, that each of which contains billions of stars. Evidence these events, called supernovas, nuclear fusion pro-
exists in our region of the universe. supports that Earth, its materials, and all living duces atoms such as oxygen, carbon, and iron. These
things are the result of the Big Bang theory. The uni- atoms may become the materials that make up future
Initially, the oldest stars in the Milky Way verse began between 13 and 14 billion years ago as a generations of stars. From the debris scattered during
formed from nearly pure hydrogen. dense, hot, massive amount of material exploded with the death of a preexisting star, our sun, and the solar
Later, succeeding generations of violent force. See Figure 4. Within about one second, system formed
younger stars, including our Sun, would the temperature of the expanding universe cooled to
Our star, the sun, is at the very least a second-
approximately 10 billion degrees. Basic atomic parti-
have heavier, more complex atoms generation star. Along with the planets in our solar
cles called protons and neutrons began to appear.
available for their formation. system, the sun began forming nearly 5 billion years
After a few minutes, atoms of the simplest elements—
ago from a large interstellar cloud called a nebula.
Teaching Tips hydrogen and helium—had formed. The initial
This nebula consisted of dust particles and gases
conversion of energy to matter in the young universe
• As students read the feature and look enriched in heavy elements from supernova explo-
was completed.
at Figure 4, have them make a timeline sions. Gravitational energy caused the nebula to
of the events shown from the big During the first billion years or so, matter (essentially contract, rotate, and flatten. Inside, smaller concen-
hydrogen and helium) in the expanding universe trations of matter began condensing to form the
bang to the present. clumped together to form enormous clouds that planets. At the center of the nebula there was suffi-
• While reading Earth’s Place in the eventually collapsed to become galaxies and clusters cient pressure and heat to initiate hydrogen nuclear
Universe feature, have students create of galaxies. Inside these collapsing clouds, smaller con- fusion, and our sun was born.
a flowchart showing the chain of centrations of matter formed into stars. One of the
It has been said that all life on Earth is related to the
billions of galaxies to form was the Milky Way.
events starting with the big bang and stars. This is true because the atoms in our bodies
ending with the formation of our sun During the life of most stars, energy produced as and the atoms that make up everything on Earth,
hydrogen nuclei (protons) fuses with other hydrogen owe their origin to a supernova event that occurred
and the planets of our solar system.
billions of years ago, trillions of kilometers away.
(Big Bang → Protons and neutrons
appear → Hydrogen and helium form → 14 b.y. 13 b.y. 10 b.y. 5 b.y. Present Figure 4 Big Bang
Solar Theory Between 13 and
Hydrogen and helium condense into Galaxies evolve 14 billion years ago, a
clouds → Galaxies and galaxy clusters Big and move apart Milky huge explosion sent all
Bang Way
form and start spreading apart → Milky Way
forms Sun
of the universe’s matter
Quasars flying outward at great
Clouds of gas and dust collapse, forming form speed. After a few
stars → Stars become supernovas → Dust
and billion years, the
Nebula, enriched from supernovas, gases material cooled and
collect Active condensed into the first
contracts, rotates, and flattens → galaxies Local
stars and galaxies.
form group
Planets and our sun form) About 5 billion years
ago, our solar system
began forming in a
galaxy that is now called
L2 the Milky Way galaxy.

Students may think that the Milky Way

is at the center of the universe. They 6 Chapter 1
may have inferred this from learning
that almost all galaxies are moving away
from the Milky Way in all directions. To
dispel this misconception, have students
mark with a black marker a number of
dots on a partially inflated balloon. Blow
up the balloon and observe what
happens to the dots. They all move
away from each other, as do almost all
galaxies. All points in the universe can
be thought of as being the center of the
universe, as everything else is moving
away from everything else.
Visual

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Section 1.2
1.2 A View of Earth
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy 1.3 Describe Earth’s four major
What are the four major ◆ hydrosphere Predicting Before you read, predict the spheres.
spheres into which Earth ◆ atmosphere meaning of the vocabulary words. After you
is divided? read, revise your definition if your prediction 1.4 Differentiate among the three
◆ geosphere
What defines the three was incorrect. parts of the geosphere.
◆ biosphere
main parts of the solid ◆ core
1.5 State the value of the theory
Earth? Vocabulary Term Before You Read After You Read
◆ mantle of plate tectonics to Earth
Which model explains the ◆ crust hydrosphere a. ? b. ? Science.
position of continents and
atmosphere c. ? d. ?
the occurrence of
volcanoes and geosphere e. ? f. ?
earthquakes? Reading Focus
biosphere g. ? h. ?

core i. ? j. ?
Build Vocabulary L2
mantle k. ? l. ?

crust m. ? n. ?
Word Parts Explain to students that
hydro- relates to water and atmos-
relates to air. Have them use this
information, along with prior
knowledge, to predict the meaning of
A view such as the one in Figure 5A provided
the Apollo 8 astronauts with a unique view of
the vocabulary words for this section.

Reading Strategy L2
our home. Seen from space, Earth is breathtak-
ing in its beauty. Such an image reminds us that Sample answer:
our home is, after all, a planet—small, self-con- a. ball of water
tained, and in some ways even fragile. b. all water on Earth
If you look closely at Earth from space, you c. ball of air
may see that it is much more than rock and soil. A B d. gaseous envelope surrounding Earth
The swirling clouds and the vast global ocean e. ball of rock
emphasize the importance of water on our planet. Figure 5 A View that greeted f. solid part of Earth below the
the Apollo 8 astronauts as their atmosphere and oceans
spacecraft emerged from behind
Earth’s Major Spheres th Moon. B Africa and Arabia are
g. ball of living things
prominent in this image of Earth h. all life on Earth
The view of Earth shown in Figure 5B should help you see why the taken from Apollo 17. The tan i. center of Earth
physical environment is traditionally divided into three major spheres: areas are desert regions. The
j. dense inner sphere
the water portion of our planet, the hydrosphere; Earth’s gaseous bands of clouds over central
Africa are associated with k. ledge
envelope, the atmosphere; and the geosphere. rainforests. Antarctica, which is l. less dense middle layer
Our environment is characterized by the continuous interactions of covered by glacial ice, is visible at
m. outer envelope
the south pole. The dark blue
air and rock, rock and water, and water and air. The biosphere, which is n. light, thin outer layer
oceans and white swirling clouds
made up of all the life-forms on Earth, interacts with all three of these remind us of the importance of
physical spheres. Earth can be thought of as consisting of four major oceans and the atmosphere.
spheres: the hydrosphere, atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere.
2 INSTRUCT

Introduction to Earth Science 7

Earth’s Major Spheres
Use Visuals L1
Figure 5 This image of Earth was taken
by astronauts in space. Ask: Which
of Earth’s features are visible from
space? (oceans, continents, clouds)
What does the color of the land that
is visible tell you about the climate in
those regions? (Brown indicates a desert
climate. Green indicates a wet climate.)
What other Earth features do you
think would be visible from space?
(smoke from forest fires and city lights at
night) Who might find images from
space useful? (meteorologists, geologists,
oceanographers)
Visual, Verbal
Introduction to Earth Science 7
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Section 1.2 (continued) Hydrosphere Water is what makes Earth unique. All of the water
on Earth makes up the hydrosphere. Continually on the move, water
Build Reading Literacy L1 evaporates from the oceans to the atmosphere, falls back to Earth as
Refer to p. 1D, which provides rain, and runs back to the ocean. The oceans account for approxi-
guidelines for guided anticipation. mately 97 percent of the water on Earth. The remaining 3 percent is
fresh water and is present in groundwater, streams, lakes, and glaciers.
Anticipation Guide Ask students to
Although these freshwater sources make up a small fraction of the
respond to the following questions in
total amount of water on Earth, they are quite important. Streams, gla-
writing before they read this section.
ciers, and groundwater are responsible for sustaining life and creating
Have students check their answers and
many of Earth’s varied landforms.
make changes as needed after they
finish reading the section. Students Atmosphere A life-sustaining, thin, gaseous envelope called the
should answer True or False to the atmosphere surrounds Earth. It reaches beyond 100 kilometers above
following series of statements: Earth, yet 90 percent occurs within just 16 kilometers of Earth’s sur-
• The atmosphere contains all of the
face. This thin blanket of air is an important part of Earth. It provides
water on Earth. (F)
the air that we breathe. It protects us from the sun’s intense heat and
• Groundwater is part of Earth’s
dangerous radiation. The energy exchanges that continually occur
hydrosphere. (T)
between space, the atmosphere, and Earth’s surface produce weather
• Earth’s atmosphere does nothing to
and climate.
protect us from the sun’s radiation. (F)
If Earth had no atmosphere, life on our planet as we know it could
• There is no crust under Earth’s oceans.
not exist. Many of the processes and interactions that make the surface
(F)
such a dynamic place would not occur. For example, without weath-
• Earth’s crust is the same thickness Figure 6 A On this diagram, the
under land as under water. (F) ering and erosion, the face of our planet might more closely resemble
inner core, outer core, and mantle
• The only layer of Earth that is solid is are drawn to scale but the the moon.
thickness of the crust is
the crust. (F) exaggerated by about 5 times. Geosphere Lying beneath both the atmosphere and the ocean is the
• The biosphere affects all other spheres B There are two types of crust—
oceanic and continental. The
geosphere. Because the geosphere is not uniform, it is divided into
of Earth. (T)
lithosphere is made up of the three main parts based on differences in composition—the core, the
Verbal crust and upper mantle. Below the mantle, and the crust. Figure 6A shows the dense or heavy inner sphere
lithosphere are the asthenosphere
and the lower mantle. that is the core; the less dense mantle; and the lighter, thin crust. The crust
is not uniform in thickness. It is thinnest beneath the oceans and thick-
est beneath the continents. Figure
A Crust 5–70 km
B 6B shows that the crust and
Earth’s Layers L2 Upper
Mantle uppermost mantle make up a
Continental
Lower Mantle Oceanic crust
Purpose Provide students with a three- crust rigid outer layer called the litho-
dimensional model of Earth’s layered Outer sphere. Beneath the lithosphere,
Inner core 0 Lithosphere
structure. core 289 the rocks become partially
km
0 100
Materials hard-boiled egg, knife 226 molten, or melted. They are able
Depth (km)

0 km
122
km to slowly flow because of the
Procedure Show students a hard- 200 Asthenosphere
uneven distribution of heat deep
boiled egg. Crack the shell in several Upper
Mantle within Earth. This region is called
places so pieces of shell can slide a bit 300
the asthenosphere. Beneath the
over the white of the egg. Tell students
660
asthenosphere, the rock becomes
the shell of the egg represents Earth’s
more dense. This region of Earth
crust, which is a thin layer, cracked and
is called the lower mantle.
broken into plates that can move. Cut
the egg in half. Show students that the
white of the egg represents Earth’s
8 Chapter 1
mantle, and the yolk of the egg
represents Earth’s core.
Expected Outcome Students will be
able to relate the structure of the egg to Customize for Inclusion Students
the structure of Earth and can use this
representation to create a mental model Learning Disabled Have learning disabled sure they include Earth’s layers in their sketch
of what Earth’s layers look like. students draw labeled pictures illustrating each of the solid Earth. They can use Figure 6 as a
Visual, Logical of Earth’s four major spheres: hydrosphere, guide.
atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere. Be

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Biosphere The biosphere includes all life on Earth. It is concen-
trated in a zone that extends from the ocean floor upward for several Making Judgments Present groups
kilometers into the atmosphere. Plants and animals depend on the with the questions below. Challenge
physical environment for life. However, organisms do more than just them to reach a consensus answer to
respond to their physical environment. Through countless interac- each question. Once all groups have
tions, organisms help maintain and alter their physical environment. finished, have one student in each
Without life, the makeup and nature of the solid Earth, hydrosphere, group present the results. Ask: How
and atmosphere would be very different. does the hydrosphere, atmosphere,
and geosphere affect the biosphere?
(Flooding, tornadoes, hurricanes, volcanoes,
What are Earth’s four major spheres?
and earthquakes have caused loss of life
and habitat.) How do members of the
biosphere affect the geosphere?
(Humans have dug mines into the crusts.
North Burrowing animals also affect the solid
American
plate Earth, though often in more of a
North temporary way.) How do members
American Eurasian plate
plate of the biosphere affect the
Caribbean
hydrosphere and atmosphere?
Juan de
Fuca plate
Arabian Pacific (Humans have polluted both water and
plate Philippine plate
plate
plate air. Human-made dams and those built by
African plate
Cocos
plate
beavers can have a dramatic effect on the
flow of rivers.) Does the biosphere
Nazca influence the other spheres more
South
Pacific plate plate American Australian plate than the other spheres influence the
plate biosphere? Explain your answer.
(Students can answer either way as long
as they have solid reasoning to support
Convergent plate boundaries
their decision. For example, when changes
Antarctic plate Divergent plate boundaries in the other spheres threaten the biosphere,
Transform plate boundaries
humans usually find a way to adjust to the
changes. However, the other spheres are
not always able to respond to human
Plate Tectonics Figure 7 Plate Tectonics There
are currently 7 major plates efforts.)
You have read that Earth is a dynamic planet. If we could go back in recognized and numerous smaller Verbal
plates.
time a billion years or more, we would find a planet with a surface that Relating Cause and Effect
was dramatically different from what it is today. Such prominent fea- What is the relationship between Plate Tectonics
tures as the Grand Canyon, the Rocky Mountains, and the Appalachian mountain chains and plate
Build Reading Literacy L1
boundaries?
Mountains did not exist. We would find that the continents had differ-
Refer to p. 362D in Chapter 13, which
ent shapes and were located in different positions from those of today. provides guidelines for using prior
There are two types of forces affecting Earth’s surface. Destructive knowledge.
forces such as weathering and erosion work to wear away high points
and flatten out the surface. Constructive forces such as mountain build- Use Prior Knowledge Based on their
previous experiences with words such as
ing and volcanism build up the surface by raising the land and
construction and destroy, have students
depositing new material in the form of lava. These constructive forces
predict the definitions of the terms
depend on Earth’s internal heat for their source of energy.
constructive forces and destructive forces.
Help students see this connection and
Introduction to Earth Science 9 then check that they understand both
terms by asking them to list some
destructive forces and some constructive
forces.
Facts and Figures Verbal

It is important to note that the “solid Earth” is the lava that flows out of volcanoes. Scientists
not really all solid. The crust, mantle, and inner have inferred the state of matter for each of
core are solid, but the outer core is liquid. In Earth’s layers by studying the paths that
addition, a tiny part of Earth’s mantle (in the seismic waves take through Earth.
Answer to . . .
astherosphere) is molten, which gives rise to
Figure 7 Mountain chains are often
found along plate boundaries.
The four major spheres
are the hydrosphere,
atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere.

Introduction to Earth Science 9

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Section 1.2 (continued) Within the last several decades, a great deal has been learned about
the workings of Earth. In fact, this period is called a revolution in our
knowledge about Earth. This revolution began in the early part of the
twentieth century with the idea that the continents had moved about
the face of the Earth. This idea contradicted the accepted view that the
Convection and Plates L2 continents and ocean basins are stationary features on the face of
Earth. Few scientists believed this new idea. More than 50 years passed
Purpose Students observe how heat
before enough data were gathered to transform this hypothesis into a
from within Earth can move plates.
widely accepted theory. The theory that finally emerged, called
Materials hot plate; deep, wide glass plate tectonics, provided geologists with a model to explain how
container such as a lasagna pan; diluted earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur and how continents move.
tomato soup; large, thin sponges;
scissors; tongs What is the difference between destructive forces
and constructive forces?
Procedure Fill the container about
halfway with tomato soup, and put it
on the hot plate. Slowly heat it until According to the plate tectonics model, Earth’s lithosphere is broken
convection cells form (soup rising in the into several individual sections called plates. Figure 7 on page 9 shows
center and falling at the edges). While their current position. These plates move slowly and continuously
the soup is heating, cut various rough across the surface. This motion is driven by the result of an unequal
plate shapes out of the sponges. Use the distribution of heat within Earth. Ultimately, this movement of Earth’s
tongs to place the sponges on the lithospheric plates generates earthquakes, volcanic activity, and the
surface of the soup. Have students deformation of large masses of rock into mountains. You will learn
observe what happens to the sponges. more about the powerful effects of plate tectonics in Chapter 9.
(If necessary, review the concept of
convection.) Ask: Why is the soup
moving? (Heat from below creates
convection cells.) Why do the “plates” Section 1.2 Assessment
move? (The moving soup carried the
plates along with it.) How is the actual
movement of Earth’s plates different
Reviewing Concepts Critical Thinking
from this demonstration? (The molten
1. Which of Earth’s spheres do each of these 7. Inferring Using the definitions of spheres as
rock in the mantle is solid, and therefore features belong: lake, meadow, canyon, cloud? they occur on Earth, what spheres do you
slower-moving than the soup, and so the 2. What are the three main parts of the think are present on Venus?
actual plates move much more slowly.) geosphere? 8. Applying Concepts Describe a situation in
Safety Caution students not to touch 3. Why is the solid Earth layered? which two or more of Earth’s spheres are
interacting.
the hot container or soup. 4. The plate tectonics theory explains the
existence and occurrence of what features? 9. Classifying Choose an Earth science branch.
Expected Outcome The heat will List how some of its studies relate to Earth’s
5. What sort of energy allows the tectonic plates
create convection cells that move the to move?
spheres.
sponges around. 6. Describe an example of how water moves
Visual, Logical through the hydrosphere.

Earth’s Spheres You learned in Section 1.1

3 ASSESS that Earth is a dynamic planet. Explain
how features in each of Earth’s spheres are
Evaluate changing over time.
Understanding L2
Have students make posters showing
Earth’s layers and spheres. Students 10 Chapter 1
should label their drawings with the
terms crust, mantle, core, hydrosphere,
biosphere, and atmosphere.

Section 1.2 Assessment 5. Plate tectonics depends on Earth’s internal

Reteach L1
heat.
Use Figure 7 to review Earth’s plates and 1. lake: hydrosphere, meadow: geosphere, 6. Sample answer: Water in a lake evaporates
the concept of plate tectonics. canyon: geosphere, cloud: atmosphere into the atmosphere. The water vapor con-
2. The three main parts of the geosphere are denses and falls from the clouds into the lake
the core, mantle, and crust. as rain and the cycle begins again.
3. The layers formed because of density dif- 7. geosphere, atmosphere
Students’ answers could include ferences in the materials that made up early 8. Sample answer: waves (hydrosphere)
discussions of the hydrosphere (sea level Earth. crashing onto the shore (geosphere); birds
changes), atmosphere (weather and 4. Plate tectonics explains mountains, (biosphere) flying in the sky (atmosphere)
climate changes), geosphere (erosion of continents, ocean basins, earthquakes, 9. Sample answer: meteorology: cloud
topsoil, earthquake occurrence), and and volcanoes. cover—atmosphere; rain storms—hydrosphere
biosphere (evolution of living things). and atmosphere
10 Chapter 1
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Section 1.3
1.3 Representing Earth’s
Surface
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
1.6 Locate points on Earth’s surface
Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy by their latitude and longitude.
What lines on a globe are ◆ latitude Monitoring Your Understanding Preview
1.7 Describe the advantages and
used to indicate location? ◆ longitude the Key Concepts, topic headings, vocabulary, disadvantages of different types
What problems do ◆ topographic map and figures in this section. List two things you of mass.
expect to learn. After reading, state what you
mapmakers face when ◆ contour line
learned about each item you listed.
1.8 Explain what makes
making maps? ◆ contour interval topographic maps different
How do topographic from other maps.
What I Expect to Learn What I Learned
maps differ from other
maps? a. ? b. ?

c. ? d. ?
Reading Focus

Build Vocabulary L2
Paraphrase Have students look up the
Determining Location vocabulary words for this section in the
Today we use maps and computer programs to help us plan our routes. Glossary and then rewrite the definitions
Long ago, people had to rely on maps that were made using data and in their own words. Help students
information that were collected by travelers and explorers. Today com- remember latitude lines run horizontally
puter technology is available to anyone who wants to use it. across Earth with the mnemonic “Lat
Mapmaking has changed a lot throughout recorded history. lies flat.” Similarly, help them see that
After Christopher Columbus and others proved that Earth was not longitude lines run the “long way” over
flat, mapmakers began to use a global grid to help determine location. Earth.

Global Grid Scientists use two special Earth measurements to Reading Strategy L2
describe location. The distance around Earth is measured in degrees. Sample answer:
Latitude is the distance north or south a. I expect to learn about latitude and
West East
of the equator, measured in degrees. 90° 75° 60° 45° 30° 15° 0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90°
longitude.
90°N
90°
Longitude is the distance east or 75°
60°
b. Latitude lines measure degrees north
75°
west of the prime meridian, D 45° and south of the equator; longitude
60°
A 30° D North
Prime meridian

measured in degrees. Earth is 45° lines measure degrees east and west of
A
360 degrees in circumference. E 15°
30°
the prime meridian.
15°
Lines of latitude are east-west C 0°
C E Equator 0°
c. I expect to learn about different types
75°60° 45° 30° 15° 0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75°
circles around the globe. All 15° of maps.
15° B
points on the circle have the 30° d. There are many different types of
South

B 30° 45°
same latitude. The line of latitude 60°
maps. Maps are hard to make accurately.
45°
around the middle of the globe, at 60° 75° Different map types have different
75°
0 degrees (°), is the equator. Lines of 90°S 90° advantages and disadvantages.
longitude run north and south. The Figure 8 Global Grid

prime meridian is the line of longitude that 2 INSTRUCT

marks ° of longitude as shown in Figure 8.
Introduction to Earth Science 11
Determining Location
Use Visuals L1
Figure 8 Help students find point D on
the global grid in this figure. Ask: What
is the latitude and longitude of point
D? (45°N, 75°W) What major city is
near point D? (Montreal, Canada) If an
earthquake occurred near point D, are
people at point A likely to feel it? Why
or why not? (No, point D is in the Western
Hemisphere and point A is in the Eastern
Hemisphere.)
Visual, Logical

Introduction to Earth Science 11

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Section 1.3 (continued) North

75 90°N Pole
Lines of latitude and longitude form a global grid. This grid allows
°N
60
you to state the absolute location of any place on Earth. For example,
Maps and Mapping °N 90°
Savannah, Georgia, is located at 32° north latitude and 81° west

E
Greenwich
45

D
°N
Use Visuals L1 75° longitude.

U
30
The equator divides Earth in two. Each half is called a hemi-

I T
°N
Figure 9 Use this diagram to explain 60°
Prime Y sphere. The equator divides Earth into northern and southern

T
the concepts of latitude and longitude 15 meridian

L A
°N 45°
hemispheres. The prime meridian and the 180° meridian
and how they are measured. Emphasize 30° B
180°
X
15° divide Earth into eastern and western hemispheres.
that although latitude and longitude are 0°
15° 30°
1
usually shown on Earth’s surface, they 15 5 ° W 45°
°S Eq 60° 75° 90°
0° uator L How does the global grid divide Earth?
are actually measured inside Earth. 15°E
O N G I T U D E
90
°E
Ask: From which point is latitude 30°E
45°E 60°E 75°E
30
°S
measured? (the equator) From which
point is longitude measured? (the Globes As people explored Earth, they collected information about
prime meridian) the shapes and sizes of islands, continents, and bodies of water.
Visual, Logical Figure 9 Measuring Latitude Mapmakers wanted to present this information accurately. The best
and Longitude
way was to put the information on a model, or globe, with the same
Build Reading Literacy L1 round shape as Earth itself. By using an accurate shape for Earth,
Refer to p. 124D in Chapter 5, which mapmakers could show the continents and oceans of Earth much as
provides guidelines for summarizing. they really are. The only difference would be the scale, or relative size.
But there is a problem with globes. Try making a globe large enough
Summarize Have students write a
to show the streets in your community. The globe
summary of this section that includes
each map type and its advantages and might have to be larger than your school building! A
disadvantages. This can be done as a globe can’t be complete enough to be useful for find-
table. Here is an example: ing directions and at the same time small enough to
be convenient for everyday use.
Map Type Advantages Disadvantages
Mercator Rectangular; Sizes and Equator
Maps and Mapping
projection longitude distances
A map is a flat representation of Earth’s surface. But
lines are distorted
parallel;
Earth is round. Can all of Earth’s features be accurately
directions represented on a flat surface without distorting them?
shown The answer is no. No matter what kind of map is
accurately Equator made, some portion of the surface will always look
Robinson Most Distortions either too small, too big, or out of place. Mapmakers
projection distances, around the have, however, found ways to limit the distortion of
sizes, and map edges shape, size, distance, and direction.
shapes are
accurate Figure 10 Mercator Map To The Mercator Projection In 1569, a map-
make a Mercator map,
Conic Great Lots of maker named Gerardus Mercator created a map to help sailors
mapmakers have to carve an
projection accuracy over distortion on image of Earth’s surface into slices navigate around Earth. On this map, the lines of longitude are paral-
small areas; most of the and then stretch the slices into lel, making this grid rectangular, as shown on the map in Figure 10.
good for road map rectangles. Stretching the slices
enlarges parts of the map. The
The map was useful because, although the sizes and distances were dis-
and weather torted, it showed directions accurately. Today, more than 400 years
enlargement becomes greater
maps toward the north and south poles. later, many seagoing navigators still use the Mercator projection map.
Gnomonic Reliably Exact Observing What areas on the
map appear larger than they
projection shows the distances
should?
shortest and directions
distance are distorted
between two 12 Chapter 1
points
Visual, Verbal

Customize for Inclusion Students

Learning Disabled Students can more easily have students write N in the left and right
locate positions on a map using latitude and margins above the equator, and S in the left
longitude coordinates by using the following and right margins below the equator. Students
procedure. First, help students orient themselves should write W in the margins above and
to the map by locating the equator and the below the map west of the prime meridian,
prime meridian. Have students go over those and write E in the margins above and below
two key points using a highlighter and extend the map east of the prime meridian.
the lines out to the edge of the paper. Next,

12 Chapter 1
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Figure 11 Robinson Projection

Map Compare this map to the
Mercator projection.
Comparing and Contrasting Conic and Gnomonic
Equator
How do the shapes in the
Projections L2
continents differ between these
maps? Are there any other Purpose Students see how conic and
differences?
gnomonic projections are made.
Materials small globe, blank
transparency sheet
Procedure Use a photocopier to copy
the maps in Figures 12 and 13 onto
a blank transparency sheet. Make the
Different Projection Maps figures as large as possible. Cut the
for Different Purposes transparency in half to separate the
The best projection is always figures. Wrap the copy of Figure 12
determined by its intended use. around the globe in a cone shape as
The Robinson projection map is shown. Point out how the features of
one of the most widely used. the globe line up with the projection.
Maps that use this projection Hold the copy of Figure 13 flat on top
show most distances, sizes, and Figure 12 Conic Projection of the North Pole as shown. Ask:
shapes accurately. However, even a Robinson projection has distor- Map Because there is little Where was the conic projection most
distortion over small areas, conic
tions, especially in areas around the edges of the map. You can see this accurate? (near the latitude where the
projections are used to make road
in Figure 11. Conic projection maps are made by wrapping a cone of maps and weather maps. cone touches the globe) Least accurate?
paper around a globe at a particular (near the top and bottom) Where was
line of latitude, as shown in Figure the gnomonic projection most
13. Various points and lines are accurate? (near the North Pole)
projected onto the paper. There Expected Outcome Students will
is almost no distortion along observe how the projections are related
the line of latitude that’s in to round Earth.
contact with the cone, but there Visual, Logical
can be much distortion in areas
away from this latitude. Because
accuracy is great over a small Use Visuals L1
area, these maps are used to make Figures 10–13 Advise students to look
road maps and weather maps. carefully at Figures 10–13 to see how
Gnonomic projections, as shown in Figure each map is created and why this
13, are made by placing a piece of paper on a globe so process results in distortion. Ask: Based
that it touches a single point on the globe’s surface. on Figure 10, how does the way a
Various points and lines are then projected onto the paper. Mercator map is created cause
Although distances and directions are distorted on these distortion? (Since the Mercator map is
maps, they are useful to sailors and navigators because they show made by slicing a globe, each section is
with great accuracy the shortest distance between two points. rounded and the sections don’t fit together,
Figure 13 Gnomonic
Projection Map Gnomonic so each piece must be stretched into a
What major problem must mapmakers overcome? projections allow sailors to rectangle, causing distortion.) Using
accurately determine distance and
direction across the oceans.
Figure 11, explain how a conic
projection map is created. (A cone of
paper is put over a globe, and the lines of
Introduction to Earth Science 13 the globe are projected onto the paper.)
Visual

Answer to . . .
Figure 10 the areas near the poles
Figure 11 The continents are less
distorted near the poles The longitude
lines are straight, not curved.
into hemispheres
Representing round
Earth on flat paper
causes distortion in shape, size,
distance.

Introduction to Earth Science 13

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Section 1.3 (continued) Contour interval 20 feet

Datum is mean sea level Topographic Maps
Contour line
A topographic map, like the one shown
Topographic Maps 20
60
40
in Figure 15, represents Earth’s three-
Use Community Topographic map
dimensional surface in two dimensions.
Resources L2 E
Topographic maps differ from the
A cartographer is someone who makes other maps discussed so far because
maps. While maps were once drawn 60
Imaginary plane topographic maps show elevation.

Feet above sea level

entirely by hand based on aerial Imaginary plane
D Topographical maps show elevation
40
photographs, almost all modern of Earth’s surface by means of con-
Imaginary plane C
mapmaking is done using computers. 20 tour lines. Most also show the presence
Training in GIS (geographic information 0
Ocean B of bodies of water, roads, government
systems) is usually required for the job. and public buildings, political bound-
A
Ask a cartographer from a local college, aries, and place names. These maps are
university, or government office to talk important for geologists, hikers, campers
to the class about how maps are made. and anyone else interested in the three-
Figure 14 This illustration shows
Have students prepare questions in how contour lines are determined dimensional lay of the land.
advance. when topographic maps are
Interpersonal constructed.
Contour Lines The elevation of the land is indicated by using
contour lines. Every position along a single contour line is the same
Build Science Skills L2 elevation. Adjacent contour lines represent a change in elevation. Every
Applying Concepts Have students fifth line is bold and labeled with the elevation. It is called an index
answer the following questions by using contour. The contour interval tells you the difference in elevation
Figure 15. Ask: Find an area with a between adjacent lines. The steepness of an area can be determined by
steep slope. Name a feature in this examining a map. Lines that are closer together indicate a steeper slope,
area. (the southern part of the map; while lines farther apart indicate a gentler slope. You can see this rela-
Sugar Loaf Mountain) How do you tionship on the illustration in Figure 14. Contour lines that form a
know that this area has a steep slope? circle represent a hill. A depression is represented by circular contours
(The contour lines are close together.) that have hachure marks, which are small lines on the circle that point
Find an area on the map with a gentle to the center. Contour lines never touch or intersect.
slope. Name a feature in this area. (the Figure 15 Topographic Map How do topographic maps indicate changes in
eastern edge of the map; Turquoise Lake) This is a portion of the Holy Cross, elevation?
How can you tell that this area has a Colorado, topographic map.
Contour lines are shown in brown.
gentle slope? (The contour lines are far
apart.) Discuss students’ answers and
clarify if needed.
Visual A

0 1 2 miles
N

14 Chapter 1

Facts and Figures

Topographic maps contain a great deal of a ratio and as scale bars in miles, feet, and
information. Each map has a legend that gives kilometers/meters. A magnetic declination
information about the map and the symbols diagram shows the differences in degrees
used on it. The legend lists the title of the map among true north, grid north, and magnetic
(usually a major feature), the dates the map north. A long list explains the symbols shown
was produced and revised, and the latitude on the map, which can include contour lines,
and longitude. There is a small diagram depressions, ocean depth lines, boundaries,
showing the map’s location in the state and survey markers, forests, fields, built-up areas,
the names of adjacent maps. A small box buildings, roads, and railways.
contains the contour interval and the scale as

14 Chapter 1
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Integrate Math L2
Scale A map represents a certain amount of area on Earth’s surface.
So it is necessary to be able to determine distances on the map and Working With Ratios Working with a
relate them to the real world. Suppose you want to build a scale model map key to determine actual distances
of a boat that is 20 feet long. If your model is a 1/5-scale model, then often requires the use of ratios, a topic
it is 4 feet long. For: Links on mapping taught in math class. Explain the
Visit: www.SciLinks.org following process to your students. If
In a similar way, a map is drawn to scale where a certain distance on
Web Code: cjn-1013 a map legend has 1:24,000, this
the map is equal to a certain distance at the surface. Because maps model
Earth’s surface, the scale must be larger than that of the model boat. Look suggests that 1 unit (centimeters or
at the scale on the map in Figure 16. The ratio reads 1:24,000. This means inches) on the map is equal to 24,000
units (centimeters or inches) on Earth.
that 1 unit on the map is equal to 24,000 units on the ground. Because
To determine how many kilometers
the ratio has no units, it may stand for anything. We usually use inches
1 cm on the map would equal, set up
or centimeters for our units. If the 1 stands for 1 centimeter on the map,
a ratio (using the conversion factor
how many kilometers does the 24,000 stand for on the ground?
1 km ⫽ 100,000 cm), as follows: 1 km /
Another scale provided on a map is a bar scale. See Figure 15. This
100,000 cm ⫽ xkm / 24,000 cm, then
allows you to use a ruler to measure the distance on the map and then
solve the ratio by cross-multiplication.
line the ruler up to the bar to determine the distance represented.
The result will be that 1 cm on the map
Geologic Maps It is often desirable to know the type and age of represents 0.24 km on Earth. Because
1:24,000 represents a ratio, it does not
the rocks that are exposed, or crop out, at the surface. This kind of map
matter what unit is used as long as the
is shown in Figure 16. A map that shows this information is called
map’s unit matches the unit on Earth.
a geologic map. Once individual rock formations are identified, and
This ratio would allow students to
mapped out, their distribution and extent are drawn onto the map. Figure 16 Geologic Map The determine how many inches on Earth
Each rock formation is assigned a color and sometimes a pattern. A color coding on the map
represents some rock formations
corresponded to inches on the map.
key provides the information needed to learn what formations are
in Montana. Each color and Logical
present on the map. Contour lines are often included to provide a more pattern represents a different
detailed and useful map. type of rock.
Direct students to the Math Skills in the
Skills and Reference Handbook at the
end of the student text for additional
help.

Use Community
Resources L2
Geologic maps are used by research
scientists, government agencies, and
mining companies. Ask a geologist from
a local college, university, mining
company, or government office to talk
to the class about how geologic maps
are made, what information they show,
and how they are used. Ask students to
prepare questions in advance.
Interpersonal
SCALE 1:24 000
1
1 2 0 1 MILE
1000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 FEET
1 .5 0 1 KILOMETER

Introduction to Earth Science 15

Download a worksheet on mapping

for students to complete, and find
additional teacher support from
NSTA SciLinks.

Answer to . . .
Topographic maps
indicate changes in
elevation with contour lines. Lines
closer together indicate a steeper slope.

Introduction to Earth Science 15

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Section 1.3 (continued)

Advanced
Technology
Use Visuals L1
Figure 17 Tell students that the image
shown is similar to a photograph, but
taken from a satellite orbiting around
Earth. Ask: What are the light blue
areas? (moving sediment) Where is the
sediment coming from? (It is carried
down by the Mississippi River.) What is
the area at the center right side of the
image called and how do you think it
was formed? (the Mississippi delta was
formed from sediments deposited by the
river.)
Visual, Logical

Integrate Social Studies L2

Space Age The successful launch of
Sputnik by the Soviet Union was a
significant event in the Cold War era. It
marked the beginning of the Space Age
and was the first victory in the space Figure 17 Satellite Image of
race between the United States and the the Mississippi River Delta
Advanced Technology
Soviet Union. In response, the United Moving sediment (light blue) Advanced technology is used to make maps that are more accurate than
indicates current patterns. Red
States accelerated its efforts to launch shows vegetation.
ever before. Today’s technology provides us with the ability to
its own satellite. more precisely analyze Earth’s physical properties. Scientists now use
satellites and computers to send and receive data. These data are con-
verted into usable forms such as pictures and numerical summaries.
The process of collecting data about Earth from a distance, such as
from orbiting satellites, is called remote sensing. Satellites use remote
sensing to produce views of Earth that scientists use to study rivers,
oceans, fires, pollution, natural resources, and many other topics. How
might a scientist use the image shown in Figure 17?
We can use this technology in our daily lives too. For example, Global
Positioning Systems (GPS) can provide maps in our cars to help us reach
our destinations. GPS consists of an instrument that receives signals to
compute the user’s latitude and longitude as well as speed, direction, and
elevation. GPS is an important tool for navigation by ships and airplanes.
Scientists use GPS to track wildlife, study earthquakes, measure erosion,
and many other purposes. Table 1 describes some of the technology that
is particularly useful in the study of Earth science.

16 Chapter 1

Facts and Figures

The first satellite to orbit Earth was called frequencies between 20 and 40 MHz, common
Sputnik. The Soviet Union launched it on frequencies intended to make Sputnik’s
October 4, 1957. It was a 23-inch, 184-pound presence obvious to the world, and particularly
metal ball containing a thermometer, a battery, to the United States. Sputnik orbited Earth for
and a radio transmitter. On its exterior, four 92 days before burning up in Earth’s
whip antennas transmitted short-wave atmosphere.

16 Chapter 1
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Build Science Skills L2

Table 1 Technology and Earth Science Posing Questions Have students
Type of Equipment Capabilities select one type of equipment described
Weather Satelllites • These monitor atmospheric temperature and humidity, ground and surface in Table 1 to research. Encourage
seawater temperature, cloud cover, and water-ice boundaries. students to make a list of questions
• They can help locate sources of distress signals.
• They are able to scan Earth's surface in one 24-hour period.
about the equipment, such as when and
where it was invented and by whom.
Navigation Satellites • These assist ships and submarines to determine their exact location at any time. Then have them research how the
Landsat Satellites • The first Landsat satellite was launched in 1972. Landsat 7 was launched in 1999. technology works and close with some
• They provide data on Earth’s landmasses, coastal boundaries, and coral reefs.
• Pictures taken are transmitted to ground stations around the world.
applications of the technology they
• They orbit Earth every 99 minutes and complete 14 orbits per day. selected. Students can present their
• Total coverage of Earth is achieved in 16 days. work as a written report, an oral report,
Global Positioning • This system combines satellite information with computer technology to provide or a poster to share with the class.
System (GPS) location information in three dimensions: latitude, longitude, and altitude. Verbal, Visual
• Three satellite signals are detected by a receiver. The distance from the satellites to the
receiver is calculated, and the location is determined using the triangulation method.
A fourth signal is then used to mathematically determine exact position.
3 ASSESS
Very Long Baseline • VLBI utilizes a large network of antennas around the world to receive radio
Interferometry (VLBI) waves from space objects such as quasars. Evaluate
• In Earth science, VLBI is used in geodesy, or the measurement of the geosphere. Understanding L2
• Using the arrival times of radio waves from quasars, the position of radio
telescopes on Earth are determined to within millimeters of their position. Give students a topographic map that
• Small changes in the telescope positions allow scientists to study tectonic plate
motions and other movements of Earth’s crust with great precision and accuracy.
includes latitude and longitude. Have
them locate specific features on the
map, such as hills and depressions,
based on the shapes of the contour
lines. Have students determine the
latitude and longitude of these features.
Section 1.3 Assessment Give students the latitude and longitude
of a few sites of interest on the map and
have them tell you what they find at
Reviewing Concepts 8. Drawing Conclusions How can data from each of those locations.
VLBI be used in mapmaking today?
1. Describe the two sets of lines that are used
on globes and some maps. 9. Conceptualizing An area on a topographic
Reteach L1
map has the following contour line
2. What happens to the images on the globe
when they are transferred to a flat surface?
configuration: First, the lines are fairly widely Have students answer the Assessment
spaced. Then they are closely spaced. Finally, questions in small groups. Assign the
3. What is the purpose of contour lines on they are circular. Describe the topography
topographic maps? lower ability students to answer the
represented by these lines.
4. What two lines mark zero degrees on the Reviewing Concepts questions and the
globe? In which directions do these lines run? higher ability students to answer the
5. Why is the Mercator projection map still in use Critical Thinking questions. Have
today? partners then share and discuss their
6. What types of advanced technology are used Use the bar scale on Figure 15 to answer answers. Once all groups are finished,
in mapmaking today? the following question. have students report their answers to
10. Determine the distance along the the class. Clarify concepts as needed.
Critical Thinking shoreline of Turquoise Lake from the
7. Applying Concepts Why are there so many gaging station on the west shore to the
different types of maps? gaging station on the south shore.
Record your answer in kilometers.

Solution
10. The distance in centimeters on
Introduction to Earth Science 17
the map is approximately 5.5 cm. The
distance on the ground is approximately
3.43 km.

Section 1.3 Assessment 6. Sample answer: satellites, computers,

high-powered telescopes, sonar, GPS, VLBI
1. Lines of latitude are east-west circles 7. Each type of map is particularly useful in
around the globe. Lines of longitude run some capacity. Conic projections are good
north and south. for small-scale maps such as road maps.
2. They become distorted. Topographic maps help geologists and hikers.
3. Contour lines indicate elevation. Mercator projections help sailors to navigate.
4. The lines are the equator, which runs east 8. Because small-scale changes in position can
and west, and the prime meridian, which be detected by VLBI technology, movements
runs north and south. of Earth’s crust can be measured precisely.
5. It is useful to sailors because although size 9. The land starts out relatively flat and rises
and shape are distorted, it shows directions steeply to the top of a hill.
accurately.
Introduction to Earth Science 17
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Section 1.4
1.4 Earth System Science
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
1.9 Describe the primary goal of Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy
Earth system science and How is Earth a system? ◆ system Outlining As you read, make an outline of
What is a system? the most important ideas in this section. Begin
define the term system. with the section title, then list the green
1.10 Describe Earth’s two major Where does the energy headings as the next step of the outline.
come from that powers Outline further as needed.
sources of energy. Earth’s systems?
1.11 Explain how humans affect How do humans affect I. Earth System Science
Earth’s systems. Earth’s systems? A. What is a System?
1.12 Distinguish between What makes a resource 1. ?
renewable and nonrenewable renewable or 2. ?
nonrenewable?
resources. B. ?

Reading Focus

Build Vocabulary L2 A s we study Earth, we see that it is a dynamic planet with many
separate but interactive parts or spheres. Earth scientists are studying
Word Forms Have students predict
the meanings of open system and closed how these spheres are interconnected. This way of looking at
system based on their prior knowledge Earth is called Earth system science. Its aim is to understand Earth
of the words open, closed, and system. as a system made up of numerous interacting parts, or subsystems.
Have students verify their predictions by Instead of studying only one branch of science, such as geology, chem-
reading the section. istry, or biology, Earth system science tries to put together what we
know from our study of all of these branches. Using this type of
Reading Strategy L2 approach, we hope to eventually understand and solve many of our
global environmental problems.
Earth System Science
A. What is a System?
1. System—any size group of What Is Earth system science?
interacting parts forming a whole
2. Types of Systems—closed and
open What Is a System?
B. Earth as a System
Most of us hear and use the term system frequently. You might use
1. Earth has two energy sources—the
your city’s transportation system to get to school. A news report might
sun and Earth’s interior.
inform us of an approaching weather system. We know that Earth is
2. The parts of the Earth system are
just a small part of the much larger solar system.
linked so a change in one part can
A system can be any size group of interacting parts that form
cause changes in all the other parts.
a complex whole. Most natural systems are driven by sources of energy
that move matter and/or energy from one place to another. A simple
2 INSTRUCT analogy is a car’s cooling system. It contains a liquid (usually water and
antifreeze) that is driven from the engine to the radiator and back
What Is a System?
Build Science Skills L2 18 Chapter 1
Using Analogies The text gives an
analogy of a car’s cooling system to a
natural system. Challenge students to
think of other analogies between
human-made and natural systems.
They should write a description of
the analogy they choose, including
diagrams if appropriate. The
descriptions should explain how the
analogies are similar to the actual
process and different from it.
Verbal, Logical

18 Chapter 1
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Build Reading Literacy L1

again. The role of this system is to transfer the heat generated by com-
bustion in the engine to the radiator, where moving air removes the Refer to p. 216D in Chapter 8, which
heat from the system. provides guidelines for comparing and
This kind of system is called a closed system. Here energy moves contrasting.
freely in and out of the system, but no matter enters or leaves the system. Compare and Contrast Help
In the case of the car’s cooling system, the matter is the liquid. By con- students understand the difference
trast, most natural systems are open systems. Here both energy and between an open system and a closed
matter flow into and out of the system. In a river system, for example, the system. Have students make a
amount of water flowing in the channel can vary a great deal. At one comparison chart, starting with the
time or place, the river may be fuller than it is at another time or place. definition of each type of system.
Have students classify each system
Earth as a System listed during the brainstorming session
The Earth system is powered by energy from two sources. One as either an open system or a closed
source is the sun, which drives external processes that occur in the system. Example:
atmosphere, hydrosphere, and at Earth’s surface. Weather and cli- Open Closed
mate, ocean circulation, and erosional processes are driven by energy System System
from the sun. Earth’s interior is the Definition Energy and Energy
second source of energy. There is heat that matter move moves in
remains from the time Earth formed. There in and out of and out of
is also heat continuously generated by the the system. the system,
decay of radioactive elements. These sources but matter
cannot enter
power the internal processes that produce
or leave.
volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountains.
Examples weather system cooling
The parts of the Earth system are linked
river system system
so that a change in one part can produce
changes in any or all of the other parts. For Have students research a list of systems.
example, when a volcano erupts, lava may Then have students put each system in
flow out at the surface and block a nearby the correct column on their comparison
valley. This new obstruction influences the chart.
region’s drainage system by creating a lake or Verbal, Logical
causing streams to change course. Volcanic
ash and gases that can be discharged during Earth as a System
an eruption might be blown high into the Build Science Skills L2
atmosphere and influence the amount of
Figure 18 When Mount St. Relating Cause and Effect Using this
solar energy that can reach Earth’s surface. The result could be a drop Helens erupted in May 1980, the section of the textbook, have students
in air temperatures over the entire hemisphere. area shown here was buried by a
volcanic mudflow. Now, plants are
make a concept map showing how a
How do we know that Earth’s systems are reestablished and new soil is volcanic eruption (an event of the
connected? forming. geosphere) can causes changes in
all the other spheres (hydrosphere,
Over time, soil will develop on the lava or ash-covered surface and, atmosphere, and biosphere). Have
as shown in Figure 18, plants and animals will reestablish themselves. students use the concept map to make a
This soil will reflect the interactions among many parts of the Earth poster to be displayed in the classroom.
system—the original volcanic material, the type and rate of weather- Challenge students to create a product
ing, and the impact of biological activity. Of course, there would also that is both visually appealing and
scientifically accurate. Ask students to
think of another event on Earth and
Introduction to Earth Science 19 predict how it would affect all the other
spheres. Have students make another
concept map poster on this event.
Visual, Group
Customize for English Language Learners
Review with English language learners the renewable resources and nonrenewable
meanings of the words open and closed. resources. Tell students that if they are not Answer to . . .
Help students relate the meanings of open allowed to renew a library book (nonrenewable)
and closed to open system and closed system. it is often because the library does not have Earth system science is a
Before teaching the terms renewable resources enough books on that topic to meet the needs way of looking at Earth
and nonrenewable resources, explain what it of their patrons. Explain that a renewable as a system made up of several
means to renew a library book (take it out resource can be used as often as we like interacting subsystems.
again before you return it). Help students because there is always more of it being made. Events taking place in
relate this use of the word renew to the terms one part can produce
changes in all the other parts.

Introduction to Earth Science 19

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Section 1.4 (continued) be significant changes in the biosphere. Some organisms and their
habitats would be eliminated by the lava and ash, while new settings for
life, such as the lake, would be created. The potential climate change
could also have an effect on some life-forms.
L2 The Earth system is characterized by processes that occur over areas
Students may think that only human that range in size from millimeters to thousands of kilometers. Time
actions can seriously affect the environ- scales for Earth’s processes range from milliseconds to billions of years.
ment. Use the example of the eruption Despite this great range in distance and time, many processes are con-
of Mount St. Helens to emphasize that nected. A change in one component can influence the entire system.
natural events can have widespread and Humans are also part of the Earth system. Our actions pro-
negative effects on the environment. duce changes in all of the other parts of the Earth system. When we
The 1980 eruptions spread ash over burn gasoline and coal, build breakwaters along a shoreline, dispose
much of eastern Washington. About of our wastes, and clear the land, we cause other parts of the Earth
500 square kilometers of forest were system to respond, often in unforeseen ways. Throughout this book,
destroyed or damaged. Most large you will learn about many of Earth’s subsystems, such as the hydrologic
animals in the area were killed by the (water) system, the tectonic (mountain-building) system, and the cli-
blast, but some small animals survived. mate system. Remember that these components and we humans are
More than 20 years later, the area is still all part of the complex interacting whole we call the Earth system.
fairly barren. It may take at least 200
years for the forest to be restored to its People and the Environment
previous state. Large mammals such as Environment refers to everything that surrounds and influences an
elk have already repopulated the area, organism. Some of these things are biological and social. Others are
along with birds, insects, and small nonliving such as water, air, soil and rock as well as conditions such as
mammals. temperature, humidity, and sunlight. These nonliving factors make up
our physical environment. Because studying the Earth sciences leads to
People and the an understanding of the physical environment, most of Earth science
Environment can be characterized as environmental science.
Use Visuals L1
What are examples of nonliving factors?
Figure 19 This flood was caused by the
action of humans. Ask: What was the
actual cause of this flood? (building the Today the term environmental science is usually used for things that
Aswan Dam) What are some ways focus on the relationships between people and the natural
humans can cause floods or make environment. For example, we can dramatically influence natural
them worse? (by clearing forests, processes. A river flooding is natural, but the size and frequency of
Figure 19 The benefit that was
building cities, and constructing dams) intended by the construction of flooding can be changed by human activities such as clearing forests,
Visual, Logical the Aswan Dam in Egypt was not building cities, and constructing dams. Unfortunately, natural systems
achieved.
Drawing Conclusions How do not always adjust to artificial changes in ways we can anticipate. An
might the flooding here have alteration to the environment that was intended to benefit society may
been avoided? have the opposite effect, as shown in Figure 19.

Resources Resources are an important focus of the Earth sciences.

They include water and soil, metallic and nonmetallic minerals, and
energy. Together they form the foundation of modern civilization. The
Earth sciences deal not only with the formation and occurrence of

20 Chapter 1

Facts and Figures

One of the reasons it is often difficult to of the sun’s rays, thus increasing Earth’s
predict how natural systems will respond to temperature further. This is an example of
unexpected changes is the prevalence of positive feedback. Negative feedback
positive and negative feedback mechanisms. mechanisms work to return the system to the
Processes that feed into changes, making way it was before the change. For example,
them more severe, are considered positive an increase in Earth’s temperature may result
feedback. As humans put more carbon dioxide in an increase in evaporation, and then an
into the air, Earth may hold more of the sun’s increase in clouds. Clouds cause Earth to
heat and begin to warm. This warming may reflect more of the sun’s rays back into space,
cause snow and ice near the poles to melt. cooling Earth back down.
This melting may make Earth absorb more
20 Chapter 1
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Build Science Skills L2

these vital resources but also with maintaining supplies and the envi-
ronmental impact of their mining and use. Problem Solving Explain that when
Resources are commonly divided into two broad categories—renew- supplies of a nonrenewable resource
able resources and nonrenewable resources. Renewable resources start running low, it is often possible to
can be replenished over relatively short time spans. Common exam- For: Links on environmental substitute some other resource. Have
decision-making
ples are plants and animals for food, natural fibers for clothing, and students work in small groups to
Visit: www.SciLinks.org
forest products for lumber and paper. Energy from flowing water, wind, brainstorm and research alternatives to
Web Code: cjn-1014
and the sun are also considered renewable resources. oil that can be used when all of our oil
Important metals such as iron, aluminum, and copper plus our most has been used up. If students are having
important fuels of oil, natural gas, and coal are classified as nonrenew- trouble getting started, suggest that
able resources. Although these and other resources continue to they focus on transportation and power
form, the processes that create them are so slow that it takes millions generation. Areas students can
investigate include natural gas, coal,
of years for significant deposits to accumulate. Earth contains limited
biodiesel, nuclear power, wind power,
quantities of these materials. Although some nonrenewable resources,
and solar power. Have each group
such as aluminum, can be used over and over again, others, such as oil,
present their results to the class.
cannot. When the present supplies are exhausted, there will be no more.
Interpersonal, Logical
How do renewable and nonrenewable resources
differ?
L2
Population Figure 20 shows that the population of Earth Students may think that the world
is growing rapidly. Although it took until the beginning of the 8 population is expected to continue to
nineteenth century for the population to reach 1 billion, just increase indefinitely. Tell students that
7
130 years were needed for the population to double to 2 billion. 6.1 billion many demographers (scientists who
(2000) study changes in human populations)
Between 1930 and 1975, the figure doubled again to 4 billion, 6
expect population growth to slow down

World population (billions)

and by about 2010, as many as 7 billion people may inhabit
Earth. Clearly, as population grows, so does the demand for 5 over the next 100 years. In fact, some
4 billion
resources. However, the rate of mineral and energy resource (1975) predict that the total population may
usage has increased more rapidly than the overall growth of the 4 even decrease. The reason for this is that
population. in many developed countries, people are
3 not having enough children to replace
How long will the remaining supplies of basic resources 2 billion
(1930) themselves. Most current population
last? How long can we sustain the rising standard of living in 2
1 billion growth is occurring in developing
today’s industrialized countries and still provide for the grow- (early 1800’s) countries. However, as those countries
ing needs of developing regions? How much environmental 1
develop, their birth rates are also
deterioration are we willing to accept to obtain basic
0 expected to fall.
resources? Can alternatives be found? If we are to cope with 4000 2000 0 2000
B.C. A.D.
the increasing demand on resources and a growing world Year
population, it is important that we have some understanding
of our present and potential resources. Figure 20 Growth of World
Population
Environmental Problems
In addition to the search for mineral and energy resources, the Earth sci-
ences must also deal with environmental problems. Some of these
problems are local, some are regional, and still others are global. Humans Download a worksheet on
can cause problems, such as the one shown in Figure 21. Significant environmental decision-making for
students to complete, and find
Introduction to Earth Science 21 additional teacher support from
NSTA SciLinks.

Answer to . . .
Figure 19 The flooding could have
been avoided by not building the dam.
Nonliving factors include
water, air, soil, rock,
temperature, humidity, and sunlight.
Renewable resources
can be replenished
over a relatively short time span.
Nonrenewable resources take millions
of years to accumulate.

Introduction to Earth Science 21

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Section 1.4 (continued) threats to the environment include air pollution, acid rain, ozone
depletion, and global warming. The loss of fertile soils to erosion, the
Environmental disposal of toxic wastes, and the contamination and depletion of water
Problems resources are also of considerable concern. The list continues to grow.
L2 People must cope with the many natural hazards that exist such as
Build Science Skills the one shown in Figure 22. Earthquakes, landslides, floods, hurricanes,
Inferring Discuss with and drought are some of the many risks. Of course, environmental haz-
students that events ards are simply natural processes. They become hazards only when
such as earthquakes, Figure 21 Air pollution in the people try to live where these processes occur.
landslides, floods, Chinese city of Guangzhou. Air
quality problems affect many cities. It is clear that as world population continues to grow, pressures on the
hurricanes, beach erosion from coastal Interpreting Photographs environment will increase as well. Therefore, an understanding of Earth
storms, and drought are natural What may have contributed is essential for the location and recovery of basic resources. It is also essen-
processes. Help students understand to this air pollution problem?
tial for dealing with the human impact
that these natural processes become on the environment and minimizing the
hazards “only when people try to live effects of natural hazards. Knowledge
where these processes occur.” Provide about Earth and how it works is neces-
small groups of students with one or sary to our survival and well being. Earth
more pictures of damage from natural
is the only suitable habitat we have, and
disasters. Some examples to use would
its resources are limited.
be flooded homes, a coastal home
about to be carried out to sea, buildings
damaged by an earthquake, or urban
flooding due to too much paved land.
Ask: What happened here? How could
this disaster have been prevented? Figure 22 The damage here was
caused by a landslide that was
(Sample answer: This home is being triggered by an earthquake.
carried out to sea because it was built too
close to the ocean. These homes were
flooded because they were built on a flood
Section 1.4 Assessment
plain. This building was destroyed because
it was built too close to a fault line.) Have
students infer the answers to these two Reviewing Concepts Critical Thinking
questions, and then share their ideas 1. Why do scientists study Earth as a system? 6. Applying Concepts Describe the parts of a
2. If a system is a collection of interacting tree in terms of it being a system.
with the class. Use this as an opportunity
parts, what happens when one of the parts is 7. Evaluating Is it possible for humans to have
to introduce students to various Earth changed? no effect on any of Earth’s systems? Explain.
events and processes that will be studied 3. What are the two sources of energy that 8. Applying Concepts How can scientists help
later in the year. power Earth’s systems? to prevent a natural process from becoming
Visual 4. List three ways that humans affect Earth’s an environmental hazard?
systems.
3 ASSESS 5. Large numbers of tiny ocean organisms
die every day, fall to the ocean floor, are
Evaluate buried, and are eventually converted to oil
Understanding L2 and natural gas. Why are these two fuels
City Planning In Section 1.3, you learned
considered nonrenewable?
Ask students to write a five-question about Landsat satellite imaging. How can
data from Landsat help city planners deter-
quiz on this section along with an mine where and where not to build?
answer key. Then have students ask one
another the questions.

L1 22 Chapter 1
Reteach
Use the outlines students created for this
chapter’s reading strategy to review the
main ideas from this section.
Section 1.4 Assessment trunk transports food and serves as support
for branches and leaves. Leaves help keep the
1. Earth is a system made up of numerous tree moist and shaded and release excess
Images can show scars of landslides, interacting parts, or subsystems. water through pores.
suggesting that the area may not be 2. Other parts may also change. 7. No, every day you affect at least one of
stable. 3. The sources are the sun and reactions in Earth’s systems, even on the smallest scale.
Earth’s interior. Simply breathing changes the atmosphere
4. Sample answer: contaminating water, around you or stepping on the grass may
Answer to . . . polluting air, disposing of toxic waste affect the biosphere beneath your foot.
Figure 21 Sample answer: home 5. It takes too long (millions of years) for the 8. Sample answer: They can analyze an area
heating, motor vehicles, industry, organisms to be converted into oil. to see if it is safe to live there. If the land is
power plants 6. Roots transport food and water up through unstable or subject to flooding, they may
the trunk, which holds the tree upright. The make recommendations that people not
22 Chapter 1 choose to live there.
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Section 1.5
1.5 What Is Scientific Inquiry?
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy 1.13 Define the terms hypothesis
What is a hypothesis? ◆ hypothesis Comparing and Contrasting Complete the and theory.
What is a theory? ◆ theory Venn diagram by listing the ways hypothesis
and theory are alike and how they differ.
hypothesis theory
Reading Focus

Build Vocabulary L2
Word Meanings Before they read
the section, have students write down
definitions for hypothesis and theory. As
they read the section, have them note
A ll science is based on two assumptions. First, the natural world
behaves in a consistent and predictable manner. Second, through care-
the scientific definitions of these terms
and compare them to their definitions.
ful, systematic study, we can understand and explain the natural
Reading Strategy L2
world’s behavior. We can use this knowledge to make predictions about
what should or should not be expected. For example, by knowing how Hypothesis: an idea someone wants to
oil deposits form, geologists are able to predict the most likely sites for test; Theory: an explanation that is
exploration. supported by evidence and widely
The development of new scientific knowledge involves some basic accepted; Similarities: could be proven
steps. First, scientists collect data through observation and measure- wrong, can be tested
ment. These data are essential to science and serve as the starting point
for the development of scientific theories. 2 INSTRUCT
Hypothesis Hypothesis
Once data have been gathered, scientists try to explain how or L1
Build Reading Literacy
why things happen in the manner observed. Scientists do this by stat-
ing a possible explanation called a scientific hypothesis. Sometimes Refer to p. 446D in Chapter 16, which
more than one hypothesis is developed to explain a given set of obser- provides guidelines for sequencing.
vations. Just because a hypothesis is stated doesn’t mean that it is correct Sequence Tell students to create a
or that the scientific community will automatically accept it. flowchart showing the steps toward the
Before a hypothesis can become an accepted part of scientific development of a scientific theory. They
knowledge, it must be tested and analyzed. If a hypothesis can’t be should begin the flowchart as they are
tested, it is not scientifically useful, no matter how interesting it might reading the introduction to this section
seem. Hypotheses that fail rigorous testing are discarded. The history and should end it at Scientific Methods.
of science is filled with discarded hypotheses. One of the best known For: Links on scientific methods
(Sample response: Collect data → Develop
is the Earth-centered model of the universe. This hypothesis was based Visit: www.SciLinks.org hypotheses or models → Test hypothesis
on the apparent movement of the sun, moon, and stars around Earth. Web Code: cjn-1015 (experiment) → Accept, modify, or reject
hypothesis → If well tested, the hypothesis
becomes a theory.) Have students check
their flowchart against the sequence of
Introduction to Earth Science 23 steps provided in the Scientific Methods
section of the text.
Visual, Verbal

Download a worksheet on scientific

methods for students to complete,
and find additional teacher support
from NSTA SciLinks.

Introduction to Earth Science 23

HSES_1eTE_C01.qxd 5/14/04 1:30 PM Page 24

Section 1.5 (continued) As the mathematician Jacob Bronowski stated, “Science is a great many
things, but in the end they all return to this: Science is the acceptance
Theory of what works and the rejection of what does not.”

Theory
L2 When a hypothesis has survived extensive testing and when compet-
ing hypotheses have been eliminated, a hypothesis may become a
Students often think that a scientific scientific theory. A scientific theory is well tested and widely
theory is an ultimate truth, and therefore accepted by the scientific community and best explains certain
can never be changed. This is not true. observable facts. For example, the theory of plate tectonics provides
A theory is only accepted if a multitude the framework for understanding the origin of continents and ocean
of tests support the theory. However, basins, plus the occurrence of mountains, earthquakes, and volcanoes.
if even one scientist finds a situation
where the theory fails, that theory is Scientific Methods
again called into question and must be
The process of gathering facts through observations and formulating
revised or replaced. For this reason,
science is constantly changing. One scientific hypotheses and theories is called the scientific method. There
example is medicines or supplements is no set path that scientists must follow in order to gain scientific
that have been promoted and used for knowledge. However, many scientific investigations involve the follow-
years suddenly being pulled off the ing steps: (1) the collection of scientific facts through observation and
shelves after the discovery of unexpected measurement, (2) the development of one or more working hypothe-
and dangerous side effects. ses or models to explain these facts, (3) development of observations
Verbal and experiments to test the hypotheses, and (4) the acceptance, modi-
fication, or rejection of the hypothesis based on extensive testing.
Scientific Methods
Integrate
Language Arts L2
Section 1.5 Assessment
Representing Definitions There are
many definitions for the word model.
Have students use a dictionary to write Reviewing Concepts 7. Designing Experiments While carrying out
down as many definitions of the word 1. You have just come up with an an investigation, a scientist observes some
as possible. Then have them draw or explanation to a question that has bothered unexpected results. What are the scientist’s
you for some time. What must you do to have next steps?
cut out pictures representing these
your explanation become a hypothesis? 8. Understanding Concepts Why is it
definitions. Help students determine necessary to use careful and systematic
2. Explain how a hypothesis can become a
which definition is most appropriate in methods when carrying out scientific
theory.
this section. investigations?
3. According to the scientific community, how
Visual, Verbal does the natural world behave?
4. What happens if more than one hypothesis is
3 ASSESS put forward to explain the same observations?
5. When is a model useful in scientific
Evaluate investigations?
Explanatory Paragraph It took a long
Understanding L2 time for the scientific community to accept
the theory of plate tectonics. Write a para-
Give students the steps of the scientific Thinking Critically graph suggesting how the use of proper
method in random order, and have 6. Applying Concepts Why do most scientists scientific methods helped the theory gain
follow a set order of steps when carrying out a acceptance.
them put the steps in the correct order.
scientific investigation?
Reteach L1
Have students illustrate each step of the 24 Chapter 9
scientific method on the flowchart they
created earlier. Help students understand
that scientists regularly go back a few
steps in the method as they attempt to
Section 1.5 Assessment The experiment can be conducted again
arrive at a theory.
using the same procedure.
Visual
1. Test and analyze the hypothesis. 7. Sample answer: The scientist should record
2. A hypothesis can become a theory once it his or her observations and any numerical
has survived extensive testing and when com- results that can be recorded. The scientist
Many scientists repeated the same peting hypotheses have been eliminated. should continue carrying out the experiment
observations and recorded similar results. 3. in a consistent and predictable manner and reanalyze the hypothesis to see if it can
These observations were made in many 4. They are all tested and analyzed. be adjusted to accommodate the new results.
places around the world, yet all had the 5. A model can be used at any point in the 8. To be accepted by the scientific community,
same basic principles. Advise students process such as testing a hypothesis or all experiments must be able to be conducted
that they can find out more about the explaining a theory. repeatedly with the same results obtained and
theory of plate tectonics in Chapter 9. 6. If an orderly set of steps is followed, the with a minimal amount of error. By using sys-
observations and results are more reliable. tematic methods, this can be done.
24 Chapter 1
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Studying Earth From Space

Scientific facts are gathered in many ways, such as The image in Figure 23 makes use of the Advanced Studying Earth
laboratory studies, field observations, and field
measurements. Satellite images like the one in
Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection
Radiometer (ASTER). Because different materials
From Space L2
Figure 23 are another useful source of data. Such reflect and give off energy in different ways, ASTER Background ASTER is an imaging
images provide perspectives that are difficult to get can provide detailed information about the composi- instrument that obtains detailed maps of
from more traditional sources. The high-tech instru- tion of Earth’s surface. Figure 23 is a three-dimensional
land surface temperature. It flies on a
ments aboard many satellites enable scientists to view looking north over Death Valley, California. The
gather information from remote regions where data data have been computer enhanced to exaggerate satellite called Terra, which was
are otherwise scarce. the color variations that highlight differences in types launched in 1999. ASTER is part of
of surface materials. NASA’s Earth Observing System (EOS),
which is a series of satellites, a science
component, and a data system. EOS will
help scientists develop a deeper
understanding of Earth as an integrated
system—the interactions among the
biosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere,
and atmosphere.
Teaching Tips
• As students read the feature and look
at Figure 23, have them identify on
the image the various regions
described in the text.
• Explain to students that this image
does not show the true colors of
Death Valley as seen from space.
Instead, the colors were inserted by
scientists to indicate differences in
surface composition. Ask: What do
you think this image would look like
in true color? (Since Death Valley is a
desert, it would be mostly tan in color.)
Based on the information given on
what the colors indicate, what is the
Figure 23 This satellite shows detailed information about the composition of surface materials in Death composition of the most distant
Valley, California. It was produced by superimposing nighttime thermal infrared data, acquired on April 7,
2000, over topographic data from the U.S. Geological survey. (Image courtesy of NASA) mountains in the image? (mostly
limestone, with some sandstone and
Salt deposits on the floor of Death Valley appear in and metamorphic rocks. The bright red areas are a little bit of salt)
shades of yellow, green, purple, and pink. These dominated by the mineral quartz, found in sand- • Have students research ASTER and
indicate the presence of carbonate, sulfate, and stone; the green areas are limestone. In the lower EOS on NASA’s web site and prepare
chloride minerals. The Panamint Mountains to the center of the image is Badwater, the lowest point in
North America.
a report to the class.
west and the Black Mountains to the east are made
up of sedimentary limestones, sandstones, shales, Visual, Logical

Introduction to Earth Science 25

Introduction to Earth Science 25

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Section 2.1
2.1 Matter
1 FOCUS

Section Objectives
2.1 Explain how elements are Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy
What is an element? ◆ element Comparing and Contrasting Copy the
related to minerals. graphic organizer. As you read, complete the
What particles make up ◆ atomic number
2.2 Identify the kinds of particles organizer to compare and contrast protons,
atoms? ◆ energy level
that make up atoms. ◆ isotope
neutrons, and electrons.
What are isotopes?
2.3 Explain the differences ◆ mass number Protons Electrons Neutrons
What are compounds and
between ions and isotopes. why do they form? ◆ compound Differences
2.4 Explain what compounds are How do chemical bonds ◆ chemical bond
and describe why they form. differ? ◆ ion
◆ ionic bond Similarities
2.5 Compare and contrast the
◆ covalent bond
three major types of chemical
◆ metallic bond
bonds.

Reading Focus
L2
Y ou and everything else in the universe are made of matter. Matter is
Build Vocabulary anything that has volume and mass. On Earth, matter usually exists in
Concept Map Have students construct one of three states—solid, liquid, or gas. A solid is a type of matter that
a concept map using the terms chemical has a definite shape and a definite volume. Rocks and minerals are solids.
bond, ionic bond, covalent bond, and A liquid is matter that has a definite volume, but not a definite shape.
metallic bond. The main concept Earth’s oceans, rivers, and lakes are liquids. A gas is matter that has nei-
(chemical bond) should be at the top. ther a definite shape nor a definite volume. Most of Earth’s atmosphere
Tell students to place the terms in ovals is composed of the gases nitrogen and oxygen.Though matter can be clas-
and list the characteristics of each type sified by its physical state: solid, liquid, or gas, it is more useful to look at
of bond underneath the oval. For each its chemical composition and structure. Each of Earth’s nearly 4000 min-
type of bond, students should include erals is a unique substance. The building blocks of minerals are elements.
some examples and their properties.
Elements and the Periodic Table
Reading Strategy L2 The names of many elements are probably very familiar to you. Many
Differences: Electron is much less common metals are elements, such as copper, iron, silver, and gold.
massive than proton and neutron; An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into sim-
electron is negatively charged, proton pler substances by chemical or physical means. There are more than
is positively charged, neutron is not 112 known elements, and new elements continue to be discovered. Of
charged. these, 92 occur naturally, the others are produced in laboratories.
Similarities: All are subatomic The elements have been organized by their properties in a docu-
particles. ment called the periodic table, which is shown in Figure 1 on pages 36
For: Links on the periodic table and 37. You see from the table that the name of each element is repre-
2 INSTRUCT Visit: www.SciLinks.org sented by a symbol consisting of one, two, or three letters. Symbols
Web Code: cjn-1021 provide a shorthand way of representing an element. Each element is

Elements and the

Periodic Table 34 Chapter 2
Build Reading Literacy L1
Refer to p. 392D in Chapter 14, which
provides guidelines for this strategy.
Preview Have students preview the
section (pp. 34–43), focusing their
attention on headings, visuals, and
boldfaced material. Ask: Based on your
preview, which figure in the section Download a worksheet on the
do you think contains the most periodic table for students to
information? (Figure 1 on pp. 36–37) complete, and find additional
Based on your preview, name three teacher support from NSTA SciLinks.
classes of elements. (metals, nonmetals,
and metalloids)
Visual, Verbal

34 Chapter 2
HSES_1eTE_C02.qxd 9/23/04 8:46 PM Page 35

Build Math Skills L2

also known by its atomic number, which is shown above each symbol
on the table. Look at the block for sulfur, element 16, and gold, ele- Using Tables and Graphs Have
ment 79. Sulfur and gold are minerals made of one element. Most students convert Table 1 into a circle
elements are not stable enough to exist in pure form in nature. Thus, graph. Ask: Why would a circle graph
most minerals are combinations of elements. be a good alternative way to show
The rows in the periodic table are called periods. The the information in Table 1? (A circle
Table 1 Relative Abundance of graph shows the parts that make up a
number of elements in a period varies. Period 1, for example,
the Most Common Elements in whole, just as the elements listed in the
contains only two elements. These elements are hydrogen Earth’s Continental Crust
(H) and helium (He). Period 2 contains the elements lithium table make up a whole—100 percent of
Element Approximate Percentage
(Li) through neon (Ne). Periods 4 and 5 each contain 18 ele- by Weight
the elements in the continental crust.)
ments while Period 6 includes 32 elements. Suggest that students first estimate the
Oxygen (O) 46.6
The columns in the periodic table are called groups. Note size of each wedge of the circle graph
Silicon (Si) 27.7 and draw the graph accordingly. Then
that there are 18 groups in the periodic table shown on pages
Aluminum (Al) 8.1 have them precisely draw the graph by
36 and 37. Elements within a group have similar properties.
Iron (Fe) 5.0
first multiplying each percent by 360°
Of the known elements, only eight make up most of
to find the central angle of each wedge.
Earth’s continental crust. These eight elements are listed in Calcium (Ca) 3.6
They can then use a protractor to draw
Table 1. Notice that six of the eight elements in Table 1 are clas- Sodium (Na) 2.8 each central angle on a circle. Students
sified as metals. Metals have specific properties such as the
Potassium (K) 2.6 can compare their estimates with their
ability to be shaped and drawn into wire. Metals are also good
Magnesium (Mg) 2.1 precise graphs. Some students may wish
conductors of heat and electricity. They combine in thousands
to create their graphs using software.
of ways to form compounds, the building blocks of most Earth All others 1.7
Ask: What advantage does a circle
materials. To understand how elements form compounds we Source: Data from Brian Mason. graph have over a table of percent-
need to review their building blocks which are atoms. ages? (The sizes of the wedges of the
graph often make it easier to compare
Atoms different quantities.)
As you might already know, all elements are made of atoms. An Visual, Logical
atom is the smallest particle of matter that contains the characteris-
tics of an element. Atoms
The central region of an atom is called the nucleus. The nucleus Integrate Biology L2
contains protons and neutrons. Protons are dense particles with pos-
Cell Nucleus Students may know that
itive electrical charges. Neutrons are equally dense particles that have
most cells in living organisms also have
no electrical charge. Electrons, which are small particles with little mass a structure called a nucleus. Inform
and negative electrical charges, surround an atom’s nucleus. students that the cell’s nucleus contains
the cell’s genetic, or hereditary, material.
Protons and Neutrons A proton has about the same mass as
Ask: How are an atom’s nucleus and
a neutron. Hydrogen atoms have only a single proton in their nuclei.
a cell’s nucleus similar? (They are both
Other atoms contain more than 100 protons. The number of protons
central structures of a basic unit.) How
in the nucleus of an atom is called the atomic number. All atoms with
are the two nuclei different? (The cell
six protons, for example, are carbon atoms. The atomic number of
nucleus controls the activities of the cell.
carbon is 6. Likewise, every atom with eight protons is an oxygen atom.
The atomic nucleus does not have a
The atomic number of oxygen is 8. similar function.)
Atoms have the same number of protons and electrons. Carbon Logical
atoms have six protons and therefore six electrons. Oxygen atoms have
eight protons in their nuclei and have eight electrons surrounding the
nucleus.
L2
Although the text says that all matter
Minerals 35
is made of atoms, this is not strictly
true everywhere in the universe. For
example, the solar wind produced by
the sun consists of a stream of protons
Customize for English Language Learners and electrons. Also, in a neutron star,
enormous pressure forces electrons and
To help students understand the idea of energy different from energy levels in atoms. (Energy
protons in the atoms in a star to combine
levels, have them work in pairs to think of levels are not physical objects and are not evenly
with each other, leaving only a very
everyday situations that involve different levels. spaced.) If you have a bookshelf in the class,
dense ball of neutrons.
Examples might include dresser drawers, have students place marbles on different levels
Logical
shelves in a bookshelf, and bleachers ins a to represent electrons.
gym. Ask students how these analogies are

Minerals 35
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Section 2.1 (continued) Periodic Table of the Elements

Use Visuals L1 Figure 1

Figure 1 Use this figure to discuss

s
al

id
et

lo
1

s
how information is shown on a periodic

al

al
on
1A

et

et
M

M
N
table. Ask: What are the boldfaced
1
single or double letters, such as H and C Li B Solid
Li ? (symbols for each element) What is H
Hydrogen
the number above each symbol? (the 1.0079 2 Br Hg Liquid
element’s atomic number) What is the 2A
number below each symbol? (the 3 4
element’s atomic mass) What do the H Gas

colors of the boxes indicate? (They Li Be

Lithium Beryllium Not found
show whether an element is a metal, 6.941 9.0122 Tc in nature
transition metal, nonmetal, noble gas, 11 12
lanthanide, or actinide.)
Visual, Logical
Na Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Sodium Magnesium
22.990 24.305 3B 4B 5B 6B 7B 8B
Build Science Skills L2 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27

Using Tables and Graphs Use the K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co

data in Figure 1 to show the advantage Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt
39.098 40.08 44.956 47.90 50.941 51.996 54.938 55.847 58.933
of arranging elements by atomic number 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
instead of atomic mass. Make a large
graph with atomic number on the Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium
horizontal axis and atomic mass on the 85.468 87.62 88.906 91.22 92.906 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.91
vertical axis for elements 1 through 20. 55 56 71 72 73 74 75 76 77
Draw straight lines between the points.
Ask: What does the graph show about
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta W Re Os Ir
Cesium Barium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium
the general relationship between 132.91 137.33 174.97 178.49 180.95 183.85 186.21 190.2 192.22

atomic number and atomic mass? 87 88 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
(As the atomic number increases, so does
the atomic mass.) Are there any points
Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
Francium Radium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium
on the graph that do not follow the (223) (226) (262) (261) (262) (263) (264) (265) (268)

pattern? (Yes, the atomic mass of

element 18, argon, is greater than the
atomic mass of element 19, potassium.) Lanthanide Series
57 58 59 60 61 62
Point out that arranging the elements
strictly by increasing atomic mass would
Metals—elements that are
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm
result in some elements with unlike good conductors of heat and
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium
138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.4
properties being grouped together. electric current
Visual, Logical Nonmetals—elements that Actinide Series
are poor conductors of heat 89 90 91 92 93 94
and electric current
Metalloids—elements with
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium
properties that are somewhat
(227) 232.04 231.04 238.03 (237) (244)
similar to metals and nonmetals

36 Chapter 2

Facts and Figures

Although plutonium is classified as a synthetic Los Alamos National Laboratory, discovered
element, traces of plutonium isotopes Pu-238 traces of Pu-244 in Precambrian rocks. Because
and Pu-239 appear at low concentrations (about this isotope has a half-life of about 82 million
one part per 1011) in pitchblende, a uranium years, it probably existed when Earth formed.
ore. In 1971, Darlene Hoffman, a scientist at

36 Chapter 2
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Integrate
Language Arts L2
Elements 110, 111, 112, and 114 have
not been named yet. Scientists can
propose names for new elements, but
the International Union of Pure and
Atomic number 6 18 Applied Chemistry has final approval.
8A
Element symbol C 2
Until new elements receive official
names, chemists refer to them by their
Element name
Atomic mass
Carbon
12.011 13 14 15 16 17
He Latin-based atomic numbers. For
Helium example, element 114 is called
3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 4.0026
5 6 7 8 9 10
ununquadium, Latin for one-one-four.
Increase students’ familiarity with the
B C N O F Ne periodic table by discussing some of the
Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
10.81 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.179 strategies used to name elements
13 14 15 16 17 18 (scientists, geographic locations,
mythological characters).
10 11 12
Al Si P S Cl Ar Verbal, Portfolio
Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
1B 2B 26.982 28.086 30.974 32.06 35.453 39.948
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Build Science Skills L2
Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr Comparing and Contrasting For
Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton this activity, use a periodic table that is
58.71 63.546 65.38 69.72 72.59 74.922 78.96 79.904 83.80
several years old to display or distribute
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
to students. You might use one from an
Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe older textbook. To illustrate the dynamic
Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
106.4 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.69 121.75 127.60 126.90 131.30
nature of science, have students
78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
compare Figure 1 to the older periodic
table. Ask: What differences do you
Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn notice between the two periodic
Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
195.09 196.97 200.59 204.37 207.2 208.98 (209) (210) (222) tables? (Depending on when the older
110 111 112 114 table was printed, the number of elements
* * * * may vary and some elements in Period 7
Uun Uuu Uub Uuq may not have assigned names. Some
Ununnilium Unununium Ununbium Ununquadium
(269) (272) (277) values for atomic mass are likely to vary.)
*Name not officially assigned. Make a list of responses on the board.
Then ask: How will the periodic table
change in the future? (Unnamed
63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 elements will be assigned official names
Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb and more elements may be discovered.)
Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Visual, Verbal
151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04

95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102

Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No
Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium
(243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259)

Minerals 37

Minerals 37
HSES_1eTE_C02.qxd 9/23/04 8:46 PM Page 38

Third energy-level
Section 2.1 (continued) Electrons An electron is the smallest
of the three fundamental particles in an
Use Visuals L1 atom. An electron has a mass of about
Second 1/1836 the mass of a proton or a neu-
Figure 2 Use this diagram to show a energy-level
model of the atom. Explain to students tron. Electrons move about the nucleus
that each energy level contains a certain so rapidly that they create a sphere-
number of electrons. shaped negative zone. You can picture
Visual moving electrons by imagining a cloud
of negative charges surrounding the
Nucleus First energy-level
Build Math Skills L2 (neutrons nucleus, as shown in Figure 2.
and protons) Electrons are located in regions
Calculating An electron has a mass of
called energy levels. Each energy level
9.11 ⫻ 10⫺28 g. Have students calculate
Figure 2 Model of an Atom contains a certain number of electrons. Interactions among elec-
a more exact ratio between the mass of The electrons that move about an trons in the outermost energy levels explains how atoms form
a proton and the mass of an electron. atom’s nucleus occupy distinct
regions called energy levels. compounds, as you will find out later in the chapter.
If necessary, review the idea of a ratio:
a dimensionless number used to How are electrons, protons, and neutrons
compare two values. (The mass of a alike and how are they different?
proton is 1.674 ⫻ 10⫺24 g. 1.674 ⫻
10⫺24 g/9.11 ⫻ 10-28 g ⫽ 1838) The
ratio is actually 1836:1. The error is due Isotopes
to rounding.
Atoms of the same element always have the same number of protons.
Logical
For example, every carbon atom has 6 protons. Carbon is element
Q Are the minerals in this
L2 chapter the same as those in number 6 on the periodic table. But the number of neutrons for atoms
Build Science Skills of the same element can vary. Atoms with the same number of
dietary supplements?
Using Models Have protons but different numbers of neutrons are isotopes of an ele-
A Not ordinarily. Most minerals
students build models found in dietary supplements ment. Isotopes of the same element are labeled using a convention
of atoms similar to are compounds made in the called the mass number and with the element’s name or symbol. The
Figure 2 using materials laboratory. These dietary min- mass number of an atom is the total mass of the atom (protons plus
found at home or in the classroom. erals often contain elements
that are metals, such as calcium, neutrons) expressed in atomic mass units. The proton and the neu-
Models do not have to be exactly to tron each have a mass that is slightly larger than the atomic mass unit.
potassium, magnesium, and
scale but should show the relationships iron. From the geologist’s point Recall that the mass of an electron is so small that the number of elec-
among the particles clearly. of view, a mineral must be a nat- trons has no effect on the mass number of an atom.
Visual, Logical urally occurring crystalline solid.
Carbon has 15 different isotopes. Models for three of these are
shown in Figure 3. Carbon-12 makes up almost 99 percent of all
Isotopes carbon on Earth. Carbon-12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons. Carbon-13
Build Science Skills L2
makes up much of the remaining naturally occurring carbon atoms
Calculating Oxygen-18 has a mass on Earth. Carbon-13 has 6 protons and 7 neutrons.Though only traces
number of 18 and 10 neutrons in its of carbon-14 are found in nature, the presence of this isotope is often
nucleus. Oxygen-17 has a mass number used to determine the age of once-living things. Carbon-14 has
of 17 and 9 neutrons in its nucleus. 6 protons and 8 neutrons
Ask: What is the atomic number of The nuclei of most atoms are stable. However, many elements have
oxygen? (8) atoms whose nuclei are unstable. Such atoms disintegrate through a
Logical process called radioactive decay. Radioactive decay occurs because the
forces that hold the nucleus together are not strong enough.

38 Chapter 2

Facts and Figures

Carbon-14 can be used to find the ages of some radioactive decay to form nitrogen-14 with a
objects. Carbon-14 is formed continuously by half-life of 5730 years. The age of an object
natural processes in the atmosphere. Carbon in containing plant or animal material can be
the atmosphere reacts with oxygen to form determined by comparing the ratio of carbon-
carbon dioxide. Plants take in carbon dioxide 14 to carbon-12 in the object to the ratio of
during photosynthesis, the process by which these isotopes in the atmosphere. If the ratio of
they use energy in sunlight to make food. carbon-14 to carbon-12 in the object is one-
Initially, the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 is quarter the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 in
the same in plants as it is in the atmosphere. The the atmosphere, for example, then two half-
same is true for an animal that eats a plant. After lives, or 11,460 years, have passed since the
a plant or animal dies, though, it no longer takes plant or animal was alive.
in carbon. The carbon-14 gradually undergoes
38 Chapter 2
HSES_1eTE_C02.qxd 5/14/04 3:21 PM Page 39

During radioactive decay, unstable atoms radiate energy and par-

ticles. Some of this energy powers the movements of Earth’s crust and
upper mantle. The rates at which unstable atoms decay are measur-
Isotopes and Numbers L2
able. Therefore certain radioactive atoms can be used to determine the
ages of fossils, rocks, and minerals. Purpose Students will observe the
relationships among number of protons,
What are isotopes? number of neutrons, atomic number,
and mass number for different isotopes.
Materials overhead projector, red and
Figure 3 Nuclei of green gummy candies
Isotopes of Carbon
Carbon has many isotopes. Procedure Explain that the green
Of these, three occur candies represent neutrons and the red
in nature. candies represent protons. Model a
Comparing and
Contrasting How are the carbon-12 nucleus by placing a group of
nuclei of these isotopes 6 red candies and 6 green candies on
the same, and how do the overhead. Ask students to count the
they differ?
number of candies (particles) to
Carbon-14
determine the mass number of the
Carbon-12
stable unstable (radioactive) carbon atom (12). Then ask students
Carbon-13 what the atomic number is for carbon
stable
(6). Then remove a red candy (proton)
Proton Neutron and ask if the atom is still carbon (no).
Replace the red candy and add a green
candy (neutron). Ask students if the
atom is still carbon (yes). Then ask:
How is this atom different from the
Why Atoms Bond original one? (The atom has a different
Most elements exist combined with other elements to form substances isotope, carbon-13.) Show students the
with properties that are different from the elements themselves. appropriate notation to represent
Sodium is often found combined with the element chlorine as the min- isotopes: element name with mass
eral halite. Lead ore is really the mineral galena, which is the element, number or element symbol with mass
lead, combined with the element, sulfur. Chemical combinations of number and atomic number.
the atoms of elements are called compounds. A compound is a carbon-13 or 13 C
substance that consists of two or more elements that are chemically 6
combined in specific proportions. Compounds form when atoms are Expected Outcome Students should
gain a familiarity with mass numbers,
more stable (exist at a lower energy state) in a combined form. The
atomic numbers, and isotopes.
chemical process, called bonding, centers around the electron arrange-
Visual
ments of atoms. Thus, when atoms combine with others to form
compounds, they gain, lose, or share electrons.
Scientists have discovered that the most stable elements are found
on the right side of the periodic table in Group 8A (18). These ele-
ments have a very low reactivity and exist in nature as single atoms.
Scientists explain why atoms form compounds by considering how an
atom undergoes changes to its electron structure to be more like atoms
in Group 8A. Answer to . . .
Figure 3 The isotopes all have the
Minerals 39 same number of protons, and thus, the
same atomic number, but each has a
different number of neutrons.
They all are subatomic
particles that make up
atoms. Protons have positive electrical
charges, neutrons have no charge, and
electrons have negative charges.
Protons and neutrons are found in an
atom’s nucleus. Electrons move about
the nucleus.
Isotopes are atoms of
the same element with
the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons.

Minerals 39
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Section 2.1 (continued) Look at Figure 4. It shows the shorthand way of representing the
number of electrons in the outer energy level. Recall that electrons
Build Science Skills L2 move about the nucleus of an atom in a region called an electron
cloud. Within this cloud, only a certain number of electrons can
Predicting Emphasize that, except for
hydrogen and helium, the dots in an occupy each energy level. For example, a maximum of two electrons
electron dot diagram do not represent can occupy the first energy level. From Figure 4, you see that helium
all of the electrons in an atom, just the (He) is shown with two electrons. A maximum of eight electrons can
valence electrons. be found in the second energy level. You also see from the figure that
neon (Ne) is shown with eight electrons. When an atom’s outer-
Have students look at Figure 4. Ask them
most energy level does not contain the maximum number of
to predict the electron dot diagrams
electrons, the atom is likely to form a chemical bond with one or
for rubidium, strontium, indium, tin,
more other atoms. Chemical bonds can be thought of as the forces
antimony, tellurium, iodine, and xenon.
that hold atoms together in a compound. The principal types of chem-
(These elements—Rb, Sr, In, Sn, Sb, Te, I,
ical bonds are ionic bonds, covalent bonds, or metallic bonds.
and Xe—have the same valence electron
configurations as the elements directly Figure 4 In an electron dot
Electron Dot Diagrams for Some Representative Elements
above them in the periodic table.) diagram, each dot represents
an electron in the atom’s outer Group
Logical, Visual energy level. These electrons 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
are sometimes called valence
Types of electrons.
Observing How many
Chemical Bonds electrons do sodium and H He
chlorine have in their outer
energy levels?

Li Be B C N O F Ne
Many students think that atoms become
positively charged as a result of gaining
protons. Challenge this misconception Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
by explaining that electrons are the only
subatomic particles that can be removed
from or added to an atom during a
chemical reaction. Remind students that K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
protons are bound into the nuclei of
atoms and cannot be removed or added
during chemical reactions.
Logical
Types of Chemical Bonds
Integrate Chemistry L2 Ionic Bonds An atom that gains electrons becomes negatively
Ionic Compounds and Conduction charged. This happens because the atom now has more electrons than
Why are solid ionic compounds poor protons. An atom that loses electrons becomes positively charged. This
conductors of electricity whereas melted happens because the atom now has more protons than electrons. An
ionic compounds are good conductors? atom that has an electrical charge because of a gain or loss of one or
Tell students that for an electric current more electrons is called an ion. Oppositely charged ions attract each
to flow through a substance, charged other to form crystalline compounds. Ionic bonds form between
particles must be able to move from one positive and negative ions.
place to another. In a solid ionic crystal,
the ions are fixed in a lattice. Ask: Why
can’t ionic solids conduct electricity?
40 Chapter 2
(Since the ions are in fixed positions, they
cannot conduct current.) What happens
if the solid is melted? (The ions are
freed from the lattice.) Why is the
melted solid a good conductor of
electricity? (The ions can move around
and conduct a current.)
Logical

40 Chapter 2
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Use Visuals L1
Some common compounds on Earth have both a chemical name
and a mineral name. For example, table salt has a chemical name, Figure 5 Use this diagram to explain
sodium chloride, and a mineral name, halite. Salt forms when sodium how an ionic compound forms. Ask:
(Na) reacts with chlorine (Cl) as shown in Figure 5A. Sodium is very What happens to the sodium atom
unstable and reactive. Sodium atoms lose one electron and become when it loses an electron? (It becomes
positive ions. Chlorine atoms gain one electron and become negative a positive ion.) What happens to a
ions. These oppositely charged ions are attracted to each other and chlorine atom when it gains an
form the compound called sodium chloride. electron? (It becomes a negative ion.)
The properties of a compound are different from the properties of What happens to the two ions? (They
the elements in the compound. Sodium is a soft, silvery metal that are attracted to each other and form a
reacts vigorously with water. If you held it in your hand, sodium could compound.)
burn your skin. Chlorine is a green poisonous gas. Chemically com- Visual, Logical
bined these atoms produce table salt, the familiar crystalline solid that
Integrate Health L2
is essential to health.
Sodium and Chlorine in the Body
What happens when two or more atoms react? Sodium chloride, or table salt, is an
essential nutrient for human beings. Tell
students that sodium and chlorine both
Formation of Sodium Chloride help maintain the acid-base balance in
Figure 5 A When sodium metal comes in contact with
chlorine gas, a violent reaction occurs. B Sodium atoms the body. Sodium is also involved in
transfer one electron to the outer energy levels of chlorine maintaining the water balance of the
atoms. Both ions now have filled outer energy levels C The body and in nerve function. Chlorine is
positive and negative ions formed attract each other to form
a crystalline solid with a rigid structure. needed for the formation of gastric juice
A for digestion of food. The average
American gets about 20 times the
required intake of sodium.
B Logical

Na+ Cl
–
Na + Cl

C
Naⴙ Clⴚ

Minerals 41

Answer to . . .
Figure 4 Sodium has one electron in
its outer energy level (valence electron)
and chlorine has seven.
Electrons are gained,
lost, or shared when
two or more atoms react to form a
compound.

Minerals 41
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Section 2.1 (continued) Compounds that contain ionic bonds are called ionic com-
pounds. Figure 6 shows calcium fluoride, a common ionic
A
Build Reading Literacy L1 compound. Our model for ionic bonding suggests that one cal-
cium atom transfers two electrons from its outermost energy
Refer to p. 502 in Chapter 18, which
provides guidelines for this strategy. level to two atoms of fluorine. This transfer gives all atoms the
right numbers of electrons in their outer energy levels. The
Visualize Tell students that forming a compound that forms is known as the mineral fluorite.
mental image of concepts they are Ionic compounds are rigid solids with high melting and
learning helps them remember new
B boiling points. These compounds are poor conductors of
concepts. After students have read – electricity in their solid states. When melted, however, many
about ionic, covalent, and metallic F F ionic compounds are good conductors of electricity. Most
bonds, have them visualize models for
each type of bond. Then encourage
Ca + Ca2+ – ionic compounds consist of elements from groups 1 and 2 on
students to draw diagrams that F F the periodic table reacting with elements from groups 16 and
17 of the table.
demonstrate the differences among
these three types of bonds. Figure 6 Ionic Compound A Fluorite is an How do ionic bonds form, and what are
Visual ionic compound that forms when calcium
some properties of ionic compounds?
reacts with fluorine. B The dots shown with
the element’s symbol represent the electrons
in the outermost levels of the ions.
Explaining Explain what happens to the Covalent Bonds Covalent bonds form when atoms
electrons in calcium atoms and fluorine
L2 atoms when fluorite forms. share electrons. Compounds with covalent bonds are called
Comparing Bonds
covalent compounds. Figure 7 shows silicon dioxide, one of
Purpose Students observe differences the most common covalent compounds on Earth. Silicon
in the properties of substances with dioxide forms when one silicon atom and two oxygen atoms
different bonds. share electrons in their outermost energy levels. Silicon diox-
Materials rock salt, chalk, copper wire, ide is also known as the mineral quartz.
hammer, goggles The bonding in covalent compounds results in properties
Procedure Take students outside to an A that differ from those of ionic compounds. Unlike ionic
open area. Allow them to examine the compounds, many covalent compounds have low melting
samples of rock salt, chalk, and copper and boiling points. For example, water, a covalent com-
wire. Have students stand back a safe pound, boils at 100°C at standard pressure. Sodium chloride,
distance. Put on goggles, then place an ionic compound, boils at 1413°C at standard pressure.
each sample on a hard surface and hit it Covalent compounds also are poor conductors of electric-
with a hammer. Invite students to ity, even when melted.
observe how each sample looks after B The smallest particle of a covalent compound
being pounded with the hammer. that shows the properties of that compound is a mol-
ecule. A molecule is a neutral group of atoms joined
Expected Outcome The rock salt and
chalk shatter because they are ionic and H O H2O by one or more covalent bonds. Water, for example,
covalent substances, respectively. The consists of molecules. These molecules are made of
copper wire changes shape instead of
shattering because metals are malleable.
H two hydrogen atoms covalently-bonded to one
oxygen atom. The many gases that make up Earth’s
Visual atmosphere, including hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
Figure 7 Covalent Compounds A Quartz is a and carbon dioxide, also consist of molecules.
covalent compound that forms when silicon and
oxygen atoms bond. B Water consists of molecules
formed when hydrogen and oxygen share electrons.
L2
Many students do not differentiate
among atoms, molecules, and ions in
42 Chapter 2
their perceptions of particles. Challenge
this misconception by having students
make drawings to represent an atom, a
molecule, and an ion. Students should
draw a single sphere for an atom, at
Facts and Figures
least two spheres joined in some way for
Unlike ionic and covalent compounds, metals piece of metal is deformed, the ions move to
a molecule, and one sphere with either
are malleable and ductile. Instead, metal ions new positions. The piece of metal does not
a plus or a minus sign for an ion.
are held together in a “sea of electrons” break because the ions are still held attracted
Visual
referred to as the metallic bond. When a to the electrons.

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3 ASSESS
Metallic Bonds Metals are malleable, A – – – –
which means that they can be easily shaped. + –
+ + + + Evaluate
You’ve observed this property when you
– – –
– Understanding L2
– – –
– + + +
–
wrapped aluminum foil around food or crushed –
–
– – + Have students describe why substances
–
– +
an aluminum can. Metals are also ductile, mean- – – – form ionic, covalent, and metallic
+ + + + –
–
ing that they can be drawn into thin wires – – – – + bonds.
– –
without breaking. The wiring in your school or – – –
+ + + + – L1
home is probably made of the metal copper. – –
+
– –
– Reteach
Metals are excellent conductors of electricity. Use Figures 5 and 6 to review the
Metallic bonds form when electrons B
formation of ions and ionic bonds. Be
are shared by metal ions. Figure 8 shows a sure students understand that the ionic
model for this kind of bond. The sharing of an bond is the electrostatic attraction
electron pool gives metals their characteristic between ions of opposite charge. Ionic
properties. Using the model you can see how compounds do not exist as discrete pairs
an electrical current is easily carried through of ions, but as aggregates of ions.
the pool of electrons. Later in this chapter, you
will learn about some metals that are classified
as minerals.

Solutions
Figure 8 Metallic Bonds A Metals form bonds 10. The atomic number, which is the
with one another by sharing electrons. B Such
bonds give metals, such as this copper, their
number of protons in an element, is
characteristic properties. Metals can be easily the same for each isotope of carbon.
formed and shaped. The mass number varies from 8
(6 protons ⫹ 2 neutrons) to 24
(6 protons ⫹ 18 neutrons).

Section 2.1 Assessment

Reviewing Concepts electron to fill its outermost shell. If

magnesium reacts with chlorine, what type of
1. What is an element?
bond will most likely form? Explain.
2. What kinds of particles make up atoms?
9. Applying Concepts Which elements in the
3. What are isotopes? periodic table might combine with oxygen to
4. What are compounds and why do they form compounds similar to magnesium
form? dioxide (MgO2)? Answer to . . .
5. Contrast ionic, covalent, and metallic
bonds.
Figure 6 Calcium transfers its two
electrons to two fluorine atoms,
Critical Thinking forming two fluoride ions.
6. Comparing and Contrasting Compare 10. The isotopes of carbon have from 2 to 16
and contrast solids, liquids, and gases.
Ionic bonds form when
neutrons. Use this information to make a
electrons are transferred
7. Applying Concepts What elements in table that shows the 15 isotopes of carbon
Table 1 are metals? and the atomic number and mass number from one atom to another. Ionic
8. Applying Concepts A magnesium atom of each. compounds are rigid solids with high
needs two electrons to fill its outermost melting and boiling points and are
energy level. A chlorine atom needs one poor conductors of electricity in their
solid states. When melted, many ionic
Minerals 43 compounds are good conductors of
electricity.

Section 2.1 Assessment 4. A compound is a substance that consists volume, but not a definite shape. A gas
of two or more elements. Compounds form has neither a definite volume nor a definite
1. An element is a class of matter that con- as the result of changes in the arrangement shape.
tains only one type of atom. An element can- of electrons in the outermost shells of the 7. aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium,
not be broken down, chemically or physically, bonded atoms. potassium, magnesium
into a simpler substance with the same 5. Ionic bonds are those that form when 8. An ionic bond forms because magnesium
properties. electrons are transferred. Covalent bonds will give up or transfer its two electrons to
2. Protons and neutrons are found in an involve the sharing of electrons. Metallic two chlorine ions.
atom’s nucleus, while electrons move about bonds exist when electrons are shared by 9. Elements in groups 1 and 2 have similar
this central core. metallic ions. properties to those of magnesium and often
3. Isotopes are atoms of the same element 6. All are forms of matter, and thus all are combine with oxygen to form compounds.
that have the same number of protons but made of atoms. A solid has a definite shape
different numbers of neutrons. and definite volume. A liquid has a definite
Minerals 43
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Section 2.2
2.2 Minerals
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
2.6 List five characteristics of
minerals. Key Concepts Reading Strategy
2.7 Describe the processes that What are five characteristics Previewing Copy the organizer below. Skim the material on mineral
of a mineral? groups on pages 47 to 49. Place each group name into one of the ovals
result in mineral formation.
What processes result in in the organizer. As you read this section, complete the organizer with
2.8 Explain how minerals can be characteristics and examples of each major mineral group.
the formation of minerals?
classified.
How can minerals be
2.9 List some of the major groups Mineral Groups
classified?
of minerals. What are some of the
major groups of minerals?

Vocabulary
Reading Focus ◆ mineral 1. ? 1. ? 1. ? 1. ? 1. ? 1. ?
2. ? 2. ? 2. ? 2. ? 2. ? 2. ?
◆ silicate
Build Vocabulary L2 ◆ silicon-oxygen tetrahedron
3. ? 3. ? 3. ? 3. ? 3. ? 3. ?

Word Parts Help students understand

the meaning of the word tetrahedron by
breaking the word down into parts. The
part tetra comes from the Greek word for
“four.” The part hedron comes from the
L ook at the salt shaker in Figure 9B. This system is made up of the
metal cap, glass container, and salt grains. Each component is made
Greek word for “face.” So a tetrahedron of elements or compounds that either are minerals or that are
is a shape that has four faces. obtained from minerals. In fact, practically every manufactured
product that you might use in a typical day con-
Reading Strategy L2
tains materials obtained from minerals. What
Silicates: made of tetrahedra; quartz; other minerals do you probably use regularly?
feldspar The lead in your pencils actually contains a soft
Carbonates: contain carbon, oxygen, black mineral called graphite. Most body
and one or more other metallic powders and many kinds of make-up contain
elements; calcite; dolomite finely ground bits of the mineral talc. Your
Oxides: contain oxygen, and one or dentist’s drill bits contain tiny pieces of the
more other elements; rutile; corundum mineral diamond. It is hard enough to drill
A
Sulfate and sulfides: contain sulfur; through your tooth enamel. The mineral quartz
gypsum; galena is the main ingredient in the windows in your
Halides: contain a halogen ion plus one school and the drinking glasses in your family’s
or more other elements; halite; fluorite kitchen. What do all of these minerals have in
Native elements: substances that exist common? How do they differ?
as free elements; gold; silver

2 INSTRUCT
Figure 9 A Table salt is the mineral halite. B The glass
container is made from the mineral quartz. Bauxite is
B one of the minerals that provides aluminum for the cap.
L2
Students may think that the minerals 44 Chapter 2
discussed in this chapter are the same as
the minerals found in vitamin pills. They
are related, but not the same. Remind
students of the Q&A on p. 38. In earth
science, a mineral is a naturally
occurring inorganic crystalline solid. In
contrast, minerals found in vitamin pills
are inorganic compounds made in the
laboratory that contain elements needed
by the body. Many elements needed by
the body are metals such as calcium,
potassium, phosphorus, magnesium,
and iron.
Logical

44 Chapter 2
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Minerals
Minerals Build Reading Literacy L1
A mineral in Earth science is different from the minerals in foods.
Refer to p. 334D in Chapter 12, which
A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with an
provides guidelines for this strategy.
orderly crystalline structure and a definite chemical composition.
For an Earth material to be considered a mineral, it must have the fol- Outline Have students read the text on
Feldspar
lowing characteristics: pp. 45–49 about how minerals form and
1. Naturally occurring A mineral forms by natural geologic mineral groups. Encourage students to
processes. Therefore, synthetic gems, such as synthetic diamonds use the headings as major divisions in an
outline. Have students refer to their
and rubies, are not considered minerals.
outlines when answering the questions
2. Solid substance Minerals are solids within the temperature ranges
in the Section 2.2 Assessment.
that are normal for Earth’s surface. Quartz
Verbal, Logical
3. Orderly crystalline structure Minerals are crystalline substances
which means that their atoms or ions are arranged in an orderly How Minerals Form
and repetitive manner. You saw this orderly type of packing in
Figure 5 for halite (NaCl). The gemstone opal is not a mineral even
though it contains the same elements as quartz. Opal does not have
an orderly internal structure. Crystallization
4. Definite chemical composition Most minerals are chemical com- of Sulfur L2
pounds made of two or more elements. A few, such as gold and Muscovite
silver, consist of only a single element (native form). The common Purpose Students observe how the
rate of cooling of a mineral affects
mineral quartz consists of two oxygen atoms for every silicon atom.
crystal size.
Thus the chemical formula for quartz would be SiO2.
5. Generally considered inorganic Most minerals are inorganic crys- Materials two crucibles, 50-mL
talline solids found in nature. Table salt (halite) is one such beaker, water, teaspoon, sulfur powder,
mineral. However, sugar, another crystalline solid is not consid- Hornblende tongs, Bunsen burner, magnifying glass
ered a mineral because it is classified as an organic compound. Procedure Put a teaspoon of powdered
Sugar comes from sugar beets or sugar cane. We say “generally Figure 10 These minerals sulfur into one of the crucibles. Using
inorganic” because many marine animals secrete inorganic com- often form as the result of tongs, hold the crucible near the burner
crystallization from magma.
pounds, such as calcium carbonate (calcite). This compound is flame until the sulfur melts. Set the
found in their shells and in coral reefs. Most geologists consider crucible aside to cool. Put a teaspoon
this form of calcium carbonate a mineral. of powdered sulfur into the second
crucible. Put about 200 mL of water in
How Minerals Form the beaker. Melt the sulfur in the second
Minerals form nearly everywhere on Earth under different conditions. crucible and carefully pour the molten
For example, minerals called silicates often form deep in the crust or sulfur into the beaker. Pour off the
water. As soon as the first crucible has
mantle where temperatures and pressures are very high. Most of the
cooled, allow students to look at both
minerals known as carbonates form in warm, shallow ocean waters.
sets of crystals using the magnifying
Most clay minerals form at or near Earth’s surface when existing min-
glass.
erals are exposed to weathering. Still other minerals form when rocks
are subjected to changes in pressure or temperature. There are Safety Wear goggles, apron, and heat-
four major processes by which minerals form: crystallization from resistant mitts while melting the sulfur.
magma, precipitation, changes in pressure and temperature, and for- Make sure students are at a safe distance
mation from hydrothermal solutions. from the crucible and flame and that the
room is well ventilated.
Expected Outcome The sulfur in the
first crucible, which cooled slowly, will
Minerals 45 have bigger crystals than the sulfur that
cooled quickly.
Visual, Logical

Customize for English Language Learners

To help students learn and understand the Have students go though all the other names,
names of the different mineral groups, have isolate the beginnings of the names, and figure
them focus on the roots of the names and out what the name indicates about what
ignore the endings. The beginning of silicates, elements the minerals contain (carbonates:
for example, is silic-. This is similar to silicon carbon-, carbon; oxides: ox-, oxygen; sulfates
and indicates that silicates contain silicon. and sulfides: sulf-, sulfur; halides: hal-, halogens).

Minerals 45
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5 cm
Section 2.2 (continued)

Precipitation
of a Mineral L2
Purpose Students observe how a
mineral can form by precipitation.
Materials rock salt, spoon warm water,
A B
400-mL beaker, shallow pan or tray
Procedure Out of view of students,
Figure 11 A This limestone cave Crystallization from Magma Magma is molten rock. It forms
add rock salt spoon by spoon to a formation is an obvious example
beaker of warm water, stirring as you of precipitation. B Halite and deep within Earth. As magma cools, elements combine to form miner-
go. Stop when no more salt will dissolve. calcite are also formed by als such as those shown in Figure 10 on page 45. The first minerals to
precipitation. crystallize from magma are usually those rich in iron, calcium, and mag-
Show the beaker to students and ask
them if there is a mineral in it. Most will nesium. As minerals continue to form, the composition of the magma
say no. Then pour the liquid into the changes. Minerals rich in sodium, potassium, and aluminum then form.
pan and leave it in a warm and/or sunny
spot. (If you don’t have a suitable warm Precipitation The water in Earth’s lakes, rivers, ponds, oceans, and
and/or sunny spot or want to save time, beneath its surface contains many dissolved substances. If this water
pour some of the solution into an evaporates, some of the dissolved substances can react to form miner-
evaporation dish and heat it on a hot als. Changes in water temperature may also cause dissolved material to
plate.) When the water has evaporated, precipitate out of a body of water. The minerals are left behind, or pre-
show the pan to students and ask them cipitated, out of the water. Two common minerals that form in this way
to identify the substance in it (halite are shown in Figure 11.
crystals).
Pressure and Temperature Some minerals, including talc
Expected Outcome As the water and muscovite, form when existing minerals are subjected to changes
evaporates, the salt will precipitate out in pressure and temperature. An increase in pressure can cause a min-
of the solution and form crystals. eral to recrystallize while still solid. The atoms are simply rearranged
Visual, Logical to form more compact minerals. Changes in temperature can also
Figure 12 Bornite (blue and cause certain minerals to become unstable. Under these conditions,
purple) and chalcopyrite (gold)
new minerals form, which are stable at the new temperature.
Build Science Skills L2 are sulfur minerals that form
from thermal solutions.
Inferring Sometimes rocks are buried Hydrothermal Solutions A hydrothermal solution is a very
deep under Earth’s surface. When they hot mixture of water and dissolved substances. Hydrothermal solu-
reach the surface again they are often tions have temperatures between about 100°C and 300°C. When these
changed into a different type of rock. solutions come into contact with existing minerals, chemical reactions
Ask students why this happens. (The take place to form new minerals. Also, when such solutions cool, some
rocks are subjected to great heat and of the elements in them combine to form minerals such as quartz and
pressure deep below Earth’s surface. The pyrite. The sulfur minerals in the sample shown in Figure 12 formed
heat and pressure cause reactions that from thermal solutions.
change the minerals and thus produces
new types of rocks.) Describe what happens when a mineral is
subjected to changes in pressure or temperature.
Logical

46 Chapter 2

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Mineral Groups
Mineral Groups
Over 3800 minerals have been named, and several new ones are iden-
tified each year. You will be studying only the most abundant minerals. L2
Common minerals, together with the thousands of others that
form on Earth, can be classified into groups based on their compo- Students may think that the silicates
sition. Some of the more common mineral groups include the silicates, described in this section are the same
the carbonates, the oxides, the sulfates and sulfides, the halides, and materials as those in silicon computer
the native elements. First, you will learn about the most common chips or silicone sealant. They are
different materials, although all three
groups of minerals on Earth—the silicates.
contain silicon. Silicon chips are made
Silicates If you look again at Table 1, you can see that the two from pure silicon, which does not
most abundant elements in Earth’s crust are silicon and oxygen. contain the oxygen found in silicates.
Silicon and oxygen combine to form a structure called the Silicone is an artificially-made silicon-
silicon-oxygen tetrahedron. This structure is shown in Figure 13. The oxygen polymer gel that feels rubbery
tetrahedron, which consists of one silicon atom and four oxygen and is water repellent, chemically inert,
atoms, provides the framework of every silicate mineral. Except for a and stable at extreme temperatures.
few silicate minerals, such as pure quartz (SiO2), most silicates also Verbal
contain one or more other elements.
Use Visuals L1
Silicon-oxygen tetrahedra can join in a variety of ways, as you can
see in Figure 14 on the next page. The silicon-oxygen bonds are very Figure 13 Use this diagram to explain
strong. Some minerals, such as olivine, are made of millions of single the basic structure of silicates. Ask:
tetrahedra. In minerals such as augite, the tetrahedra join to form What is the atom at the center of the
single chains. Double chains are formed in minerals such as horn- Figure 13 A The silicon-oxygen tetrahedron? (a silicon atom) What are
tetrahedron is made of one silicon the four atoms at the corners of the
blende. Micas are silicates in which the tetrahedra join to form sheets. atom and four oxygen atoms.
Three-dimensional network structures are found in silicates such as The rods represent chemical
tetrahedron? (oxygen atoms) What do
quartz and feldspar. As you will see, the internal structure of a mineral bonds between silicon and the the rods represent? (chemical bonds
oxygen atoms. B Quartz is the between the atoms) Why is this structure
affects its properties. most common silicate mineral.
A typical piece of quartz like this
called a tetrahedron? (it has four sides,
What is the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron, and in contains millions of silicon-oxygen or faces)
how many ways can it combine? tetrahedra. Visual

A B

Minerals 47 Answer to . . .
The mineral often
becomes unstable, and
Facts and Figures its atoms react to form a new mineral.
The silicon-oxygen
Judging from the enormous number of continental crust. The two most abundant tetrahedron consists of
known minerals, one might think that a elements, oxygen and silicon, comprise nearly one silicon atom and four oxygen
large number of elements are needed to make three-fourths of Earth’s continental crust. atoms and provides the framework of
them. Surprisingly, the bulk of these minerals These elements are the main building blocks every silicate mineral. These tetrahedra
are made up of only eight elements. These of silicates. The most common group of can join to form single chains, double
elements, in order of abundance, are oxygen silicates, the feldspars, compose over chains, sheets, and three-dimensional
(O), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), 50 percent of Earth’s crust. Quartz is the networks. In these arrangements the
calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K), second most abundant mineral in the conti- corner oxygen atoms are shared
and magnesium (Mg). These eight elements nental crust. It is a silicate made mostly of between silicon atoms so the ratio
represent over 98 percent by weight of the oxygen and silicon. is not necessarily 1 to 4.

Minerals 47
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Section 2.2 (continued) Recall that most silicate minerals crystallize

Silicate Structures
from magma as it cools. This cooling can occur at
Build Science Skills L2 or near Earth’s surface, where temperatures and
Single tetrahedron
pressures are relatively low. The formation of sili-
Using Models Have
students use Figures 13 cates can also occur at great depths, where
and 14 to build models temperatures and pressures are high. The place of
Single chains
of the various silicate formation and the chemical composition of the
structures. They can use balls of magma determine which silicate minerals will
modeling clay or gumdrops to represent form. For example, the silicate olivine crystallizes
silicon and oxygen atoms and toothpicks at temperatures of about 1200°C. Quartz crystal-
to represent chemical bonds. First have Double chains lizes at about 700°C.
each student build several silicon-oxygen Some silicate minerals form at Earth’s surface
tetrahedra as shown in Figure 13. Then when existing minerals are exposed to weathering.
have students work in groups to combine Clay minerals, which are silicates, form this way.
their tetrahedra into chains and other Other silicate minerals form under the extreme
structures as shown in Figure 14. pressures that occur with mountain building.
Kinesthetic, Visual, Logical Therefore, silicate minerals can often provide sci-
entists with clues about the conditions in which
Use Visuals L1 the minerals formed.
Figure 14 Use this diagram to explain Sheets
Carbonates Carbonates are the second most
the different structures that silicate
common mineral group. Carbonates are
tetrahedra can form. Ask: How does a
minerals that contain the elements carbon,
single chain form? (A series of tetrahedra
oxygen, and one or more other metallic ele-
are joined together end-to-end.) How are
ments. Calcite (CaCO3) is the most common
double chains formed? (Two single
carbonate mineral. Dolomite is another carbon-
chains are joined together side-by-side.)
ate mineral that contains magnesium and
How are sheets formed? (Many single
calcium. Both limestone and marble are rocks
chains are joined together side-by-side.) Three-
dimensional composed of carbonate minerals. Both types of
Visual networks
rock are used in building and construction.

Oxides Oxides are minerals that contain

oxygen and one or more other elements, which
are usually metals. Some oxides, including the
mineral called rutile (TiO2), form as magma cools
deep beneath Earth’s surface. Rutile is titanium
oxide. Other oxides, such as corundum (Al2O3),
form when existing minerals are subjected to
Figure 14 Silicon-oxygen tetrahedra can form chains,
sheets, and three-dimensional networks.
changes in temperature and pressure. Corundum
Formulating Hypotheses What type of chemical is aluminum oxide. Still other oxides, such as
bond is formed by silicon atoms in an SiO4 hematite (Fe2O3), form when existing minerals are
tetrahedron?
exposed to liquid water or to moisture in the air.
Hematite is one form of iron oxide.

48 Chapter 2

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Use Community
Sulfates and Sulfides Sulfates and sul- Resources L2
fides are minerals that contain the element sulfur. Invite a geologist from a local college
Sulfates, including anhydrite (CaSO4) and gypsum or company to visit the classroom and
(CaSO4 • 2H2O), form when mineral-rich waters discuss different groups of minerals with
evaporate. Sulfides, which include the minerals galena students. Ask the geologist to bring in
(PbS), sphalerite (ZnS), and pyrite (FeS2), often form samples from each group of minerals
from thermal, or hot-water, solutions. Figure 15 shows to show to students.
two of these sulfides. Visual, Interpersonal
A
Halides Halides are minerals that contain a
halogen ion plus one or more other elements. 3 ASSESS
Halogens are elements from Group 7A of the periodic Evaluate
table. This group includes the elements fluorine (F) Understanding L2
and chlorine (Cl). The mineral halite (NaCl), table Have students describe the four major
salt, is a common halide. Fluorite (CaF2) is also a processes by which minerals can form.
common halide and is used in making steel. It forms
when salt water evaporates. Reteach L1
Native Elements Native elements are a Review the five characteristics that a
group of minerals that exist in relatively pure form. material must have to be considered a
You are probably familiar with many native elements, mineral. Have students list and define
such as gold (Au), silver (Ag), copper (Cu), sulfur (S), B all of the science terms used in the
and carbon (C). Native forms of carbon are diamond description of the five characteristics.
Figure 15 Sulfides A Galena is a sulfide mineral Then review each of the five points
and graphite. Some native elements form from that can be mined for its lead. B Pyrite is another
hydrothermal solutions. sulfide that is often called fool’s gold.
again to be sure students understand
Inferring What element do you think pyrite is them.
generally mined for?

Section 2.2 Assessment

Students should explain that because
coal is formed from once-living things, it
Reviewing Concepts pattern. Using Figure 14, what can you is not considered a mineral. Also, coal is
1. What are five characteristics of a mineral?
suggest about its structure? a carbon-based material that falls into
7. Applying Concepts To which mineral group the class of organic compounds.
2. Describe four processes that result in the
do each of the following minerals belong:
formation of minerals.
bornite (Cu5FeS4), cuprite (Cu2O), magnesite
3. How can minerals be classified? (MgCO3), and barite (BaSO4)?
4. Name the major groups of minerals, and
give at least two examples of minerals in each
group.

Critical Thinking
5. Comparing and Contrasting Compare Explanatory Paragraph Coal forms
and contrast sulfates and sulfides. from ancient plant matter that has been
compressed over time. Do you think coal is
6. Formulating Conclusions When hit with a
a mineral? Write a paragraph that explains
hammer, quartz shows an uneven breakage
your reasoning.
Answer to . . .
Figure 14 covalent
Minerals 49
Figure 15 Iron (Fe)

Section 2.2 Assessment hydrothermal solutions is another way in 5. Both contain the element sulfur. Sulfates
which minerals form. also contain oxygen and a metallic element.
1. A mineral is a natural, inorganic solid with 3. Minerals can be classified according to Sulfides contain only sulfur and one or more
an orderly internal structure and a definite their compositions. other metallic elements.
chemical composition. 4. silicates (quartz, feldspar, olivine, and 6. The tetrahedra that combine to form
2. Crystallization occurs when minerals form mica); carbonates (calcite, dolomite); quartz share very strong bonds, resulting
as magma cools. Precipitation is a process oxides (rutile, corundum, hematite); sulfates in an uneven breakage.
whereby minerals form as waters rich in dis- (anhydrite, gypsum); sulfides (galena, pyrite, 7. Bornite is a sulfide mineral, cuprite is an
solved substances evaporate. Changes in sphalerite); halides (fluorite, halite); native oxide, magnesite is a carbonate mineral,
pressure and temperature can cause the elements (gold, silver, copper, iron, sulfur, and barite is a sulfate.
atoms in a mineral to change places to diamond)
form a new mineral. Precipitation from

Minerals 49
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Section 2.3
2.3 Properties of Minerals
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
2.10 Explain why color is often not
a useful property in identifying Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy
minerals. What properties can be ◆ streak Outlining Before you read, make an outline
used to identify minerals? luster of this section, following the format below.
2.11 Define the terms luster, crystal ◆

What is the Mohs scale? ◆ crystal form Use the green headings as the main topics.
form, streak, and Mohs scale. As you read, add supporting details.
What are some distinctive ◆ hardness
2.12 Distinguish between cleavage
properties of minerals? ◆ Mohs scale
and fracture. ◆ cleavage
I. Properties of Minerals
A. Color
2.13 Explain density and how it can ◆ fracture
1.
be used to identify substances. ◆ density
2.
2.14 Describe some other properties B. Luster
that can be used to identify 1.
minerals. 2.

Reading Focus

Build Vocabulary
Paraphrase As students read the
L2
A s you can see from the photographs in this chapter, minerals occur
in different colors and shapes. Now you will learn that minerals vary
section, have them look for the in the way they reflect light and in the way in which they break. You will
vocabulary terms that describe also find out that some minerals are harder than others and that some
properties of minerals. For each term, minerals smell like rotten eggs. All of these characteristics, or proper-
have students write a definition in their ties, of minerals can be used to identify them.
own words. If students are having
trouble, use mineral samples to demon- Color
strate each of the properties. One of the first things you might notice about a mineral is its color.
L2 While color is unique to some minerals, this property is often not
Reading Strategy useful in identifying many minerals. Small amounts of different
A.1 Often not used to identify minerals elements can give the same mineral different colors. You can see
A.2 Small amounts of different elements examples of this in Figure 16.
can give the same mineral different
colors. Figure 16 Small amounts of different
B.1 Describes how light is reflected from elements give these sapphires their
distinct colors. Observing Why is
surface color often not a useful property in
B.2 Metallic and nonmetallic lusters mineral identification?

2 INSTRUCT

Color
Build Reading Literacy L1
Refer to p. 32D in this chapter, which
provides guidelines for this strategy. 50 Chapter 2

Preview Before they read the section,

have students skim the headings, visuals,
and boldfaced sentences and terms to
preview how the text is organized. Have
students note any unfamiliar terms and
concepts and make notes about these as
they read the section.
Verbal

50 Chapter 2
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Figure 17 A The mineral copper

Streak
A B has a metallic luster. B The Integrate Chemistry L2
brilliant luster of diamond is also
known as an adamantine luster. Streak Color There are several reasons
why a mineral’s streak color may differ
from the color of the mineral itself.
Some translucent minerals are colored
by trace impurities of other elements.
These colors are visible in a large sample
because light passes through the
Figure 18 Crystal Form
Streak A This quartz sample shows impurities before reaching the eye. A
Streak is the color of a mineral in its powdered form. Streak is hexagonal (six-sided) crystals. streak will often not show this coloring
The ends of the crystals have a effect and will appear white instead.
obtained by rubbing a mineral across a streak plate, a piece of unglazed pyramid shape. B Fluorite often
porcelain. While the color of a mineral may vary from sample to forms cubic crystals. Also, the structure and surface coatings
sample, the streak usually doesn’t. Therefore, streak can of a sample may affect its color. Again,
be a good indicator. Streak can also help to see the differ- A the streak will not show these effects
ence between minerals with metallic lusters and minerals and will instead show the true color
with nonmetallic lusters. Metallic minerals generally have of the mineral. Have students research
a dense, dark streak. Minerals with nonmetallic lusters do how streak can be used to distinguish
not have such streaks. gold from iron pyrite. (Samples of both
have a gold color. Gold has a golden
streak but iron pyrite has a black streak.)
Luster Logical
Luster is used to describe how light is reflected from
the surface of a mineral. Minerals that have the appear- Luster
ance of metals, regardless of their color, are said to have a L2
Integrate Physics
metallic luster. The piece of copper shown in Figure 17A
has a metallic luster. Minerals with a nonmetallic luster are Causes of Luster The type of luster a
described by many adjectives. These include vitreous or mineral displays depends on how light
glassy, like the quartz crystals in Figure 5. Other lusters interacts with the surface of the sample.
include pearly, silky, and earthy. Diamond has an adaman- If most of the light is reflected or
tine, or brilliant luster. Some minerals appear somewhat absorbed, the mineral will have a
metallic luster. A few minerals allow a
metallic and are said to have a sub-metallic luster.
small amount of light to penetrate, and
have submetallic luster. Nonmetallic
Crystal Form luster occurs when light can pass
Crystal form is the visible expression of a mineral’s through the sample. If the mineral has a
internal arrangement of atoms. Every mineral has a B high index of refraction (the amount
distinct crystal form. that light bends when it is passing
Usually, when a mineral forms slowly and without through the mineral), such as diamond,
space restrictions, it will develop into a crystal with well- the luster is described as adamantine.
formed faces—sides, top, and bottom—as shown in Minerals with lower indices of refraction
Figure 18. Most of the time, however, minerals compete have glassy or vitreous luster.
for space. This crowding results in an intergrown mass of Logical, Visual
small crystals. None of these crystals shows its crystal form.
Crystal Form
What two conditions produce
Use Visuals L1
crystals with well-defined faces?
Figure 18 Show students a sample of
granite with coarse texture. Point out
Minerals 51 the quartz crystals in the rock. Have
students compare these crystals with the
quartz crystals in Figure 18A. Ask: Why
do the crystals look so different if they
Customize for Inclusion Students are both quartz? (The crystals in the
granite did not have adequate space in
Behaviorally Disordered For students who their own or in small groups to explore three which to develop the full crystal form
have difficulty concentrating on reading or to five minerals. Encourage students to take shown in the photograph.)
class lectures, have them explore mineral notes about each mineral’s color, luster, crystal Visual
samples on their own to learn about the form, streak, hardness, cleavage, fracture, and
properties of minerals. Students can work on density. Answer to . . .
Figure 16 The same mineral can be
different colors.
unrestricted space and a
slow rate of formation

Minerals 51
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Section 2.3 (continued) Hardness

Diamond 10 90
One of the most useful properties to identify a min-
Diamond 80 eral is hardness. Hardness is a measure of the
Hardness resistance of a mineral to being scratched. You can
70
L1

Absolute Hardness Values

Use Visuals

Corundum
find this property by rubbing the mineral against
60
Figure 19 Have students use the Mohs another mineral of known hardness. One will scratch

Topaz
scale of hardness to give the hardness 50 the other, unless they have the same hardness.

Orthoclase
Quartz
ranges for the following descriptions: 40
Geologists use a standard hardness scale called
the Mohs scale. The Mohs scale consists of 10

Apatite
a mineral that can be scratched by your

Fluorite
30
fingernail (less than 2.5), a mineral that minerals arranged from 10 (hardest) to 1 (soft-

Calcite
Gypsum
cannot be scratched by your fingernail 20 est). See Figure 19. Any mineral of unknown
and cannot scratch glass (2.5 to 5.5), hardness can be rubbed against these to determine

Talc
Corundum 9 10
a mineral that scratches glass (greater its hardness. Other objects can also be used to
than 5.5). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 determine hardness. Your fingernail, for example,
Visual Mohs Scale has a hardness of 2.5. A copper penny has a hard-
Topaz 8
ness of 3.5. A piece of glass has a hardness of about
Build Science Skills L1 5.5. Look again at Figure 19. The mineral gypsum,
Quartz 7
Inferring Ask: What does the use of a which has a Mohs hardness of 2, can be easily
Streak plate (6.5)
pencil tell you about the hardness of scratched by your fingernail. The mineral calcite,
Orthoclase 6
graphite? (Graphite, or pencil “lead,” is a Glass (5.5)
which resembles gypsum, has a hardness of 3.
very soft mineral because it leaves a mark, Apatite 5 Knife blade (5.1) Calcite cannot be scratched by your fingernail.
Wire nail (4.5) Calcite, which can resemble the mineral quartz,
or streak, when rubbed against paper or Fluorite 4
most surfaces.) What can you say about Copper penny (3.5) cannot scratch glass, because its hardness is less
Calcite 3
the hardness of chalk versus the Fingernail (2.5) than 5.5. Quartz, the hardest of the common min-
Gypsum 2
hardness of a chalkboard? (Chalk is Talc 1
erals with a Mohs hardness of 7, will scratch a glass
softer than the board.) What kind of INDEX COMMON plate. Diamond, the hardest mineral on Earth, can
minerals could you not test for streak MINERALS OBJECTS scratch anything.
when using a streak plate? (Minerals
that are harder than the streak plate will Figure 19 Mohs Scale to
Describe three or four of the most useful properties
not leave a streak; instead they will Hardness Common objects can
be used with the Mohs scale to for identifying unknown minerals.
scratch the plate.)
determine mineral hardness.
Logical Using Tables and Graphs A
mineral has a hardness of 4.2.
Cleavage Which common items on the Cleavage
chart will that mineral scratch?
Integrate In the atomic structure of a mineral, some bonds are weaker than
Language Arts L2 others. These weak bonds are places where a mineral will break when
it is stressed. Cleavage is the tendency of a mineral to cleave, or
Origin of the Names Mica and
break, along flat, even surfaces.
Muscovite Tell students that the name
Minerals called micas show the simplest type of cleavage. Because
“mica” probably came from the Latin
the micas have weak bonds in one direction, they cleave to form thin,
word micare, which means “to shine”
flat sheets, as shown in Figure 20A. Look again at Figure 14. Can you
and refers to mica’s appearance.
see the relationship between mica’s internal structure and the cleav-
Muscovite, a common type of mica,
age it shows? Mica, and all other silicates, tend to cleave between the
was named after the old Russian state of
Muscovy. In the 1300s, it was common
in Muscovy to use mica as a substitute
for glass, so it was called muscovy glass.
Biotite is another common type of mica. 52 Chapter 2
Have students research the origin of that
name. (It was named for J. B. Biot, a
French physicist.)
Verbal

52 Chapter 2
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silicon-oxygen structures rather than across them. This is

Fracture
Use Visuals L1
because the silicon-oxygen bonds are strong. The micas’ sheet
structure causes them to cleave into flat plates. Quartz has Figure 20 Use these photographs to
equally strong silicon-oxygen bonds in all directions. explain fracture and cleavage. Ask:
Therefore, quartz has no cleavage but fractures instead. What is cleavage? (the tendency of a
Some minerals have cleavage in more than one direction. mineral to break along flat, even surfaces)
Look again at Figure 11. Halite (11A) has three directions of Which mineral shows cleavage? (mica)
cleavage. The cleavage planes of halite meet at 90-degree What is fracture? (the uneven breakage
angles. Calcite (11B) also has three directions of cleavage. The of a mineral) Which mineral shows
cleavage planes of calcite, however, meet at 75-degree angles. A fracture? (quartz)
Visual
2 cm
Fracture
Minerals that do not show cleavage when broken are
Density
Integrate Chemistry L2
said to fracture. Fracture is the uneven breakage of a min-
eral. For example, quartz shows a curvy and glassy fracture. Density and Atomic Mass Specific
Like cleavage, there are different kinds of fracture. Minerals gravity was once used to distinguish
that break into smooth, curved surfaces like the quartz in minerals. However, today geologists use
Figure 20B have a conchoidal fracture. Other minerals, such as density. The specific gravity of a mineral
asbestos, break into splinters or fibers. Many minerals have an depends on its density. (Density is mass
irregular fracture. per unit of volume and is expressed in
B grams per cubic centimeter.) Density in
How are cleavage and fracture different? turn depends mainly on the chemical
Figure 20 A Mica has cleavage composition of a mineral. Minerals made
in one direction and therefore of elements with high atomic masses
cleaves into thin sheets. B The
bonds in quartz are very strong generally have higher densities than
Density in all directions, causing quartz minerals made of atoms with low atomic
to display conchoidal fracture. masses. Tell students that the mineral
Density is a property of all matter that is the ratio of an object’s
mass to its volume. Density is a ratio and can be expressed using the galena contains large amounts of lead,
following equation. which has a high atomic mass. Ask:
Would you expect the density of galena
m ass (m)
Density (D) ⫽ ᎏᎏ to be relatively low or high? (high) Tell
Volume (V) students that the mineral quartz is made
Density is expressed using derived units with a unit of mass over a unit up of silicon and oxygen, which have low
of volume. For example, the density of copper is 8.96 g/cm3 (grams atomic masses. Would you expect the
per cubic centimeter). Therefore, any sample of pure copper with a density of quartz to be relatively low
volume of one cubic centimeter will have a mass of 8.96 grams. or high? (low)
Many common minerals have densities between 2 and 5 g/cm3. Logical
Some metallic minerals have densities that are often greater than
rock-forming minerals. Galena, the ore of lead, has a density around
7.5 g/cm3. The density of gold is 19.3 g/cm3. The density of a pure For: Links on mineral identification
mineral is a constant value. Thus, density can be used to determine the Visit: www.SciLinks.org
purity or identity of some minerals. Web Code: cjn-1023

Download a worksheet on mineral

identification for students to
Minerals 53 complete, and find additional
teacher support from NSTA SciLinks.

Facts and Figures Answer to . .

Like mica, asbestos is a sheet-forming mineral. asbestos caused a health risk, it was a popular Figure 19 copper penny and
However, unlike flat sheets of mica, sheets of insulation material. Now, many older buildings fingernail
asbestos roll up in a tight needle-like formation. must undergo expensive asbestos removal in Hardness, streak, luster,
These needles can cause serious damage to order to be safe. and density are the most
lungs if inhaled. Before people realized that definitive properties that can be used
to identify minerals
Cleavage is the tendency
for a mineral to break
along flat, even surfaces. Fracture is
the uneven breakage of a mineral.

Minerals 53
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Section 2.3 (continued) Table 2 Some Common Minerals and Their Properties
Name Chemical Formula Common Density Hardness Comments
Distinctive Properties and Mineral Group Color(s) (g/cm3)

of Minerals Quartz SiO2 colorless, milky 2.65 7 glassy luster; conchoidal

silicates white, pink, brown fractures
Use Community
Resources L2 Orthoclase KAlSi3O8 white to pink 2.57 6 cleaves in two directions at
feldspar silicates 90°
As noted on p. 49, invite a geologist Plagioclase (Na,Ca)AlSi3O8 white to gray 2.69* 6 cleaves in two directions at
from a local college or company to visit feldspar silicates 90°; striations common
the classroom and discuss properties of Galena PbS metallic silver 7.5* 2.5 cleaves in three directions at
minerals with students. Ask the sulfides 90°; lead gray streak
geologist to bring in samples of unusual
Pyrite FeS2 brassy yellow 5.02 6–6.5 fractures; forms cubic crystals;
minerals and demonstrate their sulfides greenish-black streak
properties to students.
Sulfur S yellow 2.07* 1.5–2.5 fractures; yellow streak smells
Visual, Interpersonal native elements like rotten eggs

L2 Fluorite CaF2 colorless, purple 3.18 4 perfect cleavage in three

Build Science Skills halides directions; glassy luster
Designing Olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 green, 3.82* 6.5–7 fractures; glassy luster; often
Experiments Give silicates yellowish-green has granular texture
each student or group Calcite CaCO3 colorless, gray 2.71 3 bubbles with HCl; cleaves in
of students two mineral carbonates three directions
samples. Tell them only that one is Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 pale green, 2.75* 1 pearly luster; feels greasy;
calcite and the other is dolomite. Have silicates gray, white cleaves in one direction
students design an activity they could Gypsum CaSO4 • 2H2O colorless, white, 2.32 2 glassy or pearly luster; cleaves
do without any additional materials or sulfates gray in three directions
equipment to determine the identities
Muscovite Kal3Si3O10(OH)2 colorless in thin 2.82* 2–2.5 silky to pearly luster; cleaves in
of the two samples. (Try to scratch the mica silicates sheets to brown one direction to form flexible
samples with each other. The one that is sheets
scratched is softer and is calcite.) Then ask * Average density of the mineral
students how they might identify the
samples using additional materials.
(Place dilute hydrochloric acid on each Distinctive Properties of Minerals
sample to see if it fizzes.) Have them
carry out their experiment. Be sure Some minerals can be recognized by other distinctive properties.
students wear safety goggles and gloves Talc and graphite, for example, both have distinctive feels. Talc feels soapy.
when using the hydrochloric acid. Graphite feels greasy. Metallic minerals, such as gold, silver, and copper,
Dispense the acid in small dropper are easily shaped. Some types of magnetite are magnetic and can be used
bottles and be sure it is diluted. to pick up paper clips and small nails. When a piece of transparent cal-
Logical cite is placed over printed material, the letters appear doubled as Figure
21 shows. This property is called double refraction. Streaks of a few min-
erals that contain sulfur smell like rotten eggs. Carbonate minerals, such
as calcite, will fizz when they come into contact with hydrochloric acid.
Figure 21 Calcite shows the A mineral’s properties depend on the elements that compose the
property of double refraction.
mineral (its composition) and its structure (how its atoms are arranged).
Table 2 lists some of the more common minerals and their properties.
You will use this table to identify minerals in the lab on pages 58 and 59.

54 Chapter 2

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Integrate Social Studies L2

Figure #
Table 2 Some Common Minerals and Their Properties, continued
Mining Economics Mineral resources
Name Chemical Formula Common Density Hardness Comments
and Mineral Group Color(s) (g/cm3) are Earth’s storehouse of minerals that
Biotite mica K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10) dark green to 3.0* 2.5–3 perfect cleavage in one
can be recovered for use. The term ore
(OH)2 brown to black direction to form flexible refers to useful metallic minerals that
silicates sheets can be mined at a profit. For pure
Halite NaCl colorless, white 2.16 2.5 has a salty taste; dissolves in elements, the element must be concen-
halides water; cleaves in three trated well above the level of its average
directions
crustal abundance to be worth mining.
Augite (Ca, Na)(Mg, Fe, Al) dark green to 3.3* 5–6 glassy luster; cleaves in
(Si, Al)2O6 black two directions; crystals have
Copper must be present at about 100
silicates 8-sided cross section times its average concentration, whereas
for aluminum the ratio is only 4. Have
Hornblende (Ca, Na)2-3(MgFeAl)5 dark green to 3.2* 5–6 glassy luster; cleaves in two
Si6(SiAl)2O22(OH)2 black directions; crystals have
students research the history of the
silicates 6-sided cross section copper mine at Bingham Canyon, Utah.
(It is one of the largest open-pit mines on
Hematite Fe2O3 reddish brown 5.26 5.5–6.5 metallic luster in crystals; dull
oxides to black luster in earthy variety; dark Earth. Mining was halted in 1985 because
red streak it was uneconomic but later restarted with
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 pink, colorless, 2.85 3.5–4 does not react to HCl as new equipment that made it profitable.)
carbonates white, gray quickly as calcite; cleaves in Verbal, Logical
three directions

Magnetite Fe3O4
oxides
black 5.18 6 metallic luster; black streak;
strongly magnetic
3 ASSESS
Copper Cu copper-red on 8.9 2.5–3 metallic luster; fractures; can
Evaluate
native elements fresh surface be easily shaped Understanding L2
Graphite C black to gray 2.3 1–2 black to gray streak; marks Provide students with 4 or 5 unidentified
native elements paper; feels slippery minerals. Challenge students to place
the minerals in order of hardness from
softest to hardest. They should rub any
two of the minerals together and repeat
this process until they can determine the
Section 2.3 Assessment order of hardness. Remind students that
a harder mineral will scratch a softer
mineral and a softer mineral may leave a
Reviewing Concepts 6. Applying Concepts A mineral scratches a
piece of fluorite but cannot be scratched by a
streak on a harder mineral. After
1. Describe five common properties of rubbing two minerals together, students
piece of glass. What is this mineral’s hardness?
minerals that can be used to identify them.
may need to rub the mark with their
2. How is the Mohs scale used?
finger to tell if it is a scratch or a streak.
3. What are some unique properties that can
be used to identify minerals?
Mineral Properties Choose one of the
Critical Thinking minerals pictured in this chapter. Find out
4. Applying Concepts What kind of luster do
to which mineral system it belongs as well Answers will vary. Most of the minerals
as its luster, streak, hardness, specific grav- pictured in this chapter are described in
the minerals shown in Figure 15 have? Explain
ity, and whether it cleaves or fractures. Also
your choice. Table 4. Many are shown on the GEODe
note any unique properties of the mineral.
5. Applying Concepts Hornblende is a double- CD-ROM as well.
chain silicate. How many planes of cleavage
do you think hornblende has when it breaks?
Explain your answer.

Minerals 55

Section 2.3 Assessment 4. Both minerals have metallic luster because

they appear to shine like metals.
1. Sample answers: luster, crystal form, streak, 5. Hornblende cleaves in two directions when
Mohs hardness, magnetism, density, odor, the two sets of bonds in the double chain
double refraction, cleavage, and fracture. structure break.
2. The Mohs scale is an ordering of minerals 6. The mineral’s hardness is greater than 4
according to hardness. but less than 5.5 on the Mohs hardness scale.
3. Feel, magnetism, double refraction, odor,
and reaction to HCl are a few properties
unique to only some minerals.

Minerals 55
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Gemstones
Gemstones L2 Precious stones have been prized by people since
ancient times. Unfortunately, much misinformation
For example, the more common red spinels were
often passed off to royalty as rubies, which are more
exists about the nature of gems and the minerals of valuable gems. Even today, when modern tech-
Background
which they are composed. Part of the misinformation niques of mineral identification are commonplace,
• Why can diamond and graphite be stems from the ancient practice of grouping pre- yellow quartz is frequently sold as topaz.
made of the same material (carbon) cious stones by color rather than mineral makeup.
but form such different minerals? You
could make a diamond out of your
pencil if you could squeeze it hard What’s In a Name? Precious or Semiprecious?
enough. The pressure would compress Compounding the confusion is the fact that many What makes a gem a gem instead of just another
the carbon atoms of the graphite gems have names that are different from their min- mineral? Basically, certain mineral specimens, when
together until they eventually formed eral names. For example, diamond is composed of cut and polished, possess beauty of such quality that
the mineral of the same name, whereas sapphire is a they can command a price that makes the process of
the strong covalent bonds of diamond. form of corundum, an aluminum oxide-rich mineral. producing the gem profitable. Gemstones can be
In fact, this is roughly how synthetic Although pure aluminum oxide is colorless, a tiny divided into two categories: precious and semi-
diamonds are made: by squeezing amount of a foreign element can produce a vividly precious. A precious gem has beauty, durability, size,
carbon very tightly. Natural diamonds colored gemstone. Therefore, depending on the and rarity, whereas a semiprecious gem usually has
impurity, sapphires of nearly every color exist. Pure only one or two of these qualities. The gems that
are thought to form more than 150 aluminum oxide with trace amounts of titanium and have traditionally enjoyed the highest esteem are
km beneath the surface, where the iron produce the most prized blue sapphires. If the diamonds, rubies, sapphires, emeralds, and some
pressures are very high. The diamonds mineral corundum contains enough chromium, it varieties of opal. All other gemstones are classified
that we find at the surface have been exhibits a brilliant red color, and the gem is called as semiprecious. It should be noted, however, that
brought up from deep within Earth by ruby. Large gem-quality rubies are much rarer than large, high-quality specimens of semiprecious stones
diamonds and thus command a very high price. can often command a very high price.
geologic processes.
• Pure quartz, containing only SiO2, is If the specimen is not suitable as a gem, it simply Obviously, beauty is the most important quality that
goes by the mineral name corundum. Although a gem can possess. Today we prefer translucent
clear and colorless. However, natural common corundum is not a gemstone, it does have stones with evenly tinted colors. The most favored
quartz comes in many color varieties value as an abrasive material. Whereas two gems— hues appear to be red, blue, green, purple, rose,
that form when different elements are rubies and sapphires—are composed of the mineral
contained in the crystal structure. If corundum, quartz is the parent mineral of more
than a dozen gems. Table 3 lists some well-known
small amounts of titanium and iron
gemstones and their mineral names.
are included, the result is rose quartz.
The inclusion of manganese produces
purple amethyst. The inclusion of Figure 22 Emerald is the dark green variety of
aluminum produces smoky quartz. the mineral beryl. More common blue-green beryl
is aquamarine.
• A precious gemstone that has gained
in popularity in recent years is
tanzanite. Mined only in the east-
African country of Tanzania, tanzanite
was discovered in 1967. Its color
ranges from a light purplish blue to
the more prized deep blues. The most
prized stones are deep blue rimmed in
a purplish hue. This hydrated calcium
aluminum silicate is actually the blue
variety of the gemstone called zoisite.
But the jeweler Louis Comfort Tiffany, 56 Chapter 2
who popularized the gem after its
discovery, thought that the correct
name of blue zoisite was too
reminiscent of the word suicide.
So he suggested tanzanite instead.

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Teaching Tips
• Stories of mystery, adventure, and
intrigue surround some of the more
famous gemstones, such as the Hope
Diamond. Invite students to research
some of these stories and share them
with the class. You might suggest
some students create a booklet for
distribution among the class.
• Invite a jeweler, gem cutter, or
gemologist to the class to discuss
how a rough stone is turned into
a beautifully cut gem. Note how
hardness, cleavage, and refraction
are taken into account when cutting
gems.
Verbal, Interpersonal

Figure 23 A diamond in the rough looks very different from the brilliant, multi-faceted gem it can become.

and yellow. The most prized stones are deep

Table 3 Some Important Gemstones
red rubies, blue sapphires, grass-green emer-
alds, and canary-yellow diamonds. Colorless Gem Mineral Name Prized Hues
gems are generally less than desirable except Precious
in the case of diamonds that display “flashes of
Diamond Diamond Colorless, yellows
color” known as brilliance.
Emerald Beryl Greens
Notice in figure 23 that gemstones in the
Opal Opal Brilliant hues
“rough” are dull and would be passed over by
most people as “just another mineral.” Ruby Corundum Reds
Gemstones must be cut and polished by expe- Sapphire Corundum Blues
rienced artisans before their true beauty can Semiprecious
be displayed.
Alexandrite Chrysoberyl Variable
The durability of a gem depends on its hard- Amethyst Quartz Purples
ness—that is, its resistance to abrasion by
Aquamarine Beryl Blue-greens
objects normally encountered in everyday
living. For good durability, gems should be as Cat’s-eye Chrysoberyl Yellows
hard or harder than quartz, as defined by the Chalcedony Quartz (agate) Banded
Mohs scale of hardness. One notable excep- Citrine Quartz Yellows
tion is opal, which is comparatively soft
Garnet Garnet Reds, greens
(hardness 5 to 6.5) and brittle. Opal’s esteem
comes from its fire, which is a display of a vari- Jade Jadeite or nephrite Greens
ety of brilliant colors including greens, blues, Moonstone Feldspar Transparent blues
and reds. Peridot Olivine Olive greens
It seems to be human nature to treasure that Smoky quartz Quartz Browns
which is rare. In the case of gemstones, large, Spinel Spinel Reds
high-quality specimens are much rarer than
Topaz Topaz Purples, reds
smaller stones. Thus, large rubies, diamonds,
and emeralds, which are rare in addition to Tourmaline Tourmaline Reds, blue-greens
being beautiful and durable, command the Turquoise Turquoise Blues
very highest prices. Zircon Zircon Reds

Minerals 57

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Section 3.1
3.1 The Rock Cycle
1 FOCUS

Section Objectives
3.1 Define the term rock. Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy
What is a rock? ◆ rock Building Vocabulary Copy and expand the
3.2 Identify the three major types table to include each vocabulary term. As you
What are the three major ◆ igneous rock
of rocks and explain how they read, write down the definition for each term.
types of rocks? ◆ sedimentary rock
differ. ◆ metamorphic rock
How do igneous,
3.3 Describe the rock cycle. sedimentary, and ◆ rock cycle
Term Definition

3.4 List the forces that power metamorphic rocks differ? ◆ magma rock a. ?
Earth’s rock cycle. What is the rock cycle? ◆ lava igneous rock b. ?
What powers Earth’s rock ◆ weathering
sedimentary rock c. ?
cycle? ◆ sediments
sediments d. ?
Reading Focus

Build Vocabulary L2
Cycle Diagram Have students
construct a cycle diagram of the rock
cycle. Students should use the terms
W hy do we study rocks? All Earth processes such as volcanic erup-
tions, mountain building, weathering, erosion, and even earthquakes
igneous rock, sedimentary rock, meta- involve rocks and minerals. Rocks contain clues about the environ-
morphic rock, sediments, magma, and Figure 1 A Obsidian and ments in which they were formed. For example, if a rock contains shell
B pumice are two examples of
lava to indicate the materials involved in rocks that do not have a
fragments, it was probably formed in a shallow ocean environment.
the rock cycle. The processes of the rock crystalline structure. The locations of volcanic rocks tell a story of volcanic activity on Earth
cycle are shown in Figure 2 on p. 67. through time. Thus, you can see that a basic knowledge of rocks is
Tell students to place the terms in ovals essential to understanding the Earth.
and use labeled arrows to indicate how
one process leads to another. Rocks
L2 A rock is any solid mass of mineral or mineral-like matter that
Reading Strategy occurs naturally as part of our planet. A few rocks are composed of
a. a solid mixture of one or more just one mineral. However, most rocks, like granite, occur as solid mix-
minerals tures of minerals. A characteristic of rock is that each of the component
b. rock that forms when magma or minerals retains their properties in the mixture. A few rocks are com-
lava cools and hardens A
posed of nonmineral matter. Coal is considered a rock even though it
c. rock that forms when sediments consists of organic material. Obsidian and pumice, shown in Figure 1,
become compacted and cemented are volcanic rocks that do not have a crystalline structure.
d. bits of earth materials Rocks are classified into three groups based on how they were
formed. The three major types of rocks are igneous rocks, sedi-
2 INSTRUCT mentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. Before examining each
group, you will look at a model for the rock cycle, which is the process
Rocks that shows the relationships between the rock groups.
Use Visuals L1
B What are the three types of rocks?
Figure 1 Ask: How does the texture
of obsidian compare with that of
pumice? (Obsidian is smooth; pumice is 66 Chapter 3
rough.) What other differences do you
see? (Sample answer: The color and
shape of the samples are different.)
Visual

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The Rock Cycle

The Rock Cycle Use Visuals L1
Earth is a system. It consists of many interacting parts that form a com-
Figure 2 Point out that the arrows
plex whole. Interactions among Earth’s water, air, and land can
represent the processes that link each
cause rocks to change from one type to another. The continuous
group to the others. Ask: What
processes that cause rocks to change make up the rock cycle. Most processes form sedimentary rocks?
changes in the rock cycle take place over long periods of time. (compaction and cementation) What
Figure 2 shows some key events in the rock cycle. Refer to the figure possible changes might a sedimentary
throughout this section as you examine how rock might change over rock undergo? (A sedimentary rock
time. Look at Figures 2A and 2B. Magma is molten material that forms might be broken back down into sediments.
deep beneath Earth’s surface. When magma cools and hardens Heat and pressure could change it into a
beneath the surface or as the result of a volcanic eruption, igneous metamorphic rock.) What type of rock
rock forms. Magma that reaches the surface is called lava. is formed by cooling magma or lava?
(igneous rock) What happens to igneous
rock that is weathered? (It is broken
Rock Cycle down into sediments.)
Figure 2 The rock cycle consists of many Visual
processes that change Earth’s rocks.
Formulating Hypotheses Can a
Sediment sedimentary rock become an igneous Build Reading Literacy L1
C rock without changing first to a
metamorphic rock? Explain.
Refer to p. 186D in Chapter 7, which
provides the guidelines for relating text
and visuals.
Rocks at Earth’s surface are
broken down into smaller Relate Text and Visuals Tell students
pieces called sediments.
to read the text on pp. 67–68. Have
them list any concepts about the rock
cycle that are unclear or difficult to
understand. Write a few of these
concepts on the board. Then have
Igneous
students carefully study Figure 2. Using
Rock the list on the board, have volunteers
Sedimentary
Rock D explain how the visual helped them to
B When sediments are better understand the rock cycle.
When magma or lava cools compacted and cemented, Verbal, Visual
and solidifies, igneous sedimentary rocks form.
rocks form.

Lava

Metamorphic
Rock
Magma
Melting Heat E
Any type of rock that is changed
A by heat, pressure, or fluids
Magma forms when rock melts becomes a metamorphic rock.
deep beneath Earth’s surface. Answer to . . .
Figure 2 No, because any change in
temperature and/or pressure will cause
Rocks 67 the sedimentary rock to become a
metamorphic rock. If the temperatures
and/or pressures are great enough, the
metamorphic rock will melt to form
Customize for English Language Learners magma, which will crystallize to form
an igneous rock.
Encourage students to compile vocabulary such as igneous or metamorphic. Students may
terms into a science glossary. Have students also want to draw simple diagrams next to the Igneous rocks, sedimen-
consult dictionaries to obtain the terms to further help them to remember each tary rocks, and meta-
pronunciation and definition of each term and word’s meaning. To reinforce language skills, morphic rocks are the three major
then write these items in their glossaries. have students arrange the terms in types of rocks. Igneous rocks form
Model how to use the dictionary to determine alphabetical order. when magma or lava cools.
the proper pronunciation of difficult words, Sedimentary rocks form when
sediments become compacted and
cemented. Metamorphic rocks form
when existing rocks are changed by
heat, pressure, or solutions.

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Section 3.1 (continued)

Weathering L2
Purpose Students will observe how ice
can be an agent of weathering.
Materials 2-L plastic bottle with cap,
water
Procedure Fill the plastic bottle nearly
full with water and put on the cap. Have
students note the level of the water.
Place the bottle in the freezer for several
hours, then have students observe the
frozen water.
Expected Outcome Students will
observe how the ice expanded and
distorted the bottle. Tell them that in
a similar way, water can seep through
cracks and pores in rocks, then freeze
and expand to break apart the rocks.
Visual

Build Science Skills L2

Using Models Have
students work with a
Figure 3 El Capitan in What will happen if an igneous rock that formed deep within Earth
partner to design simple Yosemite National Park This
models that show how granite was once buried deep
is exposed at the surface? Any rock at Earth’s surface, including the
pressure affects rocks. For example, beneath Earth’s surface. Now that granite shown in Figure 3, will undergo weathering. Weathering is a
it is exposed, it will eventually process in which rocks are physically and chemically broken down by
students can place a heavy textbook on a weather and form sediments.
sandwich or squeeze a piece of modeling water, air, and living things. These weathered pieces of earth materials
clay between their hands. are sediments. Sediments are often moved by water, gravity, glaciers,
Kinesthetic, Interpersonal or wind. Eventually, sediments are compacted and cemented to
form sedimentary rock, as shown in Figure 2C and 2D.
If the sedimentary rocks become buried deep within Earth, they
will be subjected to increases in pressure and/or temperature.
Under extreme pressure and temperature conditions, sedimen-
tary rock will change into metamorphic rock, as shown in Figure 2E.
If the metamorphic rocks are subjected to additional pressure changes
or to still higher temperatures, they may melt to form magma. The
magma will eventually crystallize to form igneous rock once again.

68 Chapter 3

Facts and Figures

Some of the most important accumulations of active in large basaltic magmas where chromite,
metals, such as gold, silver, copper, mercury, magnetite, and platinum are occasionally
lead, platinum, and nickel, are produced by generated. Layers of chromite, an ore of
igneous and metamorphic processes. For chromium, are mined from such deposits in
example, as a large magma body cools, the the Bushveld Complex in South Africa, which
heavy minerals that crystallize early tend to contains more than 70 percent of the world’s
settle to the lower portion of the magma known platinum reserves.
chamber. This type of process is particularly

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Alternate Paths
Alternate Paths Use Community
The purple arrows in Figure 2 show only one way in Resources L2
which an igneous rock might form and change. Other
Invite a construction contractor to
paths are just as likely to be taken as an igneous rock
discuss with the class how various rocks
goes through the rock cycle. The blue arrows show a are used as building materials. Ask the
few of these alternate paths. contractor to bring in sample supplies
Suppose, for example, that an igneous rock for students to examine. Have students
remained deeply buried. Eventually, the rock could be prepare by brainstorming questions to
subjected to strong forces and high temperatures such ask the contractor about the different
as those associated with mountain building. Then, the qualities of rocks, such as durability and
igneous rock could change into one or more kinds of metamorphic rock. Figure 4 The roof on this house
is made of slate. Slate is a
strength.
If the temperatures and pressures were high enough, the igneous rock metamorphic rock that forms Verbal
could melt and recrystallize to form new igneous rock. from the sedimentary rock shale.
Metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, as well as sediment, do not Explaining How can shale

always remain buried. Often, overlying rocks are stripped away, expos-
become slate? 3 ASSESS
ing the rock that was once buried. When this happens, the rocks Evaluate
weather to form sediments that eventually become sedimentary rocks. Understanding L2
However, if the sedimentary rocks become buried again, metamorphic Have students draw sketches illustrating
rocks, like those used for the roof tiles in Figure 4, will form. the source of the energy that drives the
Where does the energy that drives Earth’s rock cycle come from? rock cycle. For example, to represent the
Processes driven by heat from Earth’s interior are responsible for interior processes that form igneous
forming both igneous and metamorphic rocks. Weathering and the rocks, a sketch might show molten
movement of weathered materials are external processes powered by material deep inside Earth.
energy from the sun. External processes produce sedimentary rocks.
Reteach L1
Use Figure 2 to draw a diagram of the
rock cycle that does not include arrows.
Section 3.1 Assessment Make copies of the diagram and
distribute it to students. Have students
add arrows showing the relationships
Reviewing Concepts among the processes of the rock cycle.
1. What is a rock?
2. What are the three major types of rocks?
3. How do igneous, sedimentary, and Writing to Persuade Coral reefs are
metamorphic rocks differ? made of calcite that is secreted by the Students should recall that most
4. What is the rock cycle? corals and algae that make up the reefs.
limestones are made from organic
Over time, this calcite accumulates to form
5. What powers Earth’s rock cycle? sediments such as shells and the
limestone. Use what you know about min-
erals and rocks to write a paragraph secretions of corals. This limestone
Critical Thinking explaining whether or not you think that is a biochemical sedimentary rock.
6. Comparing and Contrasting Compare this limestone is a rock.
and contrast igneous and metamorphic rocks.
7. Applying Concepts How might a
sedimentary rock become an igneous rock?
8. Applying Concepts List in order the
processes that could change one sedimentary Answer to . . .
rock into another sedimentary rock.
Figure 4 If shale is subjected to an
increase in pressure and/or tempera-
Rocks 69 ture, it can become the metamorphic
rock called slate.

4. interactions among Earth’s water, air, and 7. The sedimentary rock could become
Section 3.1 Assessment
land which cause rocks to change buried at depths where temperatures and
1. Most rocks are mixtures of one or more 5. processes deep within Earth and energy pressures were great enough to cause melt-
minerals. Some rocks, however, are not made from the sun ing. When the melted material (magma)
of minerals. 6. Both form as the result of increases in cooled and hardened, an igneous rock
2. igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and pressure or temperature. Igneous rock forma- would form.
metamorphic rocks tion involves melting, while the formation of 8. weathering, transportation, deposition,
3. Rocks differ in the way they form. Igneous metamorphic rocks does not. compaction, and cementation
rocks form when magma or lava cools and
solidifies. Sedimentary rocks form when sedi-
ments become compacted and cemented.
Metamorphic rocks form when existing rocks
are changed by heat, pressure, or solutions.
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Section 3.2
3.2 Igneous Rocks
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
3.5 Compare and contrast Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy
intrusive and extrusive How are intrusive and ◆ intrusive igneous Outlining Copy the outline and complete it
extrusive igneous rocks rock as you read. Include points about how each of
igneous rocks. alike and different? ◆ extrusive igneous these rocks form, some of the characteristics of
3.6 Demonstrate how the rate How does the rate of rock each rock type, and some examples of each.
of cooling affects an igneous cooling affect an igneous ◆ porphyritic texture
rock’s texture? ◆ granitic composition I. Igneous Rocks
rock’s texture.
◆ basaltic composition A. Intrusive Rocks
3.7 Classify igneous rocks according How are igneous rocks 1. ?
classified according to ◆ andesitic
to texture and composition. composition? composition 2. ?
B. Extrusive Rocks
◆ ultramafic
1. ?
2. ?
Reading Focus

Build Vocabulary L2
Word Parts To help students distinguish
between intrusive and extrusive rocks, R ecall from the discussion of the rock cycle that igneous rocks form
when magma or lava cools and hardens. When the red hot lava shown
have them look up the meanings of the
prefixes in- and ex-. Students will find in Figure 5 cools, a dark-colored igneous rock called basalt will form.
that both prefixes stem from Latin If this melted material had stayed deep beneath Earth’s surface, a very
terms. In- means “within or into”; ex- different kind of igneous rock would have been produced as the mate-
means “out of” or “outside.” Point out rial cooled. Different kinds of igneous rocks form when magma and
that by knowing the meaning of these lava cool and harden.
prefixes, students can better remember Figure 5 Basaltic Lava
which igneous rocks form “within” Earth Lava from this Hawaiian
and which form “outside,” or on, Earth’s volcano flows easily over
Earth’s surface. When this
surface. lava cools and hardens, the
igneous rock called basalt
Reading Strategy L2 will form.

A.1. rock that forms when magma

hardens beneath Earth’s surface
A.2. Common example of igneous
intrusive rock is granite.
B.1. rock that forms when lava hardens
B.2. Common example of igneous
extrusive rock is rhyolite.

2 INSTRUCT
Build Science Skills L2
Inferring Reiterate that magma, which
occurs beneath Earth’s surface, often
cools more slowly than lava, which 70 Chapter 3
occurs at Earth’s surface. Then have
students examine Figure 5. Ask them to
use the photograph to infer why lava
often cools more quickly than magma.
(Lava is exposed to air and water, which
speeds up its cooling rate.)
Logical

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Formation of
Formation of Igneous Rocks Igneous Rocks
The word igneous comes from the Latin word ignis, which means “fire.” L1
Perhaps that is why people often associate igneous rock with fiery vol-
Use Visuals
canic eruptions like the one shown in Figure 5. Igneous rock also forms Figure 6 Ask: In what ways are the
deep beneath Earth’s surface. two rocks similar? (Sample answer: Both
are solids. Both are light-colored igneous
rocks.) In what ways are the two rocks
different? (Sample answer: The granite is
multicolored and has a rough surface. The
rhyolite is more uniformly colored and has
a smoother surface.)
Visual

L2
Ask students to describe the mass of
A B rocks in relation to other solid objects.
Some may mistakenly think that all rocks
are heavy. Bring a sample of pumice into
Figure 6 A Granite is an intrusive class. Pass around the rock, giving all
Intrusive Igneous Rocks Rocks that form when magma
students an opportunity to feel its heft.
igneous rock that forms when
hardens beneath Earth’s surface are called intrusive igneous rocks. magma cools slowly beneath Many pumice samples will float in water.
That is because they intrude into the existing rocks. We would never Earth’s surface. B Rhyolite is an
Place your sample in a pan of water to
extrusive igneous rock that forms
see these deep rocks were it not for erosion stripping away the over- demonstrate this. Explain that some
when lava cools quickly at Earth’s
lying rock. surface. rocks, such as pumice, form when lava
Magma consists mainly of the elements silicon and oxygen, plus cools very quickly, leaving numerous air
aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium. Magma bubbles in the rock. The air bubbles
also contains some gases, including water vapor. These gases are kept cause pumice to be light.
within the magma by the pressure of the surrounding rocks. Because Kinesthetic
magma is less dense than the surrounding rocks, it slowly works its way
toward the surface. As magma rises, it cools, allowing elements to com-
bine and form minerals. Gradually, the minerals grow in size, forming
a solid mass of interlocking crystals. Granite, shown in Figure 6A, is a Q How are magma and lava the
common intrusive igneous rock. same, and how are they different?
A Magma and lava are both
Extrusive Igneous Rocks You know that when magma reaches terms used to describe melted
Earth’s surface, it is called lava. Lava is similar to magma, except that rock. The composition of
in lava, most of the gases have escaped. When lava hardens, the magma and lava can be the
same. However, magma is
rocks that form are called extrusive igneous rocks. That is because melted material beneath Earth’s
they are extruded onto the surface The rhyolite shown in Figure 6B is surface. Lava is melted material
an extrusive igneous rock. at Earth’s surface.

Rocks 71

Customize for Inclusion Students

Learning Disabled Have samples of igneous about the texture and composition of the
rocks available for students to examine. As rocks under each sample. For example,
they read the section, have them arrange the students can write “coarse-grained, granitic”
samples on a posterboard and write details under a sample of granite.

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Section 3.2 (continued) Classification of Igneous Rocks

A quick glance at the two rocks in Figure 6 tells you that they are dif-
Classification of ferent. The granite contains large mineral grains. Only a few of the
Igneous Rocks Q Native Americans used obsidi- mineral grains in the sample of rhyolite can be seen with the unaided
an for making arrowheads and
cutting tools. Is this the only
eye. Texture and composition are two characteristics used to
material they used? classify igneous rocks. Texture describes the appearance of an igneous
A No. Native Americans used rock based on its size, shape, and the arrangement of its interlocking
L2 whatever materials were locally crystals. The composition classes of igneous rocks are based on the
Crystal Formation available to make tools, including proportions of light and dark minerals in the rock.
Purpose Students will observe how the any hard dense rock material
rate of cooling affects crystal size. that could be shaped. This Coarse-Grained Texture The rate of cooling strongly affects
includes materials such as the
Materials 2 shallow pans, 250-mL metamorphic rocks slate and
the textures of igneous rocks. If magma cools very slowly, few centers
beaker, water, teaspoon, sulfur powder, quartzite, sedimentary deposits of crystal growth develop. Slow cooling also allows charged atoms, or
thermal mitt, hot plate, magnifying glass made of silica called jasper, ions, to move large distances within the magma. Slow cooling
chert, opal, flint, and even jade. results in the formation of large crystals. Igneous rocks with large
Procedure Put a teaspoon of sulfur Some of these deposits occur in
crystals exhibit a coarse-grained texture.
powder into a shallow pan. Heat the only a few areas. That helps
pan until the sulfur melts, then place anthropologists reconstruct trade
routes between different Native Fine-Grained Texture If cooling of magma or lava occurs rap-
it aside to slowly cool. Heat another Americans groups. idly, the ions in the melted material lose their motion and quickly
teaspoon of sulfur powder in a second
combine. This results in a large number of tiny crystals that all com-
shallow pan. Pour the melted sulfur into
pete for the available ions. Rapid cooling of magma or lava results
a beaker half-filled with water so that
in rocks with small, interconnected mineral grains. Igneous rocks
the sulfur cools quickly. Allow students
with small grains are said to have a fine-grained texture.
to view the resulting crystals from both
trials with a magnifying glass. Glassy Texture When lava spews onto Earth’s surface, there may
Expected Outcome Students will not be enough time for the ions in the lava to arrange themselves into
observe that cooling rates affect the size a network of crystals. So the solids produced this way are made of
of crystals—the sulfur that cooled slowly randomly distributed ions. Such rocks have a glassy texture. The
formed larger crystals than the sulfur obsidian and pumice shown in Figure 1 on page 66 are igneous rocks
that cooled quickly. with glassy textures.
Visual
Porphyritic Texture A large body of magma located deep
within Earth may take tens of thousands of years to harden. Minerals
Build Reading Literacy L1 that crystallize from the magma do not form at the same rate or at the
Refer to p. 362D in Chapter 13, which same time. It is possible for some crystals to become quite large before
provides the guidelines for using prior others even start to form. The resulting rock can have large crystals,
knowledge. called phenocrysts, surrounded by fine-grained minerals. Rocks with
very different-size minerals experience different rates of cooling. These
Use Prior Knowledge Ask students
rocks have a porphyritic texture. The igneous rock shown in Figure 7
what they think of when they hear the Figure 7 This sample of andesite has a porphyritic texture.
word texture. Students will likely say that displays igneous rock with a
texture refers to the way an object feels porphyritic texture.
How does the rate of cooling of magma or lava
Describing Describe how this
to the touch. Ask them to describe some rock probably formed. affect the texture of igneous rocks?
textures they have felt. (Sample answers:
rough, smooth, sticky, powdery) Explain
that the scientific meaning of texture
in this section refers to the overall
appearance of a rock based on the size,
shape, and arrangement of its crystals. 72 Chapter 3
Intrapersonal, Verbal

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Integrate Chemistry L2
Granitic Composition One group of igneous rocks includes
those that are made almost entirely of the light-colored silicate miner- In the early twentieth century,
als quartz and feldspar. Igneous rocks in which these are the main N. L. Bowen, a geologist, discovered
minerals are said to have a granitic composition. In addition to quartz that as magma cools, certain minerals
and feldspar, most granitic rocks contain about 10 percent dark silicate For: Links on igneous rocks crystallize first at very high temperatures.
Visit: www.SciLinks.org At successively lower temperatures,
minerals. These dark minerals are often biotite mica and amphibole.
Web Code: cjn-1032 other minerals form. Bowen also
Granitic rocks contain about 70 percent silica and are the major rocks of
the continental crust. Rhyolite is an extrusive granitic rock. Compare demonstrated that if a mineral remains
granite and rhyolite again in Figure 6 on page 71. in the molten solution after crystallization,
it will react with the remaining liquid to
Basaltic Composition Rocks produce the next mineral, in a sequence
that contain many dark silicate minerals known as Bowen’s reaction series. Allow
and plagioclase feldspar have a basaltic students to study Bowen’s reaction
composition. Basaltic rocks are rich in series, Transparency 15. Tell them to
the elements magnesium and iron. compare the chart with Table 1 on p. 74.
Because of their iron content, basaltic Ask: What do you notice about the
rocks are typically darker and denser minerals that make up the rocks?
than granitic rocks. The most common (Each rock group consists of minerals
that crystallize in the same temperature
basaltic rock is basalt, shown in Figure
range.)
8. Gabbro is an intrusive igneous rock
Logical, Visual
with a basaltic composition.

Other Compositional Groups

Rocks with a composition between
granitic and basaltic rocks have an
andesitic composition. This group
of igneous rocks is named after the
common volcanic rock andesite.
Andesitic rocks contain at least 25 percent dark silicate minerals— Figure 8 Basalt is an igneous
rock made mostly of dark-colored
mainly amphibole, pyroxene, and biotite mica. The other dominant silicate minerals. Download a worksheet on igneous
mineral in andesitic rocks is plagioclase feldspar. Describing Describe the texture rocks for students to complete, and
Another important igneous rock is peridotite. This rock contains of this igneous rock.
find additional teacher support
mostly the minerals olivine and pyroxene. Because peridotite is com- from NSTA SciLinks.
posed almost entirely of dark silicate minerals, its chemical
composition is referred to as ultramafic. Although ultramafic rocks
are rare at Earth’s surface, much of the upper mantle is thought to be
made of peridotite.

Describe the main differences between granitic and

basaltic rocks. Answer to . . .
Figure 7 The rock experienced at
least two episodes of cooling. Slow
cooling resulted in the larger mineral
grains. Rapid cooling produced the
fine-grained minerals.
Figure 8 The rock is a fine-grained
igneous rock.
Rocks 73
A slowly cooling magma
or lava will produce
rocks in which the mineral grains are
Facts and Figures relatively large. Quickly cooling molten
material will result in rocks with small
Magma is basically a very hot, thick fluid, but at the same time. Rather, as it cools, numerous mineral grains. Lava that is cools
it also contains solids and gases. The solids are small crystals develop. In a systematic fashion, extremely rapidly will produce a glassy
mineral crystals. The liquid portion of the ions are added to these centers of crystal rock. Rocks that form as the result of
magma body is composed of ions that move growth. When the crystals grow large enough different cooling rates will have both
about freely. However, as magma cools, the for their edges to meet, their growth ceases large and small mineral grains.
random movements of the ions slow, and the for lack of space, and crystallization continues
Granitic rocks contain
ions begin to arrange themselves into orderly elsewhere. Eventually, all of the liquid is
mostly quartz and
patterns. This process is called crystallization. transformed into a solid mass of interlocking
feldspar and thus are light-colored.
Usually not all of the molten material solidifies crystals.
Basaltic rocks are rich in iron and thus
are dark-colored and more dense.

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Section 3.2 (continued) To summarize, igneous rocks form when magma or lava cools and
hardens. Intrusive rocks form when magma cools and hardens deep
Use Visuals L1 within Earth. Extrusive rocks form when lava cools and hardens on
Earth’s surface. Igneous rocks can be classified according to texture
Table 1 Make sure all students can
clearly read the table. If necessary, and composition. A general classification scheme based on texture and
make enlarged copies of the table for mineral composition is shown in Table 1.
students. Ask: Which rocks have the
highest percentage of dark minerals? Table 1 Classification of Major Igneous Rocks
(ultramafic rocks) Identify a coarse- Chemical
Granitic Andesitic Basaltic Ultramafic
grained basaltic rock. (gabbro) Composition
What minerals are in granite? Quartz Amphibole Pyroxene
Dominant Potassium feldspar Sodium- and Olivine
(quartz, potassium feldspar, sodium-rich Minerals Sodium-rich calcium-rich
Calcium-rich Pyroxene
plagioclase feldspar
plagioclase feldspar) plagioclase feldspar plagioclase feldspar

Visual
Coarse-grained Granite Diorite Gabbro Peridotite

3 ASSESS T
Komatiite
E Fine-grained Rhyolite Andesite Basalt (rare)
Evaluate X
T
Understanding L2 U
“Porphyritic” precedes any of the above names whenever there are
R Porphyritic
appreciable phenocrysts.
Using Table 1 as a guide, have each E
Uncommon
student make two tables. One table
Obsidian (compact glass)
should show the different textures of Glassy
Pumice (frothy glass)
igneous rocks. The second table should
0% to 25% 25% to 45% 45% to 85% 85% to 100%
show the composition of igneous rocks. Rock Color
(based on % of dark minerals)

Reteach L1
Use a simple graphic to help summarize
the relationship between cooling rate
and crystal size in igneous rocks. For Section 3.2 Assessment
example, draw an arrow pointing
upward on the board. Label the arrow
“Cooling rate.” Ask: As the rate of Reviewing Concepts 7. Formulating Hypotheses The extrusive
1. Compare and contrast the formation of igneous rock pumice contains many small
cooling increases, what happens to holes. Hypothesize how these holes might
intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks.
crystal size? (It decreases.) To illustrate form.
2. How do coarse-grained igneous rocks
the answer, draw a downward-pointing
form?
arrow next to the first arrow. Label this
3. How are igneous rocks classified according
second arrow “Crystal size.” to composition?
4. How do fine-grained igneous rocks form?
Explanatory Paragraph Write a para-
5. How do igneous rocks with glassy textures graph to explain how one of the igneous
form? rocks pictured in this chapter may have
Sample answer: Obsidian likely formed
formed.
when lava reached Earth’s surface and Critical Thinking
cooled very rapidly. Refer to the text and 6. Contrasting Contrast basalt and granite in
Table 1 to evaluate students’ answers. terms of how each forms, the texture of each
rock, the color of each rock, and each rock’s
composition.

74 Chapter 3

Section 3.2 Assessment 3. Igneous rocks can be classified by compo- minerals are quartz and feldspar, thus granite
sition based on the major minerals in the is light-colored, with a granitic composition.
1. Both types of rocks form when molten rocks. Light-colored rocks have granitic com- Basalt forms when lava cools quickly at the
material cools and solidifies. Intrusive igneous positions. Dark-colored rocks have basaltic surface. This quick cooling rate results in very
rocks form when magma cools and solidifies compositions. Dark-colored rocks that contain small mineral grains. The major minerals in
within Earth. Extrusive igneous rocks form only olivine and pyroxene are ultramafic rocks. basalt are dark-colored silicates that give
when lava cools and hardens at the surface. 4. Fine-grained igneous rocks form when lava basalt its dark color. A basalt has a basaltic
2. Coarse-grained igneous rocks form when cools quickly at Earth’s surface. composition.
magma cools slowly within Earth. 5. Igneous rocks with glassy textures form 7. Lava is magma that reaches the surface.
when lava cools very quickly. As it rises, reduced pressure on the magma
6. Granite forms as magma slowly cools causes some of its gases to come out of solu-
below the surface. This slow rate of cooling tion. These gases form bubbles or holes as
produces large mineral grains. Most of these the molten material cools.
74 Chapter 3
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Section 3.3
3.3 Sedimentary Rocks
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy 3.8 Describe the major processes
Describe the major ◆ erosion Outlining Copy this outline beneath the involved in the formation of
processes involved in the ◆ deposition outline you made for Section 3.2. Complete
formation of sedimentary this outline as you read. Include points about sedimentary rocks.
◆ compaction
rocks. how each of these rocks form, some of the 3.9 Distinguish between clastic
◆ cementation
What are clastic characteristics of each rock type, and some sedimentary rocks and
◆ clastic sedimentary examples of each.
sedimentary rocks? rock chemical sedimentary rocks.
What are chemical ◆ chemical II. Sedimentary Rocks 3.10 Identify the features that are
sedimentary rocks? sedimentary rock A. Clastic Rocks unique to some sedimentary
What features are unique 1. ?
to some sedimentary 2. ?
rocks.
rocks? B. Chemical Rocks
1. ?
2. ?
Reading Focus

Build Vocabulary L2
LINCS Have students List the parts of
A ll sedimentary rocks begin to form when existing rocks are broken
down into sediments. Sediments, which consist mainly of weathered
the vocabulary words that they know.
For example, cement is part of
rock debris, are often transported to other places. When sediments are cementation. Next, they should Imagine
dropped, they eventually become compacted and cemented to form a mental picture of the term’s meaning
sedimentary rocks. The structures shown in Figure 9 are made of and describe the image in their own
words. Sediments held together by
the sedimentary rock called sandstone. It is only one of many types of
cement might be an image for
sedimentary rocks.
cementation. Students should then
Figure 9 Sedimentary Rocks in make a Note of a familiar “sound-alike”
Canyonlands National Park, word. They can Connect the terms by
Utah The rocks shown here
formed when sand and other making up a short story about the
sediments were deposited and meaning of the term that incorporates
cemented. Weathering processes the sound-alike word. Lastly, students
created this arch.
should conduct a Self-test by quizzing
themselves on the vocabulary terms.

Reading Strategy L2
A.1. rock made up of weathered bits of
rocks and minerals
A.2. Common example of clastic
sedimentary rock is shale.
B.1. rock that forms when dissolved
minerals precipitate from water
B.2. Common example of chemical
sedimentary rock is limestone.
Rocks 75

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Section 3.3 (continued) Formation of Sedimentary Rocks

The word sedimentary comes from the Latin word sedimentum, which
2 INSTRUCT means “settling.” Sedimentary rocks form when solids settle out of a
Build Reading Literacy L1 fluid such as water or air. The rocks shown in Figure 10 formed when
Refer to p. 64D in Chapter 3, which sediments were dropped by moving water. The sediments eventually
provides the guidelines for directed became cemented to form rocks. Several major processes contribute
reading/thinking activity (DRTA). to the formation of sedimentary rocks.
DRTA Before students read this section, Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition Recall that weath-
have them preview the key concepts, ering is any process that breaks rocks into sediments. Weathering is
vocabulary terms, and headings. Ask: often the first step in the formation of sedimentary rocks. Chemical
What do you think you will learn in weathering takes place when the minerals in rocks change into new
this section? (Sample answer: about
substances. Weathering also takes place when physical forces break
sedimentary rock formation, clastic
A rocks into smaller pieces. Living things, too, can cause chemical and
sedimentary rocks, and chemical
physical weathering.
sedimentary rocks) What type of
Weathered sediments don’t usually remain in place. Instead,
questions might a teacher ask about
water, wind, ice, or gravity carries them away. Erosion
this topic? (Sample answer: How do
involves weathering and the removal of rock. When an agent
sedimentary rocks form? How are
of erosion—water, wind, ice, or gravity—loses energy, it
sedimentary rocks classified?) List these
drops the sediments. This process is called deposition.
questions on the board. As students
read the section, pause to discuss the Sediments are deposited according to size. The largest sedi-
answers to the questions. ments, such as the rounded pebbles in the conglomerate in
Verbal Figure 10A, are deposited first. Smaller sediments, like the pieces
of sand that make up the sandstone in Figure 10B, are dropped
Formation of later. Some sediments are so small that they are carried great
distances before being deposited.
Sedimentary Rocks B
Compaction and Cementation After sediments are
deposited, they often become lithified, or turned to rock.
L2 Compaction and cementation change sediments into sedi-
mentary rock. Compaction is a process that squeezes, or
Some students may think that rocks are compacts, sediments. Compaction is caused by the weight of
stronger than the agents of mechanical sediments. During compaction, much of the water in the sed-
and chemical weathering. To help dispel iments is driven out.
this misconception, place a few drops of Cementation takes place when dissolved minerals are
vinegar on a sample of limestone. Have deposited in the tiny spaces among the sediments. Much of the
students observe the resulting chemical Figure 10 Although these two
cement in the conglomerate shown in Figure 10A can be seen with the
reaction. Ask: What do you think rocks appear quite different, both
formed when sediments were unaided eye. The cement holding the sand grains together in the sand-
would happen if the acid continued to dropped by moving water. stone in Figure 10B, however, is microscopic.
drip on the rock over a long period? A Conglomerate is made of
(The rock would eventually break down or rounded pebbles cemented
together. B Sandstone is made of
Briefly describe the five major processes involved in
be chemically weathered.) sand grains cemented together. the formation of sedimentary rocks.
Visual, Logical

Build Science Skills L2

Observing Provide
small groups of students
with 250-mL beakers, 76 Chapter 3
stirrers, sand, water,
gravel, and soil. Tell students to half-fill
the beakers with water. They should
then pour about a handful of each Customize for English Language Learners
material into the water. Have them stir
the mixture, then observe what happens Compile a classroom library using up-to-date reading levels. Provide opportunities for ELL
to the materials. Ask: Which materials magazines and newspaper articles. Select students to read the articles in class. This will
settled on the bottom? Which settled reading materials that correspond to chapter give them a broader context in which to place
on the top? (The heavier materials content. For example, try to find articles that this chapter’s vocabulary terms and key
settled on the bottom; the smaller, lighter discuss different types of rocks. Avoid academic concepts.
materials settled on the top.) What does journals and reference materials with high
this activity model? (the settling out of
sediments from a fluid, such as water or air)
Kinesthetic, Visual

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Classification of
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks Sedimentary Rocks
Just like igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks can be classified into
two main groups according to the way they form. The first group
includes rocks that are made of weathered bits of rocks and minerals.
These rocks are called clastic sedimentary rocks. The second group
forms when dissolved minerals precipitate from water solutions. These Chemical Weathering L2
rocks are called chemical sedimentary rocks.
Purpose Students will observe how
chemical weathering can change the
A B minerals in rocks.
Materials calcium tablet, 250-mL
beaker, vinegar
Procedure Half-fill the beaker with
vinegar. Place the calcium tablet into the
vinegar. Allow students to observe the
reaction.
Expected Outcome Students will
observe that the calcium fizzes, foams,
and eventually dissolves in the vinegar.
Explain that chemical weathering breaks
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks Many different minerals are Figure 11 A Shale and B breccia
are common clastic sedimentary down rocks in a similar, though slower,
found in clastic rocks. The most common are the clay minerals and rocks. This sample of shale fashion.
quartz. This is because clay minerals, like those that make up much of contains plant fossils. Visual
Formulating Hypotheses How
the shale in Figure 11A, are the most abundant products of chemical do you think this breccia might
weathering. Quartz, which is a major mineral in the breccia shown in have formed?
Figure 11B, is a common sedimentary mineral for a different reason.
It is very durable and resistant to chemical weathering.
Clastic sedimentary rocks can be grouped according to the size of
the sediments in the rocks. When rounded, gravel-size or larger parti-
cles make up most of the rock, the rock is called conglomerate. If the Download a worksheet on
particles are angular, the rock is called breccia. Sandstone is the name sedimentary rocks for students
given to rocks when most of the sediments are sand-size grains. Shale, to complete, and find additional
the most common sedimentary rock, is made of very fine-grained sed- teacher support from NSTA SciLinks.
iment. Siltstone is another fine-grained rock.

Describe the major types of clastic sedimentary Answer to . . .

rocks.
Figure 11 Rocks were weathered.
The larger fragments were deposited.
Chemical and Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks Fine-grained sediments were deposited
Chemical sedimentary rocks form when dissolved substances precip- later. Little compaction occurred
itate, or separate, from water solution. This precipitation generally because of the size of the angular
occurs when the water evaporates or boils off leaving a solid product. sediments. Dissolved minerals entered
For: Links on sedimentary rocks
the spaces among the sediments and
Examples of this type of chemical rock are some limestones, rock salt, Visit: www.SciLinks.org
held them together to form the breccia.
chert, flint, and rock gypsum. Web Code: cjn-1034
Weathering breaks
existing rocks into
Rocks 77 smaller pieces. Erosion is the process
whereby sediments are moved from
place to place. Deposition occurs when
sediments are dropped by erosional
agents. Compaction is the process of
squeezing sediments. Cementation is
a process that “glues” sediments
together to form sedimentary rocks.
Conglomerates and
breccias are made
mostly of gravel-sized sediments.
Sandstone is made mostly of sand-size
grains. Shale and siltstone are fine-
grained rocks in which clay-size or
smaller particles are the major
components.

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Section 3.3 (continued) Figure 12 This biochemical rock, About 90 percent of limestones are formed from biochemical sed-
called coquina, is a type of
limestone that is made of
iments. Such sediments are the shells and skeletal remains of organisms
Build Science Skills L2 hundreds of shell fragments. that settle to the ocean floor. The coquina in Figure 12 is one obvious
example. You can actually see the shells cemented together. Another
Designing
Experiments biochemical rock is chalk, the material used to write on a chalkboard.
Have students work in
small groups to design Features of Some Sedimentary Rocks
an experiment to show how sedimentary Sedimentary rocks, like other types of rocks, are used to unravel what
rocks form when dissolved minerals may have happened in Earth’s long history. The many unique fea-
precipitate from water. Students should tures of sedimentary rocks are clues to how, when, and where the
develop a hypothesis and procedure, rocks formed. Each layer of a sedimentary rock, for example, records
listing controls, safety measures, and a period of sediment deposition. In undisturbed rocks, the oldest layers
materials to be used. A sample are found at the bottom. The youngest layers are found at the top of the
experiment might involve placing table rocks. Ripple marks like the ones shown in Figure 13A may indicate
salt in water, then heating the water that the rock formed along a beach or stream bed. The mud cracks in
until it evaporates. If time permits, allow Figure 13B formed when wet mud or clay dried and shrank, leaving a
students to carry out their experiments. rock record of a dry environment.
Logical, Interpersonal Fossils, which are the traces or remains of ancient life, are unique
to some sedimentary rocks. Fossils can be used to help answer many
Features of Some questions about the rocks that contain them. For example, did the rock
Sedimentary Rocks form on land or in the ocean? Was the climate hot or cold, rainy or
Use Visuals L1 dry? Did the rock form hundreds, thousands, millions, or billions of
years ago? Fossils also play a key role in matching up rocks from dif-
Figure 13 Ask: Based on its
ferent places that are the same age.
appearance, what can you infer
To summarize, sedimentary rocks are rocks that form as the result
about the rock labeled A? (It may
of four major processes. Weathering produces particles called sedi-
have formed along a beach or stream
ments. Wind, water, ice, and gravity erode and deposit these sediments.
bed.) What can you infer about the Figure 13 A Ripple marks and
B mud cracks are features of Over time, the sediments are compacted and cemented to form rocks.
rock labeled B? (It may have formed sedimentary rocks that can Sedimentary rocks can be classified according to how they form. A gen-
when wet mud or clay dried and shrank.) be used to learn about the
eral classification scheme based on a rock’s formation, texture, and
Visual environments in which the
rocks formed. composition is shown in Table 2.

A B

78 Chapter 3

Facts and Figures

Unlike other chemical sedimentary rocks, which over long periods of time. The initial stage of
are rich in calcite or silica, coal is made mostly coal formation is the accumulation of large
of organic matter. When coal is viewed under quantities of plant remains in a swampy
a magnifying glass, chemically altered leaves, environment. Coal then undergoes successive
bark, and wood are visible. The materials stages of formation. With each stage, higher
provide evidence that coal is the end product temperatures and pressures drive off impurities
of the burial of large amounts of plant materials and volatiles.

78 Chapter 3
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Use Visuals L1
Table 2 Classification of Major Sedimentary Rocks
Table 2 Ask: How does the texture of
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks Chemical Sedimentary Rocks gravel compare with that of sand?
(Gravel has a coarse texture; grain size is
Texture Sediment Name Rock Name Composition Texture Rock Name
(grain size) (grain size) more than 2 mm. Sand has a medium
Gravel Crystalline
texture; grain size is 1/16 to 2 mm.)
Conglomerate
Coarse
(rounded fragments)
Fine to coarse
Limestone What type of detrital sedimentary
(over 2 mm)
Gravel
crystalline rock has a very fine texture? (shale)
Breccia Travertine
(angular fragments) What is the chemical composition of
Visible chalk? (calcite) Which chemical
shells and shell
Medium Calcite, CaCO3 fragments loosely
Coquina BL
i i
sedimentary rock is made up of
Sand Sandstone cemented
(1/16 to 2 mm) om
c
halite? (rock salt)
Various size shells he Visual
and shell fragments Fossiliferous es
mt
Fine cemented with Limestone i
calcite cement co
(1/16 to
1/256 mm)
Mud Siltstone
Microscopic shells
an
l e
3 ASSESS
Chalk
Very fine
(less than Mud Shale
and clay
Evaluate
1/256 mm) Very fine Chert (light colored) Understanding L2
Quartz, SiO2
crystalline Flint (dark colored)
Give students samples of sandstone,
Gypsum Fine to coarse
CaSO4•2H2O crystalline Rock Gypsum siltstone, shale, breccia, and
conglomerate. Have them use
Fine to coarse
Halite, NaCl Rock Salt magnifying glasses to classify the
crystalline

Altered plant Fine-grained

rocks according to grain size.
Bituminous Coal
fragments organic matter

Reteach L1
Review Table 2. As you discuss the
Section 3.3 Assessment different types of textures and chemical
compositions, explain how each
sedimentary rock likely formed.
Reviewing Concepts Critical Thinking
1. Contrast weathering, erosion, and 7. Applying Concepts Briefly describe how the
deposition. rock shown in Figure 12 may have formed.
Sample answer: Shale is used in
2. Name four clastic sedimentary rocks and 8. Predicting Which type of sediments do you
explain how these rocks form. think would undergo more compaction— construction. Coal is used as an
3. Name four chemical sedimentary rocks grains of sand or grains of clay? Explain your energy resource.
and explain how these rocks form. choice.
4. Explain how three different features of 9. Formulating Conclusions Suppose you
sedimentary rocks can be used to determine found a sedimentary rock in which ripple
how, where, or when the rocks formed. marks were pointing toward the ground.
What could you conclude about the rock?
5. What is compaction?
6. Where do the cements that hold sediments
together come from?

Sedimentary Rocks Choose one of the

sedimentary rocks pictured in this section.
Find out how the rock is useful to people.

Rocks 79

Section 3.3 Assessment 3. Most limestones, rock salt, rock gypsum, 6. Cements are dissolved minerals that
flint, and chert are chemical sedimentary are deposited in the tiny places among
1. Weathering is any process in which rocks rocks that form when dissolved minerals pre- the sediments.
are broken down into smaller pieces. Erosion cipitate from water. 7. Animals with shells died. The shells accu-
involves the weathering and removal of 4. Each layer of a sedimentary rock records a mulated and became cemented to form a
sediments. Deposition is the dropping of period of deposition. Ripple marks indicate sedimentary rock.
sediments by agents of erosion. that a rock bed formed in water. Mud cracks 8. Because they are smaller, clay particles
2. Conglomerate, breccia, sandstone, shale, are indicative of unusually dry periods. Fossils undergo more compaction than sand-size
and siltstone are clastic rocks. Clastic rocks can be used to determine if a rock formed on particles.
form when bits of weathered materials are land or in the ocean, if the climate was hot 9. Ripple marks indicate that a rock formed
compacted and cemented together. or cold, or rainy or dry, and when the rock in water. And, because the ripple marks were
containing them formed. pointing down, one can infer that the rock
5. Compaction is the process that squeezes, has been overturned from its original position.
or compacts, sediments.
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Section 3.4
3.4 Metamorphic Rocks
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
3.11 Predict where most Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy
metamorphism takes place. Where does most ◆ metamorphism Outlining Copy this outline beneath the
metamorphism take place? ◆ contact outline you made for Section 3.3. Complete it
3.12 Distinguish contact metamorphism as you read. Include points about how each of
How is contact
metamorphism from metamorphism different ◆ regional these rocks form, some of the characteristics of
regional metamorphism. from regional metamorphism each rock type, and some examples of each.
3.13 Identify the three agents of metamorphism? ◆ hydrothermal
solution III. Metamorphic Rocks
metamorphism and explain What are three agents of
◆ foliated A. Foliated Rocks
metamorphism, and what
what changes they cause. kinds of changes does metamorphic rock 1. ?
2. ?
3.14 Recognize foliated each cause? ◆ nonfoliated
metamorphic rock B. Nonfoliated Rocks
metamorphic rocks and What are foliated 1. ?
describe how they form. metamorphic rocks, and 2. ?
how do they form?
3.15 Classify metamorphic rocks.
How are metamorphic
rocks classified?

Reading Focus
L2
Build Vocabulary
Paraphrase Explain vocabulary terms
Figure 14 Deformed Rock
Intense pressures metamorphosed
these rocks by causing them to
R ecall that metamorphic rocks form when existing rocks are
changed by heat and pressure. Metamorphism is a very appropriate
using words students know. For example, fold as well as change
composition. name for this process because it means to change form. Rocks produced
contact metamorphism occurs when two
during metamorphism often look much
rocks come into contact with one
different from the original rocks, or parent
another. Regional metamorphism takes
rocks. The folds in the rocks shown in
place over a large region. Foliated
Figure 14 formed when the parent rocks
metamorphic rocks have distinct layers.
were subjected to intense forces. These
Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks do not.
Once students are able to distinguish highly folded metamorphic rocks may also
among the vocabulary terms, focus on develop a different composition than the
the processes that cause the different parent rocks had.
types of metamorphism and the
different types of metamorphic rock. Formation of
L2
Metamorphic Rocks
Reading Strategy Most metamorphic changes occur at
A.1. rock that forms when minerals elevated temperatures and pressures. These
recrystallize at right angles to the conditions are found a few kilometers
direction of pressure below Earth’s surface and extend into the
A.2. Common example of foliated upper mantle. Most metamorphism occurs
metamorphic rock is slate. in one of two settings—contact metamor-
B.1. rock that does not have a banded phism or regional metamorphism.
texture
B.2. Common example of nonfoliated
metamorphic rock is marble. 80 Chapter 3

2 INSTRUCT

Formation of
Metamorphic Rocks
Use Visuals L1
Figure 14 Ask students to describe
the rocks. (Sample answer: The rocks
are folded and multicolored.) What force
could cause the rocks to fold? (intense
pressure)
Visual

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Build Science Skills L2

Contact Metamorphism When magma
intrudes—forces its way into—rock, contact meta- Posing Questions Have students read
morphism may take place. During contact the text about contact metamorphism
metamorphism, hot magma moves into rock. and regional metamorphism. Then have
Contact metamorphism often produces what is them pose questions about the concepts
described as low-grade metamorphism. Such changes that can be answered through experi-
in rocks are minor. Marble, like that used to make the mentation, observation, or research.
statue in Figure 15, is a common contact metamor- A sample question might be: During
phic rock. Marble often forms when magma intrudes contact metamorphism, what causes the
magma to move into the rock? (Magma
a limestone body.
is less dense than surrounding rock so
Regional Metamorphism During mountain pressure forces it toward the surface. As it
building, large areas of rocks are subjected to extreme moves, it can come into contact with and
pressures and temperatures. The intense changes alter surrounding rock.)
produced during this process are described as high- Logical
grade metamorphism. Regional metamorphism
results in large-scale deformation and high-grade metamorphism. Figure 15 Statue Carved from Agents of
The rocks shown in Figure 14 on page 80 were changed as the result of
Marble Marble is a common
metamorphic rock that forms
Metamorphism
regional metamorphism. as the result of contact Integrate Physics L2
metamorphism of limestone.
Buried rocks are subject to a force known
Agents of Metamorphism as confining pressure, wherein pressure
The agents of metamorphism are heat, pressure, and hydrother- is applied equally in all directions. In
mal solutions. During metamorphism, rocks are usually subjected to contrast, differential stress is unequal
all three of these agents at the same time. However, the effect of each force applied in different directions.
agent varies greatly from one situation to another. Differential stress, which occurs during
mountain-building, acts mainly along
Heat The most important agent of metamorphism is heat. Heat one plane. Rocks subjected to differ-
provides the energy needed to drive chemical reactions. Some of these ential stress are shortened in the
reactions cause existing minerals to recrystallize. Other reactions direction in which pressure is applied
cause new minerals to form. The heat for metamorphism comes and lengthened in the direction
mainly from two sources—magma and the change in temperature Q How hot is it deep in the perpendicular to the pressure. Have
with depth. Magma essentially “bakes” any rocks that are in contact crust? students observe while you squeeze a
with it. Heat also comes from the gradual increase in temperature A The deeper a person goes ball of clay between your palms. Ask: Is
with depth. In the upper crust, this increase averages between 20°C beneath Earth’s surface, the this an example of confining pressure
and 30°C per kilometer. hotter it gets. The deepest mine or differential stress? (differential stress)
When buried to a depth of about 8 kilometers, clay minerals are in the world is the Western Kinesthetic, Visual
Deep Levels mine in South
exposed to temperatures of 150°C to 200°C. These minerals become Africa, which is about 4 kilome-
unstable and recrystallize to form new minerals that are stable at these ters deep. Here, the tempera-
temperatures, such as chlorite and muscovite. In contrast, silicate min- ture of the surrounding rock is
erals are stable at these temperatures. Therefore, it takes higher so hot that it can scorch human
skin. In fact, miners in this mine
temperatures to change silicate minerals. often work in groups of two.
One miner mines the rock, and
Compare and contrast contact and regional the other operates a large fan
metamorphism. that keeps the worker cool.

Rocks 81

Customize for Inclusion Students

Behaviorally Disordered Minimize conducting any activities, make sure students
distractions for students with behavioral clear off their desks. If necessary, provide Answer to . . .
disorders. For example, have students sit near storage space in the classroom for students’
Both processes change
the front of the class so that they are focused books and other materials.
existing rocks into
on you, rather than their classmates. Before
metamorphic rocks. Contact metamor-
phism is caused by magma and often
produces slight changes in rocks.
Regional metamorphism is large-scale
deformation that can result in drastic
changes to the rocks involved.

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HSES_1eTE_C03.qxd 5/14/04 3:52 PM Page 82

A Undeformed
strata

Observing Some of the Increasing

confining
Effects of Pressure on pressure B
Mineral Grains L2
Objective
After completing this activity, students
Confining pressure
will be able to observe the effect of
pressure on the rearrangement of
mineral grains in a model rock.
Figure 16 Pressure (Stress) As a Metamorphic Agent
Skills Focus Modeling, Observing, Deformed
A Forces in all directions are applied equally to buried rocks. strata
Inferring B During mountain building, rocks subjected to differential
stress are shortened in the direction that pressure is applied. Differential stress
Prep Time 10 minutes to
organize materials Pressure (Stress) Pressure, like temperature, also increases with
depth. Like the water pressure you might have experienced at the bottom
Class Time 15 minutes
of a swimming pool, pressure on rocks within Earth is applied in all direc-
Expected Outcome Students will tions. See Figure 16. Pressure on rocks causes the spaces between mineral
observe that the pressure from opposite grains to close. The result is a more compact rock with a greater density.
directions—from above (their pushing This pressure also may cause minerals to recrystallize into new minerals.
down on the “rock”) and below (the Increases in temperature and pressure cause rocks to flow rather
table’s pushing up on the “rock”)—will than fracture. Under these conditions, mineral grains tend to flatten
cause “minerals” to align at right angles Figure 17 Imagine the and elongate.
to the direction of stress. tremendous amounts of pressure
that caused these rocks to fold.
Analyze and Conclude
1. The model minerals were randomly
distributed throughout the rock before
pressure was applied. The minerals
aligned themselves at right angles to the
direction of stress. Observing Some of the Effects of Pressure on Mineral Grains
2. Pressure causes the minerals to
reorient themselves in the rock. Materials 5. Draw a top view of your rock and label it After.
Include arrows to show the directions from
3. No, heat from the hand and contact soft modeling clay; 2 pieces of waxed paper (each
which you applied pressure.
20 cm ⫻ 20 cm); 20–30 small, round, elongated
with the table also affected the model plastic beads; small plastic knife 6. Make a cut through your model rock. Sketch
rock. this view of the rock.
Kinesthetic, Visual Procedure
1. Use the clay to form a ball about the size of a Analyze and Conclude
golf ball. Randomly place all of the beads into 1. Comparing and Contrasting How did the
this model rock. Before sketch compare with the After sketch of
2. Make a sketch of the rock. Label the sketch your model rock?
Before. 2. Drawing Conclusions How does pressure
3. Sandwich the model rock between the two affect the mineral grains in a rock?
pieces of waxed paper. Use your weight to 3. Inferring Was pressure the only agent of
apply pressure to the model rock. change that affected your rock? Explain.
4. Remove the waxed paper and observe your
“metamorphosed” rock.

82 Chapter 3

82 Chapter 3
HSES_1eTE_C03.qxd 5/14/04 3:52 PM Page 83

During mountain building, horizontal forces metamorphose large

Classification of
segments of Earth’s crust.This often produces intricately folded rocks Metamorphic Rocks
like those shown in Figure 17. Build Reading Literacy L1
Refer to p.124D in Chapter 5, which
Reactions in Solution Water solutions containing other sub-
provides the guidelines for summarizing.
stances that readily change to gases at the surface play an important role
in some types of metamorphism. Solutions that surround mineral grains Summarize Have students read the
aid in recrystallization by making it easier for ions to move. When solu- text on page 83. In their own words,
tions increase in temperature reactions among substances can occur at have them summarize how meta-
a faster rate. When these hot, water-based solutions escape from a mass morphic rocks are classified. (Sample
answer: Metamorphic rocks are classified
of magma, they are called hydrothermal solutions. These hot fluids also
Figure 18 Gneiss is a foliated by texture. There are two kinds of
promote recrystallization by dissolving original minerals and then
metamorphic rock. textures—foliated and nonfoliated.
depositing new ones. As a result of contact with hydrothermal solutions, Inferring In which directions Foliated metamorphic rocks have a layered
a change in a rock’s overall composition may occur. was pressure exerted on this
rock? look; nonfoliated metamorphic rocks do
not have a layered appearance.)
Classification of Metamorphic Rocks Verbal
Like igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks can be classified by texture and
composition. The texture of metamorphic rocks can be foliated
or nonfoliated.

Foliated Metamorphic Rocks When rocks undergo contact

metamorphism, they become more compact and thus more dense. A
For: Links on metamorphic rocks
common example is the metamorphic rock slate. Slate forms when
Visit: www.SciLinks.org
shale is subjected to temperatures and pressures only slightly greater Web Code: cjn-1033
than those at which the shale formed. The pressure on the shale causes
the microscopic clay minerals to become more compact. The increase
in pressure also causes the clay minerals to align in a similar direction.
Under more extreme conditions, certain minerals will recrystal-
lize. Some minerals recrystallize with a preferred orientation,
which is at right angles to the direction of the force. The resulting
alignment usually gives the rock a layered or banded appearance.
This rock is called a foliated metamorphic rock. Gneiss, the
metamorphic rock shown in Figure 18, is a foliated rock. Another
foliated metamorphic rock is schist.

Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks A metamorphic

rock that does not have a banded texture is called a nonfoliated
metamorphic rock. Most nonfoliated rocks contain only one
mineral. Marble, for example, is a nonfoliated rock made of cal-
cite. When its parent rock, limestone, is metamorphosed, the Figure 19 Marble is a
calcite crystals combine to form the larger interlocking crystals seen nonfoliated metamorphic rock.
in marble. A sample of marble is shown in Figure 19. Quartzite and
anthracite are other nonfoliated metamorphic rocks.

Contrast foliated and nonfoliated metamorphic

rocks. Download a worksheet on
metamorphic rocks for students
Rocks 83 to complete, and find additional
teacher support from NSTA SciLinks.

Facts and Figures

Slate is a very fine-grained foliated rock though less frequently it forms from the
composed of minute mica flakes. The most metamorphism of volcanic ash. Slate can be
Answer to . . .
noteworthy characteristic of slate is its excellent almost any color, depending on its mineral
rock cleavage, meaning that it splits easily into constituents. Black slate contains organic Figure 18 Pressure was exerted from
flat slabs. This property has made slate a most material; red slate gets it color from iron oxide; the sides.
useful rock for roof and floor tiles, chalkboards, and green slate is usually composed of
Foliated metamorphic
and billiard tables. Slate is most often generated chlorite, a micalike mineral.
rocks have a layered or
by the low-grade metamorphism of shale,
banded appearance. Nonfoliated
metamorphic rocks do not have a
banded texture.

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Section 3.4 (continued) To summarize, metamorphic rocks form when existing rocks are
changed by heat, pressure, or hydrothermal solution. Contact meta-
Use Visuals L1 morphism is often caused when hot magma intrudes a body of rock.
Changes during this type of metamorphism are minor. Regional meta-
Table 3 Ask: What is the parent
rock of schist? (phyllite) Which has morphism is associated with mountain building. Such metamorphic
undergone more intense changes can be extreme. Metamorphic rocks can be classified by tex-
metamorphism, slate or gneiss? ture as foliated or nonfoliated, as shown in Table 3.
Explain your answer. (Gneiss has
undergone more intense metamorphism, Table 3 Classification of Major Metamorphic Rocks
as indicated by the arrow in the table.) Rock Name Texture Grain Size Comments Parent Rock
Which nonfoliated rock has the finest
grains? (anthracite) I M Shale,
Slate n e Very fine Smooth dull surfaces mudstone,
Visual c t or siltstone
r a F
e m o Breaks along wavy
Phyllite l Fine Slate
3 ASSESS a
s
o
r i
surfaces, glossy sheen

i p a
Medium
Evaluate Schist n h t
e to Micaceous minerals
Phyllite
L2 g i dominate
Understanding s d Coarse
m Medium Schist, granite,
Have students examine Table 3. Ask: Gneiss to Banding of minerals or volcanic
Generally, what can you say about Coarse rocks
the relationship between texture and N Medium
Interlocking calcite Limestone,
Marble o to
increasing metamorphism that results n coarse or dolomite grains dolostone
in foliated rocks? (The more intense the f
o Medium
l Fused quartz grains, Quartz
metamorphism, the courser the texture, or Quartzite
i
to
massive, very hard sandstone
coarse
larger the grain size.) a
t
e Shiny black organic rock Bituminous
Anthracite Fine that fractures coal
L1 d
Reteach
Have students make tables that compare
and contrast contact metamorphism
and regional metamorphism. Section 3.4 Assessment

Reviewing Concepts 7. Predicting What type of metamorphism—

Sample answer: All are solids that form 1. Where does most metamorphism take contact or regional—would result in a schist?
place? Explain your choice.
and change because of Earth processes.
2. Compare and contrast contact 8. Formulating Conclusions Why can the
All can be classified according to texture composition of gneiss vary but overall texture
and/or composition. The major difference metamorphism and regional metamorphism?
cannot?
among the three rock types is that each 3. Name the agents of metamorphism and
explain how each changes a rock.
forms at different temperatures and
4. What are foliated rocks, and how do they
pressures. form?
5. How are metamorphic rocks classified?
Explanatory Paragraph Write a short
Critical Thinking paragraph that explains the major differ-
6. Applying Concepts What is the major ences and similarities among the three
difference between igneous and metamorphic major rock groups.
rocks?

84 Chapter 3

Section 3.4 Assessment 3. Heat can cause existing minerals to recrys- 6. While both types of rocks form as the
tallize or it can cause new minerals to form. result of changes in temperature and pres-
1. Most metamorphism takes place in a zone Pressure produces a more compact rock with sure, metamorphism does not involve melting.
that begins several kilometers below the a greater density. Pressure also causes miner- 7. Schists, as indicated in Table 3, are the
surface and extends into the upper mantle. als to recrystallize. Fluids aid in recrystalliza- result of high-grade metamorphism that is
2. Contact metamorphism is a process tion by making it easier for ions to move and generally associated with mountain-building.
whereby slight changes occur in rocks as the by dissolving original minerals and deposit- 8. Gneiss is a banded rock that forms as the
result of an increase in temperature resulting ing new ones. result of pressure from opposing sides. This
from a magma body. Regional metamor- 4. Foliated rocks are banded metamorphic directional pressure results in foliation. How-
phism, which is associated with mountain- rocks that form when minerals realign as the ever, because the parent rocks of gneisses
building, can result in high-grade changes in result of pressure from opposing sides. can vary, so can the compositions of these
both composition and structure. 5. Metamorphic rocks can be classified metamorphic rocks.
according to composition and texture.
84 Chapter 3
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The Carbon Cycle

To illustrate the movement of
material and energy in the Weathering
Volcanic
activity Weathering
of
The Carbon Cycle L2
of carbonate granite
Earth system, we can take a Photosynthesis rock
brief look at the carbon cycle, Burning and by vegetation Background
Respiration
shown in Figure 20. Pure decay of
biomass
by land • During photosynthesis, plants absorb
organisms Burning
carbon is rare in nature. It is of fossil carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
found mainly as two miner- fuels
and use it to produce the essential
als—diamond and graphite.
organic compounds—complex
Most carbon is bonded to
other elements to form com- Burial of sugars—that they need for growth.
biomass
pounds. Carbon dioxide When animals consume plants or
(CO2), for example, is an other animals that eat plants, the
Lithosphere
important gas in Earth’s atmos- CO 2 animals use these organic compounds
phere. Calcite (CaCO3) is a mineral Photosynthesis dissolves

found in many sedimentary and meta-

and respiration Deposition
of carbonate
in seawater as a source of energy. Then, through
of marine
morphic rocks. Hydrocarbons, such as organisms sediments Sediment and
sedimentary rock
the process of respiration, the animals
coal, oil, and natural gas, are compounds return carbon dioxide to the
made of carbon and hydrogen. Carbon also CO entering the
2
atmosphere. Plants also return some
combines with hydrogen and oxygen to form atmosphere
CO leaving the carbon dioxide to the atmosphere by
the basic compounds that make up living things. 2
atmosphere
This important element moves continually among way of respiration.
Earth’s major spheres by way of the carbon cycle. Figure 20 The Carbon Cycle • When plants die and decay or are
burned, this biomass is oxidized and
carbon dioxide is returned to the
atmosphere.
Carbon Dioxide on the Move and streams carry these ions to the ocean. Here,
• The lithosphere is by far Earth’s largest
some organisms extract this substance to produce
In the atmosphere, carbon is found mainly as body parts—shells, skeletons, and spines—made of depository of carbon. A variety of
carbon dioxide. This gas absorbs much of the calcite. When the organisms die, these hard parts rocks contain carbon. The most
energy given off by Earth. Therefore, carbon diox- settle to the ocean floor and become the sedimen- abundant is limestone. When
ide influences the heating of the atmosphere. tary rock called limestone.
Carbon dioxide constantly moves into and out of limestone undergoes chemical
the atmosphere by way of four major processes: weathering, the stored carbon is
photosynthesis, respiration, organic decay, and The Complete Cycle released into the atmosphere.
combustion of organic material. The source of most CO2 in the atmosphere is
thought to be from volcanic activity early in Earth’s Teaching Tips
Carbon and Fossil Fuels history. When CO2 combines with water, it forms • Have students contrast different solids
carbonic acid. This substance reacts with rock that contain carbon, such as coal,
Some carbon from decayed organic matter is through chemical weathering to form bicarbonate
deposited as sediment. Over long periods of time, diamond, graphite, calcite, and
ions that are carried by groundwater and streams to
this carbon becomes buried. Under the right condi- the ocean. Here, marine organisms take over and limestone. Have students explain how
tions, some of these carbon-rich deposits are sedimentary rock is eventually produced. If this rock the carbon is released from each of
changed to fossil fuels, such as coal. When fossil is then exposed at the surface and subjected to these components of the lithosphere
fuels are burned, huge quantities of carbon dioxide chemical weathering, CO2 is also produced. Use
enter into the air.
into Earth’s other spheres.
Figure 20 to trace the path of carbon from the
atmosphere to the hydrosphere, the geosphere, the
• Write the chemical equations for
The Role of Marine Animals biosphere, and back to the atmosphere. photosynthesis and respiration on the
board or on an overhead transparency
Chemical weathering of certain rocks produce bicar-
bonate ions that dissolve water. Groundwater, rivers, to reinforce the fact that the products
of one reaction are the reactants of
the other reaction.
Rocks 85 • Use a clean, empty 2-L bottle, plants,
soil, and a thermometer to make a
mini-greenhouse to demonstrate
how gases in the air, including carbon
dioxide, can absorb solar energy.
Refer to the following Web site for
tips on such a demonstration:
http://www.bigelow.org/virtual/hands
on/greenhouse_make.html

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Section 4.1
4.1 Energy and Mineral Resources
1 FOCUS

Section Objectives
4.1 Distinguish between Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy
What is the difference ◆ renewable resource Monitoring Your Understanding Copy
renewable and nonrenewable between renewable and this table onto a separate piece of paper before
◆ nonrenewable
resources. nonrenewable resources? resource you read this section. List what you know
4.2 Identify which energy Which energy resources ◆ fossil fuel about energy and mineral resources in the first
column and what you’d like to know in the
resources are fossil fuels. are fossil fuels? ◆ ore
second column. After you read, list what you
4.3 Predict which energy resources Which energy resources have learned in the last column.
might replace dwindling might replace dwindling
petroleum supplies in the
petroleum supplies in the future? Energy and Mineral Resources
future. What processes What I Know What I Would Like to Know What I Learned
4.4 Describe the processes that concentrate minerals into a. ? c. ? e. ?
concentrate minerals into large deposits sufficiently large
enough to mine? b. ? d. ? f. ?
deposits as they form.
How are nonmetallic
4.5 Recognize how nonmetallic mineral resources used?
mineral resources are used.

Reading Focus M ineral and energy resources are the raw materials for most of the
things we use. Mineral resources are used to produce everything from
Build Vocabulary L2 cars to computers to basketballs. Energy resources warm your home,
Word Forms Ask students to write fuel the family car, and light the skyline in Figure 1.
a short paragraph explaining how a
renewable library book is similar to a Renewable and Nonrenewable
renewable resource. After students read Resources
the section, ask them if their paragraphs There are two categories of resources—renewable and nonrenewable.
must be changed. If so, what changes A renewable resource can be replenished over fairly short time
would they make? spans such as months, years, or decades. Common examples are plants
and animals for food, natural fibers for clothing, and trees for lumber
Reading Strategy L2
Figure 1 Mineral resources went and paper. Energy from flowing water, wind, and the sun are also renew-
Answers will vary depending on students’ into the construction of every able resources.
building in this New York skyline.
prior knowledge and what they learn Energy resources keep the lights By contrast, a nonrenewable resource takes millions of years
from the section. on, too. to form and accumulate. When the present supply of nonrenewable
resources run out, there won’t be any more. Fuels such as coal, oil, and
2 INSTRUCT natural gas are nonrenewable. So are important metals such as iron,
copper, uranium, and gold.
Earth’s population is growing fast which increases the demand
Renewable and for resources. Because of a rising standard of living, the rate of min-
Nonrenewable eral and energy resource use has climbed faster than population
Resources growth. For example, 6 percent of the world’s population lives in the
Use Visuals L1 United States, yet we use 30 percent of the world’s annual production

Figure 1 Point out some of the features 94 Chapter 4

of the New York skyline. Ask: What
mineral resources can be found in the
scene in the photo? (stone facings on
buildings, iron ore in the steel structures,
petroleum in the asphalt streets) What
energy resources probably power the
lights in the photo? (probably coal,
possibly nuclear fuel)
Visual

94 Chapter 4
HSES_1eTE_C04.qxd 5/16/04 8:20 AM Page 95

Fossil Fuels
U.S. Coal Fields Integrate Economics L2
Resource Dependence Tell students
that modern industries require many
different mineral resources. Although
some countries have substantial mineral
deposits, no nation is self-sufficient.
Because deposits are limited in number
and location, all countries use trade to
fulfill some of their needs. Students can
Average research which countries are major
Heat Value
suppliers of various resources and color
Anthracite a world map to show these sources of
12,700 Btu/lb
resources such as aluminum, iron, gold,
Bituminous coal and copper.
13,100 Btu/lb
Visual, Kinesthetic
Subbituminous coal
0 500 9500 Btu/lb
0 500 kilometers

kilometers Lignite
6700 Btu/lb

Figure 2 Answers
Location This map shows the location of major coal deposits in the United States. Identify bituminous coal
Identify Which type of coal is most plentiful? Locate Where are the anthracite Locate in Pennsylvania, Virginia, Rhode
deposits in the U.S. located?
Island, and Massachusetts

Build Reading Literacy L1

of mineral and energy resources. How long can existing resources
provide for the needs of a growing population? Refer to p. 92D, which provides the
guidelines for using context clues.
Fossil Fuels Using Context Clues Have students
Nearly 90 percent of the energy used in the United States comes from explain the meaning of the term fossil
fossil fuels. A fossil fuel is any hydrocarbon that may be used as a fuels. The text discussion on how fossil
source of energy. Fossil fuels include coal, oil, and natural gas. fuels were formed should allow students
For: Links on fossil fuels
to infer the meaning of the term. (Coal,
Visit: www.SciLinks.org
Coal Coal forms when heat and pressure transform plant material Web Code: cjn-1041
oil, and natural gas are fuels that formed
over millions of years. Coal passes through four stages of development. from the remains, or fossils, of once-living
The first stage, peat, is partially decayed plant material that sometimes plants and animals.)
look like soil. Peat then becomes lignite, which is a sedimentary rock Verbal, Logical
that is often called brown coal. Continued heat and pressure transforms
lignite into bituminous coal, or soft coal. Bituminous coal is another
sedimentary rock. Coal’s last stage of development is a metamorphic
rock called anthracite or hard coal. As coal develops from peat to bitu-
minous, it becomes harder and releases more heat when burned.
Power plants primarily use coal to generate electricity. In fact, elec-
tric power plants use more than 70 percent of the coal mined today.
The world has enormous coal reserves. Figure 2 shows coal fields in
the United States.
Earth’s Resources 95

Customize for Inclusion Students

Gifted Have students research the the process of fractional distillation, in which
hydrocarbons that are found in petroleum. crude petroleum is separated into different
They might enjoy drawing structures or components or fractions according to their
making models (using model-building kits or boiling points. The various fractions produced
gumdrops and toothpicks) of straight-chain range from fuel gasoline to thick asphalts and
hydrocarbons and some of the simpler ring lubricating grease.
hydrocarbons. Students can also investigate Download a worksheet on fossil fuels
for students to complete, and find
additional teacher support from
NSTA SciLinks.

Earth’s Resources 95
HSES_1eTE_C04.qxd 5/16/04 8:20 AM Page 96

Section 4.1 (continued) Although coal is plentiful, its recovery and use present problems.
Surface mining scars the land. Today, all U.S. surface mines must restore
the land surface when mining ends. Underground mining doesn’t scar
as much. However, it has been costly in terms of human life and health.
L2 Mining is safer today because of federal safety regulations. Yet, the haz-
Observing Coal ards of collapsing roofs and gas explosions remain.
Purpose Students compare various Burning coal—much of which is high in sulfur—also creates air
stages of coal. pollution problems. When coal burns, the sulfur becomes sulfur oxides
Materials samples of lignite, in the air. A series of chemical reactions turns the sulfur oxides into sul-
bituminous, and anthracite (Coal samples furic acid, which falls to Earth as acid precipitation—rain or snow that
are often available from fuel companies, is more acidic than normal. Acid precipitation can have harmful effects
which are listed under Coal in the Yellow on forests and aquatic ecosystems, as well as metal and stone structures.
Pages of the phone book.)
Procedure Obtain samples of various Petroleum and Natural Gas Petroleum (oil) and natural gas
coals. Pass samples around so students form from the remains of plants and animals that were buried in
can compare them. ancient seas. Petroleum formation begins when large quantities of
plant and animal remains become buried in ocean-floor sediments.
Expected Outcomes Anthracite will
The sediment protects these organic remains from oxidation and
likely be a shiny dark grey or black.
decay. Over millions of years and continual sediment build up, chem-
Bituminous and lignite will not be shiny,
ical reactions slowly transform some of the organic remains into the
and lignite will likely be more brown in
liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons we call petroleum and natural gas.
color than the other samples. Students
These materials are gradually squeezed from the compacting, mud-
will be able to break off pieces of lignite
rich sediment layers. The oil and gas then move into nearby permeable
and possibly bituminous, but anthracite
beds such as sandstone. Because this happens underwater,
is too hard to break easily.
the rock layers containing the oil and gas are saturated with
Visual
water. However, oil and natural gas are less dense than water,
Well
so they migrate upward through the water-filled spaces of the
L1 Gas Ca enclosing rocks. If nothing stops this migration, the fluids
Use Visuals Oil
pr
oc will eventually reach the surface.
Reservoir k
Figure 3 Have students examine the rock Sometimes an oil trap—a geologic structure that allows
Water
diagram of an oil trap. Ask: What large amounts of fluids to accumulate—stops upward
prevents the gas and oil from rising movement of oil and gas. Several geologic structures may
to the surface and evaporating? (a cap act as oil traps, but all have two things in common. First,
rock) Why does the natural gas collect an oil trap has a permeable reservoir rock that allows oil
above the petroleum? (The gas is less and gas to collect in large quantities. Second, an oil trap has
Figure 3 Anticlines are common
dense than the oil.) What might happen oil traps. The reservoir rock a cap rock that is nearly impenetrable and so keeps the oil and gas from
if tremendous pressure builds up in contains water, oil, and gas. The escaping to the surface. One structure that acts as an oil trap is an anti-
the oil trap? (The pressure might force fluids collect at the top of the
arch with less dense oil and gas cline. An anticline is an uparched series of sedimentary rock layers, as
the petroleum up to the surface and cause on top. shown in Figure 3.
a “gusher” or oil fountain.) Interpreting Diagrams Why is
When a drill punctures the cap rock, pressure is released, and the oil
Visual, Logical the water located beneath the oil
and gas? and gas move toward the drill hole. Then a pump lifts the petroleum out.

Build Science Skills L2

What two features must an oil trap have?
Using Models Have
students make a
model of an oil trap
and observe the
difference in densities of rock, oil, and 96 Chapter 4
water. In a graduated cylinder or tall jar,
have students mix equal quantities of
vegetable oil, gravel, and water. Let
stand for 10 minutes and observe the Facts and Figures
layers that form. Students will find that
the gravel sinks to the bottom of the Different stages of coal have different moisture coal has a moisture content that is usually
container and the oil floats on top of the and heat contents. In general, the lower the less then 20 percent. The heat content of
water layer. Ask: What would happen if moisture content of a coal, the higher the heat bituminous coal ranges from 21 to 30 million
an antacid tablet were dropped into content will be. Lignite has a high inherent Btu per ton. Anthracite coal has the lowest
the graduated cylinder? (Bubbles of moisture content, sometimes as high as 45 moisture content, generally less than
carbon dioxide would be produced. The percent. The heat content of lignite ranges 15 percent. The heat content of anthracite
bubbles would rise to the top and dissipate from 9 to 17 million Btu per ton. Bituminous ranges from 22 to 28 million Btu per ton.
into the air.) What do the bubbles of
carbon dioxide represent? (natural gas
deposits)
Kinesthetic, Visual
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Tar Sands and

Tar Sands and Oil Shale Oil Shale
In the years to come, world petroleum supplies will dwindle. L1
Some energy experts believe that fuels derived from tar ALBERTA Build Reading Literacy
sands and oil shales could become good substitutes for dwin- Refer to p. 124D in Chapter 5, which
dling petroleum supplies. provides the guidelines for summarizing.
Summarize Have students summarize
Tar Sands Tar sands are usually mixtures of clay and the process by which tar sands are
sand combined with water and varying amounts of a black, extracted from their deposits by making
thick tar called bitumen. Deposits occur in sands and a flow diagram. Diagrams should have
sandstones, as the name suggests, but also in shales and the various steps of the process labeled.
limestones. The oil in these deposits is similar Ask: Why are tar sands so much more
Edmonton
to heavy crude oils pumped from wells. difficult to extract than petroleum?
The oil in tar sands, however, is much (Tar sands are so thick that they do not
more resistant to flow and cannot be flow. Thus, they cannot be pumped out of
pumped out easily. The Canadian the ground the way crude oil can. Hot
province of Alberta (Figure 4) has the largest Canada fluids are injected into the tar sands to
tar sand deposits, which accounts for about Calgary reduce the material’s resistance to flow.
15 percent of Canada’s oil production. The material can then be pumped out.)
Currently, tar sands are mined at the sur- United States Logical
face, much like the strip mining of coal. The
excavated material is then heated with pressur-
ized steam until the bitumen softens and rises.
The material is processed to remove impurities, add
Figure 4 Tar Sand Deposits In
hydrogen, and refine into oil. However, extracting and refining tar sand North America, the largest tar
requires a lot of energy—nearly half as much as the end product yields. sand deposits occur in the
Obtaining oil from tar sand has significant environmental draw- Canadian province of Alberta.
They contain an estimated reserve
backs. Mining tar sand causes substantial land disturbance. Processing of 35 billion barrels of oil.
also requires large amounts of water. When processing is completed,
contaminated water and sediment accumulate in toxic disposal ponds.
Only about 10 percent of Alberta’s tar sands can be economically
recovered by surface mining. In the future, other methods may be used
to obtain the more deeply buried material, reduce the environmental
impacts, and make mining tar sands more economical.

What are some environmental drawbacks to

mining tar sands?

Oil Shale Oil shale is a rock that contains a waxy mixture of hydro-
carbons called kerogen. Oil shale can be mined and heated to vaporize
the kerogen. The kerogen vapor is processed to remove impurities, and
then refined.
Roughly half of the world’s oil shale supply is in the Green River
Formation of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming. See Figure 5 on page 98.
The oil shales are part of sedimentary layers that accumulated at the
bottom of two extremely large, shallow lakes 57 to 36 million years ago.

Earth’s Resources 97 Answer to . . .

Figure 3 The density of water is
greater than the densities of oil and
gas, so water is located beneath oil
Facts and Figures and gas.

Oil shales contain an enormous amount of However, present technology is only able permeable reservoir rock
oil. Worldwide, the U.S. Geological Survey to recover less than 200 billion barrels. Still, to allow oil and gas to
estimates that there are more than 3000 estimated U.S. resources are about 14 times collect and a cap rock that keeps oil
billion barrels of oil in shales that could yield greater than those of conventionally and gas from escaping
more than 38 liters of oil per ton of shale. recoverable oil. Processing requires a lot
of energy and water and
causes the accumulation of contami-
nated water and sediment in toxic
disposal ponds. Mining causes
substantial land disturbance.

Earth’s Resources 97
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Section 4.1 (continued) Some people see oil shale as a partial

solution to dwindling fuel supplies.
Green Wyoming
Use Visuals L1 Idaho
However, the heat energy in oil shale is
Utah River
only about one-eighth that in crude oil
Figure 5 Have students examine the Basin
map. Ask: Where is the Green River Great Washakie
because oil shale contains large amounts
Salt
Formation located? (Northern Colorado, Lake
Basin
of minerals. This mineral material adds
Wyoming, and Utah) Does this area Salt Lake City
costs to the mining, processing, and waste
Colorado
have abundant water supplies? (No, disposal of oil shale. The processing of it
the area is semi-arid.) Uinta requires large amounts of water, which is
Basin
scarce in the semi-arid region where the

Pi Bas
Visual, Logical

ce in
an
shales are found. Current technology

ce
Formation of 0 25 50 km
makes mining oil shale an unprofitable
solution.
Mineral Deposits
L2 Figure 5 Distribution of Oil
Build Science Skills Shale in the Green River Formation of Mineral Deposits
Using Tables and Graphs Have Formation The areas in red are
the richest deposits. Practically every manufactured product contains substances that come
students choose three ores and make Posing Questions How might from minerals. Mineral resources are deposits of useful minerals that
a table listing the metal present in each, the mining and processing of oil can be extracted. Mineral reserves are deposits from which minerals
where in the United States each is shale become more economically
attractive? can be extracted profitably. Ore is a useful metallic mineral that can be
mined, and what each is used for. mined at a profit.
Students can list other information There are also known deposits that are not yet economically or
about the chosen ores as well. technologically recoverable. These deposits, as well as deposits that are
Intrapersonal, Verbal believed to exist, are also considered mineral resources.
The natural concentration of many minerals is rather small. A
Integrate Chemistry L2
deposit containing a valuable mineral is worthless if the cost of extract-
Crystal Size Tell students that the ing it exceeds the value of the material that is recovered. For example,
crystal size of minerals that form from copper makes up about 0.0135 percent of Earth’s crust. However, for
magma is determined by how quickly a material to be considered a copper ore, it must contain a concentra-
the magma cools. If the rate of cooling tion of about 50 times this amount.
is slow, the atoms of the mineral have Geologists have established that the occurrences of valuable min-
time to arrange themselves into a large eral resources are closely related to Earth’s rock cycle. The rock cycle
crystal lattice. If cooling is rapid, the includes the formation of igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
atoms have time to arrange themselves rock as well as the processes of weathering and erosion. Some of
only into small crystals. The Teacher the most important mineral deposits form through igneous
Demo on the next page can be done as processes and from hydrothermal solutions.
part of this discussion.
Visual, Kinesthetic Mineral Resources and Igneous Processes Igneous
processes produce important deposits of metallic minerals, such as
gold, silver, copper, mercury, lead, platinum, and nickel. For example,
as a large body of magma cools, heavy minerals crystallize early and
settle to the bottom of the magma chamber. Chromite (chromium
ore), magnetite, and platinum sometimes form this way. Such deposits
produced layers of chromite at Montana’s Stillwater Complex. Another
deposit is found in the Bushveld Complex in South Africa. This deposit
contains over 70 percent of the world’s known platinum reserves.

98 Chapter 4

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Use Visuals L1
Hydrothermal Solutions Hydrothermal (hot-
water) solutions generate some of the best-known Figure 6 Have students examine the
and most important ore deposits. Examples of diagram of hydrothermal deposition.
hydrothermal deposits include the gold Ask: Where are minerals likely to be
Geyser deposited as veins? (in rock fractures)
deposits of the Homestake Mine in South
Dakota; the lead, zinc, and silver ores near What is the source of the hot mineral-
Fault Hydrothermal
Coeur D’Alene, Idaho; the silver deposits of the Hydrothermal vein laden water in the diagram? (the geyser)
disseminated deposits Visual, Logical
Comstock Lode in Nevada; and the copper ores deposits
of Michigan’s Keweenaw Peninsula.
Most hydrothermal deposits form from
hot, metal-rich fluids that are left during the
late stages of the movement and cooling of Varying the Size
magma. Figure 6 shows how these deposits Igneous of Crystals L2
form. As the magma cools and becomes pluton
Purpose Students observe how sulfur
solid, liquids and various metal ions collect
crystals form in relation to their rate of
near the top of the magma chamber. These
cooling.
ion-rich solutions can move great distances
through the surrounding rock. Some of this fluid moves CAUTION: This demonstration should
Figure 6 Mineral-rich hot water be done in a fume hood or area with
along openings such as fractures or bedding planes. The fluid cools in seeps into rock fractures, cools,
these openings and the metallic ions separate out of the solution to and leaves behind vein deposits. very good ventilation. Sulfur fumes can
produce vein deposits, like those shown in Figure 7. Many of the most adversely affect students with respiratory
productive gold, silver, and mercury deposits occur as hydrothermal problems.
vein deposits. Materials 2 crucibles, beaker, water,
teaspoon, sulfur powder, clamp, Bunsen
Placer Deposits Placer deposits are formed when eroded heavy burner, magnifying glass
minerals settle quickly from moving water while less dense particles Procedure Place 1 teaspoon of
remain suspended and continue to move. This settling is a means of powdered sulfur in one of the crucibles.
sorting in which like-size grains are deposited together due to the den- Heat the crucible until the sulfur melts,
sity of the particles. Placer deposits usually involve minerals that are then allow it to cool slowly. Place
not only heavy but also durable and chemically resistant. Common sites 1 teaspoon of sulfur in the second
of accumulation include point bars on the inside of bends in streams, crucible. Melt the sulfur, and slowly
as well as cracks, depressions, and other streambed irregularities. pour it into a beaker that has been
half-filled with water.
Figure 7 Light veins of
Expected Outcome Students should
quartz lace a body of
darker gneiss in notice that the sulfur that cooled slowly
Washington’s North developed larger crystals than the sulfur
Cascades National Park.
that cooled rapidly in water.
Visual, Logical

Earth’s Resources 99

Facts and Figures

The term placer is probably of Spanish gravels of streams. Originally, the term seems
derivation and was used by the early Spanish to have meant “sand bank” or “a place in a
miners in both North and South America as a stream where gold was deposited.”
name for gold deposits found in the sands and

Answer to . . .
Figure 5 Oil shale may become more
economically attractive if the prices of
petroleum and other competing fuels
rise.

Earth’s Resources 99
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Section 4.1 (continued) Gold is the best-known placer deposit. In 1848, placer deposits of
gold were discovered in California, sparking the famous California gold
Use Visuals L1 rush. Early prospectors searched rivers by using a flat pan to wash away
the sand and gravel and concentrate the gold “dust” at the bottom.
Figure 8 Have students think about
prospecting for gold. Ask: Why does Figure 8 shows this common method. Years later, similar deposits cre-
the gold dust settle to the bottom of ated a gold rush to Alaska. Sometimes prospectors follow the placer
the pan? (The gold dust is heavier than deposits upstream. This method may lead prospectors to the original
the other material suspended in the mineral deposit. Miners found the gold-bearing veins of the Mother
water.) Why doesn’t the gold dissolve Lode in California’s Sierra Nevadas by following placer deposits.
in water? (Gold is not soluble in water.)
Visual, Logical What are mineral resources?

Nonmetallic Mineral Figure 8 Placer deposits led to

Resources the California gold rush. Here, a
prospector in 1850 swirls his gold
Nonmetallic Mineral Resources
Build Science Skills L2 pan, separating sand and mud Nonmetallic mineral resources are extracted and processed
from flecks of gold.
Designing either for the nonmetallic elements they contain or for their physi-
Experiments cal and chemical properties. People often do not realize the importance
When a drop of dilute of nonmetallic minerals because they see only the products that resulted
hydrochloric acid is from their use and not the minerals used to make the products.
placed on limestone, it effervesces— Examples of nonmetallic minerals include the fluorite and limestone
bubbles of carbon dioxide are produced. that are part of the steelmaking process and the fertilizers needed to grow
Have students make a hypothesis about food, as shown in Table 1.
whether cement, concrete, and garden Nonmetallic mineral resources are divided into two broad groups—
lime will effervesce when dilute hydro- building materials and industrial minerals. For example, natural
chloric acid is applied. Encourage Q How big was the largest gold aggregate (crushed stone, sand, and gravel), is an important material
students to design an experiment to nugget ever discovered? used in nearly all building construction.
test their hypothesis. Supply samples A The largest gold nugget ever Some substances, however, have many uses in both construction
of limestone, cement, and concrete. discovered was the Welcome and industry. Limestone is a good example. As a building material, it
Intrapersonal, Logical Stranger Nugget found in 1869
is used as crushed rock and building stone. It is also an ingredient in
as a placer deposit in the gold-
mining region of Victoria, cement. As an industrial mineral, limestone is an ingredient in the
Australia. It weighed a massive manufacture of steel. Farmers also use it to neutralize acidic soils.
2520 troy ounces (210 pounds, Many nonmetallic resources are used for their specific chemical
or 95 kilograms) and, at today's
elements or compounds. These resources are important in the manu-
gold prices, was worth over
$700,000. The largest gold facture of chemicals and fertilizers. In other cases, their importance is
nugget known to remain in related to their physical properties. Examples include abrasive miner-
existence today is the Hand of als such as corundum and garnet.
Faith Nugget, which was found
Although industrial minerals are useful, they have drawbacks. Most
in 1975 near Wedderburn,
Victoria, Australia. It was found industrial minerals are not nearly as abundant as building materials.
with a metal detector and Manufacturers must also transport nonmetallic minerals long dis-
weighs 875 troy ounces (73 tances, adding to their cost. Unlike most building materials, which
pounds, or 33 kilograms). Sold
need a minimum of processing before use, many industrial minerals
in 1982, it is now on display in
the Golden Nugget Casino in require considerable processing to extract the desired substance at the
Las Vegas, Nevada. proper degree of purity.

100 Chapter 4

Facts and Figures

Our society uses enormous quantities of United States totals more than 11 metric tons.
nonmetallic minerals each year. The per-person About 94 percent of these resources are
consumption of non-fuel resources in the nonmetallics.

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Use Visuals L1
Table 1 Occurrences and Uses of Nonmetallic Minerals
Table 1 Have students study the table.
Mineral Uses Geological Occurrences Ask: What is halite, and what are its
Apatite Phosphorus fertilizers Sedimentary deposits uses? (Halite is table salt. In addition to
Asbestos Incombustible fibers Metamorphic alteration seasoning food, it is used in chemical
(chrysotile) processes and to melt ice.) Which mineral
Calcite Aggregate; steelmaking; soil conditioning; Sedimentary deposits listed occurs in Kimberlite pipes?
chemicals; cement; building stone (diamond) Which mineral listed occurs
Clay minerals Ceramics; china Residual product of weathering as hydrothermal deposits? (fluorite)
(kaolinite) Visual, Logical
Corundum Gemstones; abrasives Metamorphic deposits

Diamond Gemstones; abrasives Kimberlite pipes; placers 3 ASSESS

Fluorite Steelmaking; aluminum refining; Hydrothermal deposits Evaluate
glass; chemicals L2
Understanding
Garnet Abrasives; gemstones Metamorphic deposits
To assess students’ knowledge of section
Graphite Pencil lead; lubricant; refractories Metamorphic deposits
content, have them list two renewable
Gypsum Plaster of Paris Evaporite deposits
resources and two nonrenewable
Halite Table salt; chemicals; ice control Evaporite deposits, salt domes resources. Students should explain
Muscovite Insulator in electrical applications Pegmatites why each resource listed is renewable
or nonrenewable.
Quartz Primary ingredient in glass Igneous intrusions, sedimentary deposits

Sulfur Chemicals; fertilizer manufacture Sedimentary deposits, hydrothermal deposits Reteach L1

Sylvite Potassium fertilizers Evaporite deposits Have students make a poster
Talc Powder used in paints, cosmetics, etc. Metamorphic deposits diagramming the process by which
coal is formed. The type of vegetation
depicted should be appropriate for the
time. (Large tree ferns and other swamp
vegetation were predominant in coal
Section 4.1 Assessment
swamps during the Pennsylvanian and
Permian periods.)
Reviewing Concepts Critical Thinking
1. What is the difference between a 7. Drawing Conclusions Why isn’t the use of
renewable and a nonrenewable resource? tar sands more widespread in the United
States? Building materials are abundant, need
2. What are the three major fossil fuels?
8. Applying Concepts Explain how following
little processing, need not be pure, and
3. What are tar sands and oil shale?
placer deposits upstream would help are usually found close to where they
4. How do hydrothermal deposits form?
prospectors find the original deposit. are used. Industrial minerals are used for
5. What are the two broad categories of their chemical or physical properties, are
nonmetallic mineral resources?
relatively scarce, must be extracted and
6. Compare and contrast the formation of coal
with that of petroleum and natural gas. purified, and must be transported.

Compare-Contrast Paragraph Write a

paragraph describing the difference in the
use of nonmetallic building minerals and
nonmetallic industrial minerals.
Answer to . . .
Mineral resources are
Earth materials that are
Earth’s Resources 101 extracted and processed for either the
metals or the elements they contain.

Section 4.1 Assessment 4. Hydrothermal deposits form from hot, 7. Most of the world’s tar-sand deposits are
metal-rich fluids that are left when magma in Canada. The few deposits in the United
1. Renewable resources have unlimited cools. The metal ions collect as mineral States are in California. In addition, mining
supplies and can be replaced; nonrenewable deposits in small openings such as rock tar sands has serious environmental draw-
resources have limited supplies and cannot fractures. backs and is expensive.
be replaced. 5. building materials and industrial minerals 8. Placer deposits are minerals that are
2. coal, petroleum, natural gas 6. Coal was formed from plant material that carried by moving water from a source
3. geologic structures that contain low grade collected in swamps. Petroleum and natural upstream. By following the deposits
hydrocarbons mixed with clay, sand, or shale gas were formed from plant and animal upstream, it is possible to find the original
material that collected and were buried in deposit.
ancient seas.

Earth’s Resources 101

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Section 4.2
4.2 Alternate Energy Sources
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
4.6 Evaluate the advantages of Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy
solar energy. What are the advantages ◆ hydroelectric Previewing Skim the section and start a
of using solar energy? power concept map for the various alternate energy
4.7 Explain how nuclear power ◆ geothermal energy resources.
How do nuclear power
plants use nuclear fission to plants use nuclear fission
produce energy. to produce energy? Alternate Energy Resources
4.8 Evaluate wind power’s What is wind power’s
potential for providing energy potential for providing ? ? ? ? ? ?
a. b. c. d. e. f.
energy in the future?
in the future.
How do hydroelectric
4.9 Relate how hydroelectric power, geothermal
power, geothermal energy, energy, and tidal power
and tidal power contribute contribute to our energy
resources?
to our energy resources.

Reading Focus T here’s no doubt that we live in the age of fossils fuels. These non-
renewable resources supply nearly 90 percent of the world’s energy.
Build Vocabulary L2
But that can’t last forever. At the present rates of consumption, the
Word Parts Have students break the amount of recoverable fossil fuels may last only another 170 years. As
word geothermal into its parts. They the world population soars, the rate of consumption will climb as well.
should use a dictionary to find the This will leave fossil fuel reserves in even shorter supply. In the mean-
meaning and derivation of each part. time, the burning of huge quantities of fossil fuels will continue to
(Geo- or ge- is a Greek combination form damage the environment. Our growing demand for energy along with
meaning “earth or ground.” Thermal Figure 9 Solar One is a solar
installation used to generate our need for a healthy environment will likely lead to a greater reliance
comes from the Greek word therme electricity in the Mojave Desert on alternate energy sources.
meaning “coming from heat.” Geothermal near Barstow, California.
energy is heat that comes from within Solar Energy
Earth.)
Solar energy is the direct use of the sun’s rays to supply heat or elec-
Reading Strategy L2 tricity. Solar energy has two advantages: the “fuel” is free, and it’s
non-polluting. The simplest and perhaps most widely used solar
a. solar energy energy systems are passive solar collectors such as south-facing
b. nuclear energy
windows. As sunlight passes through the glass, objects in the room
c. wind energy
absorb its heat. These objects radiate the heat, which warms the air.
d. hydroelectric power
More elaborate systems for home heating use an active solar col-
e. geothermal energy
lector. These roof-mounted devices are usually large, blackened boxes
f. tidal power
covered with glass or plastic. The heat they collect can be transferred
to areas where it is needed by circulating air or liquids through piping.
2 INSTRUCT Solar collectors are also used to heat water for domestic and commer-
cial needs. For example, solar collectors provide hot water for more
Solar Energy than 80 percent of Israel’s homes.
Use Visuals L1 102 Chapter 4
Figure 9 Have students examine the
photo. Tell them that the structures on
the ground are tracking mirrors that
reflect the solar energy onto a receiver
mounted on the tower. Ask: What do
you think happens to the solar energy
once it enters the receiver? (The solar
energy is absorbed by a fluid, typically
molten salt or air, and used to generate
steam to power a conventional turbine.)
Can electricity be generated at night?
(No; energy can be stored at night, but
not generated at night.)
Visual, Logical

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Build Science Skills L2

There are a few drawbacks to solar energy. While the
energy collected is free, the necessary equipment and instal- Using Models
lation is not. A supplemental heating unit is also needed Have students make
when there is less solar energy—on cloudy days or in the a model solar oven.
winter—or at night when solar energy is unavailable. Each student will need a
However, over the long term, solar energy is economical in long, narrow potato chip can; scissors; a
many parts of the United States. It will become even more long wooden skewer; tape; a 20- ⫻ 30-cm
cost effective as the prices of other fuels increase. piece of transparency film; and a hot
Research is currently underway to improve the tech- dog. The can should be cut as follows:
nologies for concentrating sunlight. Scientists are make two 8-cm cuts around the can
examining a way to use mirrors to track the sun and keep its connected by an 18-cm cut to form
rays focused on a receiving tower. Figure 9 shows a solar an H. Bend back the flaps but do not
remove them from the can. They will be
collection facility with 2000 mirrors that was built near
used to reflect solar energy onto the hot
Barstow, California. This facility heats water in pressurized Figure 10 Solar cells convert dog. Cover the opening on the inside of
panels to over 500°C by focusing solar energy on a central tower. The sunlight directly into electricity.
This array of solar panels is near the can with the transparency film and
superheated water is then transferred to turbines, which turn electri-
Sacramento, California. tape the film into place. Make small
cal generators. Applying Concepts What holes in the metal end of the can and in
Another type of collector, shown in Figure 10, uses photovoltaic characteristics would you look for
if you were searching for a the plastic lid. Remove the lid. Put a hot
(solar) cells. They convert the sun’s energy directly into electricity. location for a new solar plant? dog lengthwise onto the skewer and
What are the two main advantages of using solar slide the skewer into the can, inserting
energy? the end into the hole in the metal end.
Put the plastic lid on the can and insert
the other end of the skewer into the
Nuclear Energy hole in the lid. The hot dog will be
suspended inside the can. Place the solar
Nuclear power meets about 7 percent of
oven into direct sunlight and adjust the
the energy demand of the United States.
flaps so that they reflect solar energy
The fuel for nuclear plants, like the one in
onto the hot dog. Ask students what
Figure 11, comes from radioactive materi-
they can do to make the hot dog cook
als that release energy through nuclear
faster. (Answers will vary. Students may
fission. In nuclear fission, the nuclei of suggest that they can insulate the can or
heavy atoms such as uranium-235 are enlarge the flaps with aluminum foil.)
bombarded with neutrons. The uranium Kinesthetic, Logical
nuclei then split into smaller nuclei and
emit neutrons and heat energy. The neu- Nuclear Energy
trons that are emitted then bombard the L1
Build Reading Literacy
nuclei of adjacent uranium atoms, produc-
ing a chain reaction. If there is enough fissionable material and if the Figure 11 Diablo Canyon Refer to p. 362D in Chapter 13, which
reaction continues in an uncontrolled manner, fission releases an enor-
Nuclear Plant Near San Luis provides the guidelines for using prior
Obispo, California Reactors are
mous amount of energy as an atomic explosion. in the dome-shaped buildings.
knowledge.
In a nuclear power plant, however, the fission reaction is controlled You can see cooling water being Use Prior Knowledge Have students
released to the ocean.
by moving neutron-absorbing rods into or out of the nuclear reactor. Analyzing The siting of this
use their knowledge of the structure of
The result is a controlled nuclear chain reaction that releases great plant was controversial because it an atom to make a model of an atom
is close to faults. Why would that having 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
amounts of heat. The energy drives steam turbines that turn electrical
be a cause for concern?
generators. This is similar to what occurs in most conventional power Ask: How many electrons will this
plants. atom have? (6) What element is
represented by this atom? (carbon)
Earth’s Resources 103 Is this atom radioactive? Explain.
(It is not radioactive because its nucleus
is stable.)
Kinesthetic, Logical
Customize for English Language Learners
Encourage students who are new to the United Many European and Asian countries rely more
States to describe any differences in the use or heavily on nuclear power than Americans do. Answer to . . .
production of energy they may have observed. For example, 75 percent of France’s power Figure 10 abundant sunlight, long
For example, cooking and heating fuels may be comes from nuclear energy. summers, abundant space
different from those used in the United States.
Figure 11 Faults are prone to
earthquakes which could damage
the reactor.
The fuel is free and
it’s non-polluting.

Earth’s Resources 103

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Section 4.2 (continued) At one time, energy experts thought nuclear power would be the
cheap, clean energy source that would replace fossil fuels. But several
obstacles have slowed its development. First, the cost of building safe
nuclear facilities has increased. Second, there are hazards associated with
L2 the disposal of nuclear wastes. Third, there is concern over the possibil-
Students may have many misconceptions ity of a serious accident that could allow radioactive materials to escape.
about nuclear energy. They may think The 1979 accident at Three Mile Island in Pennsylvania made this con-
that a nuclear power plant may explode. cern a reality. A malfunction in the equipment led the plant operators to
Others fear that the electricity might be think there was too much water in the primary system. Instead there was
radioactive or that nuclear wastes not enough water. This confusion allowed the reactor core to lie uncov-
release radioactivity into the air. Some ered for hours. Although there was little danger to the public, the
students may think nuclear power plants malfunction resulted in substantial damage to the reactor.
produce power through nuclear Unfortunately, the 1986 accident at Chernobyl in Ukraine was far
explosions. Explain to students that more serious. In this case, the reactor went out of control. Two small
nothing is exploded or burned. The explosions lifted the roof of the structure, and pieces of uranium
uranium that is brought to Earth’s spread over the surrounding area. A fire followed the explosion. During
surface during coal mining can have a the 10 days that it took to put out the fire, the atmosphere carried high
greater effect on the environment than levels of radioactive material as far away as Norway. Eighteen people
nuclear waste. Nuclear power plants are died within six weeks of the accident. Thousands more faced an
not that different from coal-burning increased risk of death from cancers associated with the fallout.
plants. The heat needed to boil water
into steam is produced by burning fossil What is nuclear fission?
fuels in a coal-burning power plant.
Ask: Where does the heat needed
to produce steam come from in a
nuclear power plant? (from splitting Wind Energy
certain atoms of uranium) Once the According to one estimate, if just the winds of North and South Dakota
steam is produced, it turns the blades could be harnessed, they would provide 80 percent of the electrical
of a turbine, which causes a generator to For: Links on wind energy used in the United States. Wind is not a new energy source.
produce electricity. Ask: Is the process of Visit: www.SciLinks.org People have used it for centuries to power sailing ships and windmills
producing electricity from steam in a Web Code: cjn-1042 for grinding grains.
nuclear plant the same or different Following the “energy crisis” brought about by the oil embargo of the
from the process in a coal-burning 1970s, interest in wind power and other alternative forms of energy grew.
plant? (the same; only the method of Figure 12 These wind turbines In 1980, the federal government started a program to develop wind-
are operating near Palm Springs,
producing steam is different.) California. power systems, such as the one shown in Figure 12. The U.S. Department
Logical of Energy set up experimental wind farms in mountain passes with
strong, steady winds. One of these facilities, at Altamont Pass near San
Wind Energy Francisco, now operates more than 7000 wind turbines. In the year 2000,
Build Science Skills L2 wind supplied a little less than one percent of California’s electricity.
Applying Concepts Ask: Why are Some experts estimate that in the next 50 to 60 years, wind
mountain passes good locations for power could meet between 5 to 10 percent of the country’s demand
wind farms? (Most mountain passes for electricity. Islands and other isolated regions that must import fuel
have strong, steady winds that sweep for generating power are major candidates for wind energy expansion.
through the area.) What other locations The future for wind power looks promising, but there are difficul-
would make good locations for wind ties. The need for technical advances, noise pollution, and the cost of
farms? (along a seacoast) large tracts of land in populated areas are obstacles to development.
Intrapersonal, Logical
104 Chapter 4

Facts and Figures

Although many people think wind power is a may also have been the driving force of
new development, the use of multiple wind the industrial revolution in the Netherlands
turbines to perform a task is nothing new. during the eighteenth century. Dutch millers
Dutch engineers used multiple windmills constructed an amazing assembly of more
to drain water from their countryside. The than 700 industrial windmills in a region
Dutch called these early wind farms gangs northwest of Amsterdam. These windmills
Download a worksheet on wind for of windmills, and a group can still be seen powered Dutch industry before the use of
students to complete, and find southeast of Rotterdam at Kinderdijk. Windmills coal became widespread in the rest of Europe.
additional teacher support from
NSTA SciLinks.

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Hydroelectric Power

Modeling Hydroelectric
Power L2
Purpose Students determine how the
amount of energy from falling water
increases with increasing height.
Figure 13 Glen Canyon Dam
and Lake Powell on the Materials piece of plastic or
Colorado River As dam
operators release water in the
transparency film, scissors, plastic straw,
reservoir, it passes through straight pin, jar, water, metric ruler
machinery that drives turbines
and produces electricity.
Procedure Make a pinwheel by cutting
a square piece of plastic or transparency
Hydroelectric Power film. Attach the pinwheel to a plastic
Like wind, moving water has been an energy source for centuries. The straw by placing a straight pin through
mechanical energy that waterwheels produce has powered mills and other the center of the pinwheel and through
machinery. Today, the power that falling water generates, known as the straw. Hold the pinwheel over a sink
hydroelectric power, drives turbines that produce electricity. In the while a student pours a full jar of water
United States, hydroelectric power plants produce about 5 percent of the on the pinwheel from a measured height.
country’s electricity. Large dams, like the one in Figure 13, are responsi- Have students count the number of
ble for most of it. The dams allow for a controlled flow of water. The turns the pinwheel makes. Repeat the
water held in a reservoir behind a dam is a form of stored energy that procedure several times using the same
can be released through the dam to produce electric power. amount of water and the same rate of
flow. Vary only the height of the water
Although water power is a renewable resource, hydroelectric dams
jar above the pinwheel.
have finite lifetimes. Rivers deposit sediment behind the dam. Eventually,
the sediment fills the reservoir. When this happens, the dam can no Expected Outcome The pinwheel
longer produce power. This process takes 50 to 300 years, depending on should turn faster and make more turns
the amount of material the river carries. An example is Egypt’s Aswan as the water is poured from increasing
High Dam on the Nile River, which was completed in the 1960s. It is height.
estimated that half the reservoir will be filled with sediment by 2025. Visual, Kinesthetic
The availability of suitable sites is an important limiting factor in
the development of hydroelectric power plants. A good site must pro-
vide a significant height for the water to fall. It also must have a high
Geothermal Energy
rate of flow. There are hydroelectric dams in many parts of the United Integrate Geography L2
States, with the greatest concentration in the Southeast and the Pacific Iceland Inform students that geothermal
Northwest. Most of the best U.S. sites have already been developed. energy is one of Iceland’s greatest natural
This limits future expansion of hydroelectric power. resources. The capital of Iceland has
enjoyed this valuable source of power
Geothermal Energy for more than 60 years. Geothermal
Geothermal energy is harnessed by tapping natural underground heat is used mostly to heat fresh water,
reservoirs of steam and hot water. Hot water is used directly for which is utilized directly for central
heating and to turn turbines to generate electric power. The reser- heating. Over 89 percent of all the
voirs of steam and hot water occur where subsurface temperatures are houses in Iceland are heated this way.
high due to relatively recent volcanic activity. Geothermal water is also used in
swimming pools, for melting snow,
farm fishing, drying timber and wool,
Earth’s Resources 105
and heating greenhouses. Ask: What
can you tell about volcanic activity in
Iceland? (Iceland is volcanically active.)
Do you think Iceland’s energy source
is renewable or nonrenewable?
(renewable)
Intrapersonal, Logical

Answer to . . .
Nuclear fission is the
splitting of an unstable
nucleus of an atom into smaller parts,
releasing large amounts of energy.

Earth’s Resources 105

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Section 4.2 (continued)

Making a Geyser L2
Purpose Students model a geyser and
observe how it works.
Materials water; 250- or 500-mL Pyrex
flask with tight-fitting, one-hole rubber
stopper; glass tube 33–45 cm long;
hot plate or Bunsen burner; ring stand;
strong, small plastic bowl or container;
ice pick or drill; plumber’s putty
Safety Use caution when inserting the
glass tube into the stopper. Perform this
Figure 14 The Geysers is the In the United States, areas in several western states use hot water
demo behind a safety shield. Have world’s largest electricity-
from geothermal sources for heat. The first commercial geothermal
everyone in the room wear goggles. generating geothermal facility.
Most of the steam wells are about power plant in the United States was built in 1960 at The Geysers,
Procedure Fill the flask with water 3,000 meters deep. shown in Figure 14. The Geysers is an important source of electrical
about 3/4 full. Carefully insert the glass power for nearby San Francisco and Oakland. Although production
tube in the rubber stopper. Place the in the plant has declined, it remains the world’s premier geothermal
stopper in the flask and adjust the tube field. It continues to provide electrical power with little environmen-
so that it goes down into the flask about tal impact. Geothermal development is now also occurring in Nevada,
3/4 of the way to the bottom. Place the Utah, and the Imperial Valley of California.
flask on the hot plate or on a ring stand
Geothermal power is clean but not inexhaustible. When hot fluids
just above a Bunsen burner. Drill a hole
are pumped from volcanically heated reservoirs, the reservoir often
in a strong, small plastic bowl or Q Is power from ocean waves cannot be recharged. The steam and hot water from individual wells
container. Work the top of the glass a practical alternative energy
source? usually lasts no more than 10 to 15 years. Engineers must drill more
tube into the hole in the bowl and
wells to maintain power production. Eventually, the field is depleted.
position the bowl on a ring stand above A It’s being seriously explored
now. In November 2000, the As with other alternative methods of power production, geother-
the flask. Plumber’s putty can be applied
world’s first commercial wave mal sources are not expected to provide a high percentage of the
to the bottom of the bowl around the
power station opened on the world’s growing energy needs. Nevertheless, in regions where people
glass tube to keep the bottom of the Scottish island of Islay. It pro-
bowl from leaking. The glass tube can develop its potential, its use will no doubt grow.
vides power for the United
should extend up an inch or so into the Kingdom. The 500-kilowatt
bowl. The bowl will catch the water power station uses an oscillating In what two ways is geothermal energy used?
water column, in which incom-
from an eruption and also allow the ing waves push air up and
water to flow back into the model. Fill down inside a concrete tube
the bowl until water runs down the tube that is partly under the ocean’s Tidal Power
into the flask. Keep adding water until surface. Air rushing in and out
of the top of the tube drives a Several methods of generating electrical energy from the oceans have
the flask and tube are full. Do not fill the
turbine to produce electricity. If been proposed, yet the ocean’s energy potential still remains largely
bowl above the top of the glass tube. the facility succeeds, it could untapped. The development of tidal power is one example of energy
Turn the hot plate on and allow the open the door for wave power
production from the ocean.
water to heat up. Observe how long to become a significant contrib-
it takes for an eruption to occur. utor of renewable energy in Tides have been a power source for hundreds of years. Beginning
some coastal areas. in the 12th century, tides drove water wheels that powered gristmills
Expected Outcomes As the water in
the flask turns to steam, pressure builds 106 Chapter 4
up inside the flask. Water erupts into the
air inside the bowl. After the eruption,
water from the bowl should run back
down the tube into the flask.
Visual, Kinesthetic
Facts and Figures
There are 600 to 700 geysers in the world a volcanic heat source, molten rock (magma)
today. Between 400 and 500 of these are near the surface, water that can circulate near
found in Yellowstone National Park. Geysers the heat source and become superheated, a
form in areas where groundwater can circulate “plumbing” system, and silica-rich rocks that
several thousand feet deep in Earth’s crust and can sustain the force that is needed for an
be heated by a volcanic heat source. Geysers eruption.
exist only when certain conditions are present:

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and sawmills. During the seventeenth and eigh-

Tidal Power
Tidal Dam Use Visuals L1
teenth centuries, a tidal mill produced much of
Boston’s flour. But today’s energy demands Figure 15 Have students study the
require more sophisticated ways of using the force diagram. Ask: What might be a
created by the continual rise and fall of the ocean. biological disadvantage of a tidal
Tidal power is harnessed by constructing dam? (The dam probably disrupts marine
a dam across the mouth of a bay or an estuary in Bay at or coastal ecosystems.) Which way does
low tide
coastal areas with a large tidal range. The strong water flow through the dam at high
Low tide
in-and-out flow that results drives turbines and A Dam tide? (toward land) Which way does
electric generators. An example of this type of water flow through the dam at low
dam is shown in Figure 15. tide? (toward the sea)
The largest tidal power plant ever constructed Visual, Logical
is at the mouth of France’s Rance River. This tidal
plant went into operation in 1966. It produces High tide
Bay at high tide 3 ASSESS
enough power to satisfy the needs of Brittany—a
Evaluate
region of 27,000 square kilometers—and parts of B L2
Current
Understanding
other regions. Much smaller experimental facili-
ties have been built near Murmansk in Russia, To assess students’ knowledge of section
near Taliang in China, and on an arm of the Bay of content, have each student write three
Fundy in Canada. Power
review questions. Invite students to read
Tidal power development isn’t economical if
generation their review questions to the class. Have
Impounded water the class answer the questions. Continue
the tidal range is less than eight meters or if a Low tide until everyone has had a turn to read
narrow, enclosed bay isn’t available. Although the C their questions or until unique questions
tides will never provide a high portion of the
Figure 15 A At low tide, water is at its lowest level on have all been answered.
world’s ever-increasing energy needs, it is an either side of the dam. B At high tide, water flows through a
important source at certain sites. high tunnel. C At low tide, water drives turbines as it flows L1
back to sea through a low tunnel. Reteach
Analyzing Concepts Why is a large tidal range (difference Have students make a table of alternate
in water level between high and low tide) needed to
produce power? energy sources, the advantages and
disadvantages of each, and whether
each source is renewable or
Section 4.2 Assessment nonrenewable.

Reviewing Concepts Critical Thinking

1. What are the advantages and drawbacks 5. Predicting Why will the interest in alternate Students’ letters will vary but they
of using solar energy? energy sources probably grow in the future? should mention that both a large tidal
2. How do nuclear power plants produce 6. Classifying Identify solar, nuclear, and wind range and a narrow, enclosed bay are
energy? power as renewable or nonrenewable energy requirements for harnessing tidal energy.
3. What percentage of our energy might be sources. Explain your answers.
Letters should also describe how a tidal
met by wind power over the next 60 years?
dam operates and the direction of water
4. What are the advantages and drawbacks
flow at high and low tides.
of hydroelectric power, geothermal energy,
and tidal power?
Explain a Concept Write a letter to a family
member explaining how tidal power works.

Earth’s Resources 107

Section 4.2 Assessment water levels needed. Geothermal—advantages:

clean; drawbacks: nonrenewable, suitable sites Answer to . . .
1. advantages: free and unlimited supply of are rare. Tidal—advantages: renewable; draw-
energy; drawbacks: expensive equipment, backs: limited sites available with enclosed Figure 15 The greater the tidal
supplemental heating unit needed when bays and large tidal range range, the more potential energy
solar energy is not available 5. Fossil fuel reserves will be in very short the water will have. This energy is
2. Heat produced by the nuclear fission of supply due to growing demand for energy converted to mechanical energy when
uranium atoms is used to heat water. The and for a healthy environment. the turbine’s blades turn, then to
steam drives a turbine that turns an electrical 6. Solar and wind power are renewable electrical energy by the generator.
generator, producing electric power. energy sources because the supplies of directly for heating
3. between 5 and 10 percent sunlight and wind are unlimited. Nuclear and to turn turbines
4. Hydroelectric—advantages: renewable; energy is nonrenewable because the supply to generate electricity
drawbacks: dams have finite lifetimes, high of uranium is limited.
Earth’s Resources 107
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Section 4.3
4.3 Water, Air, and Land Resources
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
4.10 Explain why fresh water is a Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy
vital resource. Why is fresh water a vital ◆ point source Building Vocabulary Copy the table below.
resource? pollution As you read, add definitions and examples to
4.11 Recognize why the chemical ◆ nonpoint source complete the table.
Why is the chemical
composition of the atmosphere composition of the pollution
is important. atmosphere important? ◆ runoff Definitions Examples

4.12 Identify Earth’s important land What are Earth’s ◆ acid precipitation point source pollution: Pollution that factory pipes,
resources. important land resources? ◆ global warming can be traced to a location sewer pipes

nonpoint source pollution: a. ? b. ?

runoff: c. ? d. ?

Reading Focus greenhouse gas: e. ? f. ?

Build Vocabulary L2
Paraphrase Before students read the
section, have them explain what they
think point source and nonpoint source
mean. After they have read the section,
W ater, air, and land resources are essential for life. You need clean
air and water every day. What’s more, soil provides nutrients that allow
ask students to explain the meanings of
plants—the basis of our own food supply—to grow. How do people
the terms in their own words, noting
use—and sometimes misuse—these vital resources?
how their definitions have changed, if
at all.
The Water Planet
Reading Strategy L2 Figure 16 shows Earth’s most prominent feature—water. Water covers
nearly 71 percent of Earth’s surface. However, most of this water is salt-
a. pollution that does not have a specific
water, not fresh water. Oceans have important functions. Their currents
point of origin Figure 16 Oceans cover almost
three fourths of Earth surface, help regulate and moderate Earth’s climate. They are also a vital part of
b. runoff, water filtering through piles of
making Earth a unique planet. the water cycle, and a habitat for marine organisms. Fresh water, how-
waste rock
ever, is what people need in order to live. Each day, people use fresh
c. water that flows over the land rather
than seeping into the ground water for drinking, cooking, bathing, and growing food. While fresh
d. waste oil from streets, pesticides off water is extremely important, Earth’s reserves are relatively small. Less
farm fields than one percent of the water on the planet is usable fresh water.
e. gases that help maintain a warm
Freshwater Pollution Pollution has contaminated many fresh-
temperature near Earth’s surface
water supplies. In general, there are two types of water pollution
f. carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor
sources—point sources and nonpoint sources. Point source pollution
is pollution that comes from a known and specific location, such as
2 INSTRUCT the factory pipes in Figure 17. Other examples include a leaking land-
fill or storage tank.
The Water Planet
Use Community
Resources L2
Have students research the water supply 108 Chapter 4
in their community. They should find
out where their water comes from and
how it is treated to make it safe for
human use. The Department of Public
Works or the water department will have
this information. Students may be able
to tour the municipal water treatment
plant.
Verbal, Interpersonal

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Use Visuals L1
Nonpoint source pollution is pollution that does not have a specific
point of origin. Runoff, the water that flows over the land rather than Table 2 Have students study the table.
seeping into the ground, often carries nonpoint source pollution. Runoff Ask: Why is fertilizer considered a
can carry waste oil from streets. It can wash sediment from construction pollutant if it is needed by plants? (It
sites or pesticides off farm fields and lawns. Water filtering through piles causes rapid growth of algae that decay
of waste rock from coal mines can carry sulfuric acid into rivers or lakes. and deplete water’s oxygen.) What are
This contaminated water can kill fish and other aquatic life. some sources of water pollution from
As you can see in Table 2, water pollution has adverse health effects. organic chemicals? (farm and yard
Pollutants can damage the body’s major organs and systems, cause birth runoff, industrial waste, and household
defects, lead to infectious diseases, and cause certain types of cancers. cleaners) Where do disease organisms
Contaminated fresh water can sicken or kill aquatic organisms and dis- that pollute water come from? (wastes
rupt ecosystems. What’s more, fish and other aquatic life that live in from people and animals) What two
types of water pollution can cause
contaminated waters often concentrate poisons in their flesh. As a result,
cancers in humans? (organic chemicals
it is dangerous to eat fish taken from some polluted waters.
Figure 17 Pollution from point and radioactive substances)
sources, such as these factory Visual
What is the difference between a point and non-
pipes, is easy to locate and
point water pollution source? control.
Build Science Skills L2
Applying Concepts Have students
Table 2 Major Types of Water Pollution explain how fish and other aquatic
life that live in polluted water can
Type Examples Sources Effects
concentrate poisons in their flesh.
Disease organisms Bacteria, viruses Wastes from people Typhoid, cholera, dysentery,
and animals infectious hepatitis
(Fish and other aquatic organisms pass
large amounts of water through their
Wastes that remove Animal manure and plant Sewage, animal feedlots Great amounts of bacteria
oxygen from water debris that bacteria can remove oxygen from
bodies as they extract oxygen from the
decompose water, killing fish water. If pollutants are also extracted
Inorganic chemicals Acids, toxic metals Industrial effluent, Poisons fresh water and
from the water, they will accumulate in
urban runoff, household can sicken those who the fish’s flesh in increasing concentration.
cleaners drink it This process is similar to that of a strainer
Organic chemicals Oil, gasoline, plastic, Farm and yard runoff, Some cancers, disorders of concentrating material from the water
pesticides, detergent industrial waste, nervous and that is poured through it.)
household cleaners reproductive systems
Verbal
Plant fertilizer Water soluble compounds Sewage, manure, farm Spurs rapid growth of
with nitrate, and garden runoff algae that decay and
phosphorus ions deplete water’s oxygen;
fish die

Sediment Soil Erosion Disrupts aquatic food

webs, clogs lakes and
reservoirs, reduces
photosynthesis of
aquatic plants

Radioactive Radon, uranium, Nuclear power plants, Some cancers, birth

substances radioactive iodine uranium ore mining defects, genetic mutations
and processing

Earth’s Resources 109

Customize for English Language Learners

Have students use a dictionary to look up the (Precipitation occurs when water vapor condenses
meaning of acid precipitation. Ask them to list in the atmosphere. The form of precipitation
the different forms that acid precipitation can depends on temperature, altitude, and other
take. (acid snow, rain, fog) Ask students why physical conditions.) Answer to . . .
acid precipitation can take many forms.
Point source pollution is
pollution that comes
from a known and specific location.
Nonpoint source pollution is pollution
that does not have a specific point of
origin.

Earth’s Resources 109

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Section 4.3 (continued) Earth’s Blanket of Air

Earth’s atmosphere is a blanket of nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor
Earth’s Blanket and other gases. The chemical composition of the atmos-
of Air phere helps maintain life on Earth. First and foremost, people
Use Visuals L1 and other animals could not live without the oxygen in Earth’s
Figure 19 Have students examine the atmosphere. But the atmosphere is also part of several other
graphs. Ask: What makes up almost cycles, such as the carbon cycle, that make vital nutrients avail-
half of all air pollution? (carbon able to living things.
monoxide) What fraction of pollution The atmosphere also makes life on land possible by shield-
sources are industrial processes? ing Earth from harmful solar radiation. There is a layer of
(about 15 percent) What do you think is protective ozone high in the air. Ozone is a three-atom form of
the source of most carbon monoxide oxygen that protects Earth from 95 percent of the sun’s harm-
pollution? (vehicle exhaust and fuel Figure 18 Cars, trucks, and buses
ful ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
combustion) are the biggest source of air Certain greenhouse gases in the atmosphere—such as carbon diox-
pollution. Laws that control ide, methane, and water vapor—help maintain a warm temperature
Visual, Logical motor vehicle emissions have
helped make the air cleaner in near Earth’s surface. When solar energy hits Earth, the Earth gives off
many areas. some of this energy as heat. The gases absorb the heat Earth emits,
keeping the atmosphere warm enough for life as we know it.
L2
Ask students if there is a hole in the What is the role of ozone in the atmosphere?
Primary Pollutants
ozone layer high above Earth. If they
say yes, they may hold the misconception Volatile Particulates
Sulfur
that there is an actual hole in the sky
Organics
Oxides
6.0% Pollution in the Air Pollution can change the chemical com-
Nitrogen 13.6%
Oxides 16.4% position of the atmosphere and disrupt its natural cycles and
that lets UV radiation through. Show 14.8%
students NASA satellite photos of ozone functions. Fossil-fuel combustion is the major source of air pollution.
distribution so they can read the ozone Carbon Monoxide Most of this pollution comes from motor vehicles and coal or oil-
49.1%
concentration in the “hole.” Explain that burning power plants. Motor vehicles, like those in Figure 18, release
ozone is being depleted around the carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, soot, and other pollutants. Some of
globe but is particularly severe in certain What They Are the pollutants react to form smog. Power plants release sulfur dioxide
areas, notably above Antarctica. This Solid Waste Disposal
and nitrogen oxides. These pollutants combine with water vapor in
depletion is actually a temporary 2.5% the air to create acid precipitation. Figure 19 shows the primary air
Industrial Miscellaneous
depletion of ozone in September and Processes 9.0% pollutants and the sources of those pollutants.
October of each year. In December and Stationary 15.0% The burning of fossil fuels also produces carbon dioxide, an impor-
Source Fuel
January, the “hole” is repaired. The reason Combustion tant greenhouse gas. The amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
27.3%
for concern is the fact that each year, has increased since industrialization began in the nineteenth century.
Transportation
more ozone is being depleted and less 46.2% This increase has altered the carbon cycle and contributed to the unnat-
is being repaired. Ask: What happens ural warming of the lower atmosphere, known as global warming.
during periods of ozone depletion? Global warming could lead to enormous changes in Earth’s environ-
Where They Come From
(More UV radiation reaches Earth’s ment. These changes could include the melting of glaciers, which would
surface.) Why are scientists concerned Figure 19 Major Primary contribute to a rise in sea level and in the flooding of coastal areas.
if the “hole” is repaired each year? Pollutants and Their Sources
Percentages are calculated on the
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) once used in air conditioners and plas-
(The hole is not completely repaired, and basis of weight. tic foam production destroy ozone in the stratosphere layer of the
increasing amounts of ozone are being Using Graphs What are the atmosphere. Researchers say that a significant loss of ozone could result
destroyed.) three major primary pollutants?
What is the major source of air
in an increased incidence of health problems like cataracts and skin can-
Logical pollution? cers because more of the sun’s UV radiation would reach Earth’s surface.

110 Chapter 4

Facts and Figures

Primary pollutants are those emitted by the primary pollutants. The mixture of gases
identifiable sources. They immediately and particles that make up urban smog is a
pollute the air when they are emitted. good example of a secondary pollutant. Smog
Primary pollutants are also dangerous forms when unstable organic compounds and
because they form secondary pollutants nitrogen oxides from vehicle exhaust react in
when chemical reactions take place among the presence of sunlight.

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Air pollution is a major public health problem. It can cause cough-

Land Resources
ing, wheezing, headaches, as well as lung, eye, and throat irritation.
Long-term health effects include asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, and
lung cancer. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that
For: Links on environmental toxins Motion Accelerates
as many as 200,000 deaths each year are associated with outdoor air L2
Visit: www.SciLinks.org Erosion
pollution.
Web Code: cjn-1043 Purpose Students demonstrate how
Land Resources the motion of water increases the long-
term effects of erosion.
Earth’s land provides soil and forests, as well as mineral and energy
resources. How do land resources impact your daily life? Soil is needed Materials 2 identical clean 1-L jars
to grow the food you eat. Forests provide lumber for your home, wood with lids, marking pen, water, 2 identical
for furniture, and pulp for paper. Petroleum provides energy and is in the pieces of hard candy, measuring cup
plastic of your computer and CD boxes. Minerals such as zinc, copper, Procedure Label the jars A and B.
and nickel make up the coins in your pocket. Removing and using Place a piece of candy in each jar. Pour
resources from Earth’s crust can take a heavy environmental toll. 500 mL of water into each jar. Cover
both jars. Place them in a location where
Damage to Land Resources There are an estimated 500,000 both can be seen. Shake jar A once or
mines in the United States. Mines are essential because they produce twice a day. Do not disturb jar B.
many of the mineral resources we need. But mining tears up Earth’s Expected Outcome After only 2 days,
surface and destroys vegetation, as you can see in Figure 20. It can also students should be able to see that the
cause soil erosion and create pollution that contaminates surrounding disturbed candy has dissolved much
soil and water and destroys ecosystems. more than the undisturbed candy.
Agriculture has many impacts on the land as well. Today, farmers Kinesthetic, Visual
can produce more food per hectare from their land. Extensive irrigation
also has allowed many dry areas to be farmed for the first time. But heavy
pumping for irrigation of dry areas is depleting the groundwater. And Build Reading Literacy L1
over time, irrigation causes salinization, or the build-up of salts in soil. Refer to p. 246D in Chapter 9, which
When irrigation water on the soil evaporates, it leaves behind a salty provides the guidelines for relating
crust. Eventually, the soil becomes useless for plant growth. cause and effect.
Relate Cause and Effect Have
Figure 20 Surface mining destroys
students think about the build-up of
vegetation, soil, and the contours of
Earth’s surface. However, laws now salts in soil. Ask: Why can salts build up
require mine owners to restore the in soil used for intensive farming? (In
surface after mining operations
order to grow large amounts of crops in an
cease.
area, farmers add heavy applications of
fertilizers to support the additional plants.
Salts from the fertilizer eventually build up
in the soil.)
Logical

Download a worksheet on environ-

mental toxins for students to
Earth’s Resources 111
complete, and find additional
teacher support from NSTA
SciLinks.

Answer to . . .
Figure 19 The major primary
pollutants are carbon monoxide,
sulfur and nitrogen oxides, and
volatile organics. The major source
of air pollution is fossil-fuel combustion.
Ozone absorbs harmful
ultraviolet radiation
from the sun, thus protecting life.

Earth’s Resources 111

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Section 4.3 (continued) Trees must be cut to supply our need for
paper and lumber. But the removal of forests,
Virgin Forests 1620–1998 especially through clear-cutting, can damage land.
Clear-cutting is the removal of all trees in an area
of forest. Cleared areas are susceptible to soil ero-
Answers sion. Forest removal also destroys ecosystems and
Identifying Effects The amount of wildlife habitat. The United States actually has
virgin forest was much greater in 1620. more hectares of forest today than it did a century
The eastern half of the United States ago. That’s because much of the virgin forest
has lost almost all of its virgin forest. Virgin forests, 1620 (forest that had never been cut down) that was cut
There are now more virgin forests in long ago has regrown as second-growth forest.
the western half of the country than The forest is not as diverse as the virgin forest—it
in the eastern half. does not contain as much variety of plant species.
Some forestland has also become tree plantations,
3 ASSESS with even fewer species. As you see in Figure 21,
the United States has lost most of its virgin forest
Evaluate during the last few centuries.
Understanding L2
Virgin forests, 1998 Finally, land serves as a disposal site. You may
To assess students’ knowledge of have seen landfills and other waste facilities. When
section content, have them write a disposal is done correctly, there is minimal impact
Figure 21
short paragraph explaining how on land. But many old landfills leak harmful
ozone can be essential to life when Location These maps compare the location of
virgin forests in the contiguous 48 states of the wastes that get into soil and underground water.
it is in the upper stratosphere, yet a The same is true of buried drums of chemicals,
U.S. in 1620 and in 1998. Identifying Effects
serious pollutant when it is closer to How has the amount of virgin forest changed? which were often disposed of illegally. Waste is
Earth’s surface. How has the location of virgin forest changed? inevitable. But there is a need for ways to reduce
it and make the disposal safer.
Reteach L1
Have students summarize their
knowledge of water, land, and air
resources by making an outline of
the section. They can use the heads
Section 4.3 Assessment
as a guide and add information under
each head.
Reviewing Concepts boat emptying a waste tank into a lake, or a
1. Why is fresh water a vital resource? sewage plant sending sewage into a river
through a pipe?
2. Why is the chemical composition of
Earth’s atmosphere important? 7. Relating Cause and Effect How would the
Student paragraphs should suggest that removal of sulfur from coal affect the type of air
wasting paper causes more trees to be 3. What is the difference between point source pollution in a local area? Explain your answer.
pollution and nonpoint source pollution?
cut down, resulting in a loss of species
4. What do Earth’s land resources provide?
due to elimination of their habitat. When
trees are clear-cut, the forest eventually Critical Thinking
will be replaced by a second-growth 5. Applying Concepts How would Earth be Write a brief paragraph that connects the
forest that has greater area but less different if there were no greenhouse gases? following: waste of paper, loss of species
diversity than the original forest. diversity of forests, and the increase in
6. Classifying Which of the following is a
second-growth forest area.
nonpoint source pollution of water: rainwater
pouring from an eroded bank into a river, a

112 Chapter 4

Section 4.3 Assessment 5. Earth would be too cold to sustain life.

6. rainwater pouring from an eroded bank
1. People need fresh water for drinking, cook- into a river
ing, bathing, and growing food. 7. Removing sulfur from coal would decrease
2. The chemical composition of Earth’s atmos- the amount of sulfur oxides in the air. Sulfur
phere helps to maintain life on Earth. oxides combine with water vapor to form acid
3. Point source pollution has a known and precipitation, so the acidity of the precipita-
specific location. Nonpoint source pollution tion both locally and in more distant areas
does not have a specific point of origin. would decrease.
4. soil, forests, mineral and energy resources

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Section 4.4
4.4 Protecting Resources
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy 4.13 Identify the first laws passed to
When were the first laws ◆ conservation Summarizing After reading this section, deal with water pollution.
passed to deal with water ◆ compost complete the concept map below to organize
pollution? what you know about the major laws that 4.14 Name the most important law
◆ recycling
What was the most help keep water, air, and land resources clean. passed to deal with air
important law passed to pollution.
Environmental
deal with air pollution? Laws 4.15 Explain what is involved in
What is involved in protecting land resources.
Water Air Land
protecting land resources?
a. ? b. ? c. ?

Reading Focus
d. ? e. ?

Build Vocabulary L2
Word Forms Have students use a
dictionary to find words that are related
E ach year, Americans throw out about 30 million cell phones,
18 million computers, 8 million TV sets, and enough tires to circle the
to the vocabulary term conservation.
Each word should be used in a sentence.
Earth about three times. With just 6 percent of the world’s population, Knowing the meaning of words such as
Americans use about one third of the world’s resources—and produce conservative and conserve will help
about one third of the world’s garbage. students understand the concept of
conservation.
This high rate of consumption squanders resources, many of which
are nonrenewable. The manufacture and disposal of these products L2
uses enormous amounts of energy and creates pollution, as shown in
Reading Strategy
Figure 22. Is there a way to have the products and services we want and a. Clean Water Act
still protect resources and create less pollution? b. Clean Air Act
Figure 22 Strict laws have c. Resource Conservation and Recovery
Many people think conservation and pollution prevention are the helped curb air pollution, though
answer. Conservation is the careful use of resources. Pollution pre- it remains a problem. Act
vention means stopping pollution from entering the d. Safe Drinking Water Act
environment. e. Comprehensive Environmental
Between the late 1940s and 1970, a number of Response, Compensation, and
serious pollution problems got the public’s attention. Liability Act
Severe air pollution events killed hundreds and sick-
ened thousands in the United States and elsewhere. In 2 INSTRUCT
the late 1960s, many beaches closed due to pollution. Integrate Biology L2
An oil spill off the California coast killed wildlife.
Then in 1969, Americans watched news reports of Oil Spills and Marine Life Ask students
if they know why oil spills are dangerous
Ohio’s polluted Cuyahoga River catching fire and
to wildlife. Tell them that oil destroys the
burning for days.
insulating ability of fur-bearing mammals,
such as sea otters, and the water-repelling
abilities of a bird’s feathers, thus exposing
Earth’s Resources 113 these animals to cold water and air
temperatures. Many marine birds and
animals also swallow oil when they try
to clean themselves, which can poison
them. Ask: What is the function of bird
feathers? (They keep the bird warm and
waterproofed, and help the bird fly.) What
happens to feathers when they get
oiled? (They become heavy, matted, and
soggy.)
Verbal, Logical

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Section 4.4 (continued) Table 3 How You Can Keeping Water Clean and Safe
Prevent Water Pollution Both the public and government officials became increasingly con-
Keeping Water • Never pour household chemicals cerned about pollution. Starting in the 1970s, the federal
Clean and Safe (paints, thinners, cleaners, pesticides,
waste oil) down the drain or into
government passed several laws to prevent or decrease pollution and
Use Visuals L1 the toilet. protect resources.
Table 3 Have students read the
• Never dump toxic chemicals in the America’s polluted rivers and lakes got early attention. In 1972, the
gutter or onto the ground.
information in the table. Ask: How U.S. Congress passed the Clean Water Act (CWA). Among other pro-
• Don't put items that contain
should you dispose of old batteries? hazardous substances, such as visions, the law requires industries to reduce or eliminate point source
batteries or old computer monitors, pollution into surface waters. It also led to a huge increase in the
(Use a hazardous waste site or collection into the trash.
to dispose of them.) What happens to • Find out about hazardous waste
number of sewage treatment plants, which eliminated the discharge
household chemicals when they are collection sites and times from your of raw sewage into many lakes, rivers, and bays. There are still water
local sanitation or public works
dumped down a drain? (They move department.
pollution problems. But because of the CWA, the percentage of U.S.
through sewers into rivers, lakes, or • Avoid using hazardous substances in surface waters safe for fishing and swimming increased from 36 per-
streams.) the first place. cent to 62 percent between 1972 and the end of the 1990s.
Visual, Logical The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 helped protect drinking
resources. It set maximum contaminant levels for a number of pollu-
tants that could harm the health of people. Public water resources are
cleaner today because of this law. See Table 3 for ways that individuals
can help conserve water and keep it clean.
Making an Oil Slick L2
Purpose Students examine the way oil What did the Clean Water Act do?
reacts when it mixes with water.
Materials large, clear, glass bowl;
vegetable oil; water; cocoa powder Protecting the Air
Procedure Mix a little cocoa powder As lawmakers were tackling water pollution in the 1970s, air pollu-
with the oil so it will resemble crude oil. tion was also on the agenda. In 1970, Congress passed the Clean
This mixture will make it easier for Air Act, the nation’s most important air pollution law. It estab-
students to observe the oil. Fill the bowl lished National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for six
with water to about 5 cm from the top. “criteria” pollutants known to cause health problems—carbon
Pour some of the oil–cocoa mixture monoxide, ozone, lead, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and partic-
onto the water. ulates (fine particles). Air monitors, such as the one in Figure 23,
Expected Outcomes Oil and water do sample the air. If the maximum permissible level of pollutants in
not mix, but form two separate layers. Figure 23 Air Sampler the air is exceeded, local authorities must come up with plans to
The oil, even a little drop, will quickly bring these levels down. Between 1970 and 2001, the emis-
spread out over the water surface and sions of the six criteria pollutants regulated under the
break up into many little blobs. When Clean Air Act decreased 24 percent. Over the same time
oil is spilled onto the ocean, it can be span, energy consumption increased 42 percent and the
pushed and transported by the wind, U.S. population grew by 39 percent.
currents, and tides because it stays on Today, power plants and motor vehicles use pollution
the top of the water. control devices to reduce or eliminate certain byproducts of
Kinesthetic, Visual fossil fuel combustion. Power plants are also more likely to
use low-sulfur coal. These controls cut down on emissions
of sulfur and nitrogen oxides that often produce acid rain.
Protecting the Air
Use Visuals L1
Table 4 Have students read the 114 Chapter 4
information in the table. Ask: How can
you use solar energy in your home?
(Allow sunshine in through the windows.)
Name one way you can use your own Customize for Inclusion Students
physical energy instead of fossil fuel
energy. (I can walk or ride a bike instead Learning Disabled Have students cut out made, one for water usage and the other for
of using a car.) photos from magazines and newspapers that conservation methods. Posters can be hung
show water usage and conservation. Students in a school hallway during Conservation
can make a poster with these photos, writing Awareness Week or as part of a conservation
a description next to each photo. If enough program.
photos are collected, two posters can be

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Increased use of clean, alternate energy sources such as solar, wind,

Caring for Land
Table 4 How You Can
and hydroelectric power, can also help clear the air. These energy Save Energy
Resources
sources don’t create air or water pollution, and they’re based on renew- Build Reading Literacy L1
• Recycle when possible.
able resources.
• Let the sun in on bright winter days Refer to p. 216D in Chapter 8, which
Cars with electric and hybrid (combination of electric and either using solar energy to warm rooms.
provides the guidelines for comparing
natural gas, gasoline, or diesel) motors produce fewer or no tailpipe • Use energy-saving fluorescent bulbs
instead of incandescent bulbs where and contrasting.
emissions. Several of these lower-emissions models are now available. you can.
Some of the hybrid models are also very efficient and get high gas Compare and Contrast Tell students
• Turn off lights when you leave
mileage. When a car can go farther on a tank of gas, it uses less fuel a room. Turn off the radio, TV, that there are two major methods of
or computer when you’re not forestry. Clear-cutting involves the
and creates less pollution. using them.
Energy conservation is an important air pollution control strat- • Walk or ride a bike when you can.
complete removal of all the trees in an
egy. Fossil-fuel combustion produces most of the electricity in the • When buying electric products, look area. In selective logging, only certain
United States. If we can use less electricity we would have to burn less
for the Energy Star sticker which trees are removed. Trees left standing
denotes energy-saving products.
form a buffer zone. Ask: Compare the
fossil fuel. Less fossil-fuel combustion means less air pollution. You
amount of erosion that would take
can see several energy conservation tips in Table 4.
place with both kinds of forestry
practices. (Clear-cutting exposes bare
What did the Clean Air Act do?
soil, which is subject to erosion. Selective
logging creates buffer zones of trees that
slow runoff and prevent any eroded soil
Caring for Land Resources from being washed away.) Do you think
Protecting land resources involves preventing pollution and forests are a renewable resource?
managing land resources wisely. Farmers, loggers, manufacturers, and (Answers will vary. The trees will grow
individuals can all take steps to care for land resources. back as a second-growth forest, but it
will be less diverse than the virgin forest.)
Farmers now use many soil conservation practices to prevent the
Logical
loss of topsoil and preserve soil fertility. In contour plowing, farmers
plow across the contour of hillsides. This method of farming decreases
water runoff that washes away topsoil. Another conservation method
is strip cropping—crops with different nutrient requirements are
planted in adjacent rows. Strip cropping helps preserve the fertility
of soil.
Selective cutting conserves forest resources. In this method of
logging, some trees in an area of a forest are cut, while other trees
remain. This practice preserves topsoil as well as the forest habitat.
Clear-cutting, on the other hand, removes whole areas of forest and
destroys habitats and contributes to the erosion of topsoil.
Some farmers and gardeners now use less pesticides and inorganic
fertilizers to decrease chemicals in soil and on crops. Natural fertiliz-
ers such as compost or animal manure have replaced inorganic
commercial fertilizers on some fields. Compost is partly decomposed
organic material that is used as fertilizer. Integrated Pest Management
For: Links on emerging
(IPM) uses natural predators or mechanical processes (such as vacu- technologies
uming pests off leaves) to decrease the number of pests. Pesticide use Visit: www.SciLinks.org
is a last resort. Web Code: cjn-1044

Download a worksheet on emerging

technologies for students to
Earth’s Resources 115 complete, and find additional
teacher support from NSTA SciLinks.

Facts and Figures Answer to . . .

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) practices popular. There are several lines of IPM: The Clean Water Act led
began in the 1920s. Progress was slow, chemical controls (the use of pheromones to to an increase in sewage
however, due to the abundance of inexpensive attract and capture pests), cultural controls treatment plants; it requires industries
and effective synthetic pesticides and limited (crop rotations, sanitation, and pruning), to reduce or eliminate point source
knowledge of their long-term effects on biological controls (introducing predators, pollution into surface waters.
organisms and the environment. Rachel parasites, or pest disease organisms), and The Clean Air Act
Carson’s book, Silent Spring, brought the genetic controls (breeding pest-resistant established six
effects of chemical pesticides to the public crops and tolerant plant varieties). criteria pollutants and required
eye in 1962, and IPM practices became more communities to not exceed certain
levels of pollution for these pollutants.

Earth’s Resources 115

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Section 4.4 (continued) Some laws reduce the possibility of toxic substances
getting into the soil. Since 1977, sanitary landfills have
Use Community largely replaced open dumps and old-style landfills.
Resources L2 Sanitary landfills have plastic or clay liners that prevent
Have students investigate recycling wastes from leaking into the surrounding soil or ground-
programs in their community. If none water. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
are available, students may be interested (RCRA) of 1976 has decreased the illegal and unsafe
in starting a limited one. If a program dumping of hazardous waste. The law requires compa-
exists, students may want to volunteer nies to store, transport, and dispose of hazardous waste
in some way. Alternatively, students may according to strict guidelines. The 1980 Comprehensive
be interested in participating in a Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability
community-wide composting project. Act (Superfund) mandates the cleaning up of abandoned
Kinesthetic, Intrapersonal hazardous waste sites that are a danger to the public or
the environment.
3 ASSESS What is the RCRA and what does
Evaluate it do?
Understanding L2
To assess students’ knowledge of section Creating less waste by using fewer products and recy-
content, have them explain the difference cling products also helps preserve land resources.
between conservation and pollution Recycling is the collecting and processing of used items
prevention. (Conservation is the careful so they can be made into new products, as Figure 24
use of resources. Pollution prevention shows. By conserving resources and producing less waste,
involves ways to prevent pollution from Figure 24 Recycling saves resources, reduces everyone can contribute to a cleaner, healthier future.
energy consumption, and prevents pollution.
occurring or stopping pollution from
entering the environment.)

Reteach L1
Have students make a table listing the
laws discussed in this section. For each Section 4.4 Assessment
law, students should write what it does
and what it accomplished.
Reviewing Concepts 7. Relating Cause and Effect Explain how the
1. When were the first laws passed to deal Superfund law helps prevent pollution from
with water pollution? entering underground water sources.

Student paragraphs should include the 2. Identify the most important air pollution
ideas that the recycling of aluminum control law.
soda cans conserves aluminum and 3. What are National Ambient Air Quality
Standards?
produces less waste.
4. How does selective cutting of forests Explanatory Paragraph Write a brief
conserve topsoil? paragraph explaining how recycling your
5. How can gardeners care for land resources? aluminum soda cans helps conserve
resources and energy.
Critical Thinking
6. Applying Concepts How can turning off
lights when you’re not using them help
decrease air pollution?

116 Chapter 4

Section 4.4 Assessment 5. by using less pesticides and inorganic fertil-

izers; by using compost and Integrated Pest
1. The first laws were passed in the 1970s. Management
The Clean Water Act was passed in 1972. 6. When you turn off lights, you use less elec-
2. The Clean Air Act, the most important air tricity. Since the fuels that produce electricity
Answer to . . . pollution law, was passed in 1970. cause air pollution, less electricity needed
The Resource 3. NAAQS are maximum permissible levels of means less fuel used and less pollution
Conservation and six pollutants known to cause health problems. produced.
Recovery Act requires companies 4. The trees that are left standing keep topsoil 7. The Superfund law mandates the cleaning
to store, transport, and dispose of from eroding and washing away. up of dangerous abandoned hazardous waste
hazardous waste according to strict sites. This prevents the toxic wastes from
guidelines. leaching out of the site and entering under-
ground water sources.
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Bingham Canyon, Utah:

The Largest Open-Pit Mine
This huge pit was once where a mountain stood. It’s
Bingham Canyon copper mine, the largest open-pit
8 square kilometers. It’s so deep—900 meters—that
if a steel tower were built at the bottom, it would
Bingham Canyon,
mine in the world. The mine, southwest of Salt Lake have to be five times taller than France’s Eiffel Tower Utah: The Largest
City, Utah, is 4 kilometers across and covers almost to reach the pit’s rim.
Open-Pit Mine L2
Background
For much of its hundred-year history,
Bingham Canyon was owned by
Kennecott Copper Corp. However,
during the post-1973 oil crisis shake-out,
the company was acquired by British
Petroleum. It was then sold to Rio Tinto,
which operates Bingham Canyon through
its subsidiary, Kennecott Utah Copper
Corp. The mine employs about 1,400
people and produces about 15 percent
of the nation’s copper.
Teaching Tips
• Have students research chalcopyrite,
the major ore at Bingham Canyon.
The formula for chalcopyrite is
CuFeS2. The ore is 0.56 percent
Figure 25 Aerial view of Utah’s Bingham Canyon copper mine, the largest open-pit copper. Chalcopyrite crystals have
copper mine on Earth. unevenly faced tetrahedrons that are
striated in different directions. The
mineral has a metallic luster and a
The pit began in the late 1800s as an underground The ore body is far from exhausted. Over the next brassy-gold color somewhat less
silver and lead mine. Miners later discovered copper. 25 years, the mine’s owners plan to remove and
There are similar deposits at several sites in the process an additional 3 billion tons of material. This
yellow than pyrite.
American Southwest and in a belt from southern mining operation has generated most of Utah’s min- • Have students make posters showing
Alaska to northern Chile. eral production for more than 80 years. People have the processing of copper from mining
called it the “richest hole on Earth.” to grinding and flotation to roasting
The ore at Bingham Canyon formed after magma
was intruded to shallow depths. After this, shatter- Like many older mines, the Bingham pit was unreg- and smelting to purification by
ing created extensive fractures in the rock. ulated during most of its history. Development electrolysis.
Hydrothermal solutions penetrated these cracks, occurred before today’s awareness of the environ- • Have students make lists of some of
and ore minerals formed from the solutions. mental impacts of mining and prior to effective
environmental laws. Today, problems of groundwater the many uses of copper.
Although the percentage of copper in the rock is • Discuss the importance of copper
and surface water contamination, air pollution, and
small, the total volume of copper is huge. Ever since
open-pit operations started in 1906, some 5 billion
land reclamation are receiving long overdue atten- throughout history, especially in the
tion at Bingham Canyon. Bronze Age (bronze is an alloy of tin
tons of material have been removed, yielding more
than 1.2 million tons of copper. Miners have also and copper). Mention the use of
recovered significant amounts of gold, silver, and copper in brass (an alloy of copper
molybdenum.
and zinc).
• Tell students that the mine’s open
Earth’s Resources 117 pit is one of only a few human-made
objects that can be seen from space.
• Have students examine a penny.
The composition of the penny has
changed several times through the
years. During World War II, pennies
looked silvery because they were
made of zinc-coated steel, due to a
shortage of copper. After the war,
the composition went back to the
traditional copper until 1982. After
1982, the composition was changed
again, using cheaper zinc for the core
and coating the outside with the
traditional copper.
Logical

Earth’s Resources 117

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Section 7.1
7.1 Glaciers
1 FOCUS

Section Objectives
7.1 Describe the different types of Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy
What types of glaciers ◆ ice age Building Vocabulary Draw a table
glaciers and where each type is exist, and where is each similar to the one below that includes
◆ glacier
found. type found? all the vocabulary terms listed for the
◆ snowline
7.2 Explain how glaciers move and How do glaciers move? ◆ valley glacier
section. As you read the section, define
each vocabulary term in your own words.
describe the different types of What distinguishes the ◆ ice sheet
glacial drift. various types of glacial ◆ glacial trough Vocabulary Term Definition
7.3 Identify the landscape features drift? ◆ till
Glacier a. ?
that glaciers form. What landscape features ◆ stratified drift
do glaciers form? ◆ moraine Ice Sheet b. ?
7.4 Explain the causes of the most
Moraine c. ?
recent ice age.
Till d. ?

Reading Focus
L2
Build Vocabulary
Concept Map Have students construct
E arth’s climate strongly influ-
ences the processes that shape its
a concept map using as many vocabulary
surface. In this section, you will see
terms as possible and the following
the strong link between climate and
landform features: hanging valleys,
geology in studying how glaciers
cirques arêtes, and horns. Students
shape the land.
should place the main concept (Glaciers)
in the center oval and use descriptive
linking phrases to connect the terms.
Types of Glaciers
Instruct students to place the terms in As recently as 15,000 years ago—the
ovals and connect the ovals with lines on blink of an eye in geologic history—
which linking words are placed. up to 30 percent of Earth was
covered by glacial ice. At that time,
Reading Strategy L2 Earth was coming out of an ice
a. Glacier—a thick ice mass that forms age—a period of time when much
over hundreds or thousands of years of Earth’s land is covered in glaciers.
b. Ice sheet—an enormous ice mass that Sheets of ice that were thousands of
flows in all directions from one or more meters thick shaped places like the
centers and covers everything but the Alps, Cape Cod, and Yosemite
highest land Valley. Long Island, the Great Lakes,
Figure 1 Valley Glacier Barry and the fjords of Norway were all formed by glaciers. A glacier is a
c. Moraine—layers or ridges of till left Glacier, in Alaska’s Chugach
behind when glaciers melt Mountains, slowly advances down thick ice mass that forms over hundreds or thousands of years. Today
d. Till—material deposited directly by this valley. glaciers still cover nearly 10 percent of Earth’s land area. In these
a glacier regions they continue to sculpt the landscape.

188 Chapter 7

Customize for English Language Learners

Have students create an illustrated science should write the definition of the term in their
glossary using the vocabulary terms and own words. Then, students should draw a
additional terms that are unfamiliar. Students diagram illustrating the meaning of the term.

188 Chapter 7
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Glaciers originate on land in places where more snow falls each winter
2 INSTRUCT
than melts each summer. The snowline is the lowest elevation in a par-
ticular area that remains covered in snow all year. At the poles, the Types of Glaciers
snowline occurs at sea level. Closer to the equator, the snowline is near the Build Reading Literacy L1
For: Links on glaciers
top of tall mountains. Instead of completely melting away, snow above the Refer to p. 186D, which provides the
Visit: www.SciLinks.org
snowline accumulates and compacts. The compressed snow first recrys- guidelines for relating text and visuals.
Web Code: cjn-2071
tallizes into coarse grains of ice. Further pressure from added snow above
Relate Text and Visuals Have students
changes the coarse grains into interlocking crystals of glacial ice.
read pp. 188–189. Have students use
A glacier appears to be motionless, but it’s not. Sit beside a glacier
Figures 1 and 2 to distinguish between
for an hour and you may hear a sporadic chorus of creaks, cracks, and
valley glaciers and ice sheets. (Valley
groans as the mass of ice slowly moves downhill. Just like
glaciers are ice masses that slowly advance
running water, groundwater, wind, and waves, glaciers are down valleys originally occupied by
dynamic agents of erosion. They accumulate, transport, and streams. Ice sheets are enormous ice
Arctic Circle
deposit sediment. Thus, glaciers are an important part of masses that cover large regions.)
the rock cycle. Visual, Logical
Valley Glaciers Thousands of small glaciers exist in high
mountains worldwide. Unlike fast-flowing mountain
streams, glaciers advance only a few centimeters to meters L2
North
each day. Valley glaciers are ice masses that slowly advance Pole
Students may have the misconception
down valleys that were originally occupied by streams. A that glaciers cannot form in the tropics.
valley glacier is a stream of ice that flows between steep rock Greenland Glaciers form whenever there are low
walls from a place near the top of the mountain valley. Like temperatures and adequate supplies of
rivers, valley glaciers can be long or short, wide or narrow, snow. Because temperatures drop with
single or with branching tributaries. Figure 1 shows a valley an increase in altitude, glaciers can
glacier in Alaska. occur in the tropics at high elevations.
Even near the equator, glaciers form at
Ice Sheets Ice sheets are enormous ice masses that flow elevations above 5000 m. Examples of
in all directions from one or more centers and cover every- Antarc
tic Circle
equatorial glaciers include those atop
thing but the highest land. Ice sheets are sometimes Mt. Kenya and Mt. Kilimanjaro in East
called continental ice sheets because they cover large Africa. Have students use a map or an
regions where the climate is extremely cold. They are huge Filchner atlas to find these mountains and the
Ice Shelf
compared to valley glaciers. Ice sheets covered much of distance to the equator.
North America during the recent ice age. Figure 2 shows the Ross Ice Verbal, Visual
Shelf South
two remaining ice sheets, which combined cover almost Pole
10 percent of Earth’s land area. One ice sheet covers about Antarctica Build Science Skills L2
80 percent of Greenland. It averages nearly 1500 meters thick,
Comparing and Contrasting Have
and in places it rises to 3000 meters above the island’s surface.
students read the text on valley glaciers
The huge Antarctic Ice Sheet in the Southern and ice sheets. Ask: How are these two
Hemisphere is nearly 4300 meters thick in places. This glacier types of glaciers similar? (Both types of
accounts for 80 percent of the world’s ice, and it holds nearly glaciers are composed of ice.) How do
two-thirds of Earth’s fresh water. If it melted, sea level could they differ? (Valley glaciers are smaller
rise 60 to 70 meters and many coastal cities would flood. and advance slowly down valleys. Ice
Figure 2 The only present-day ice
sheets are those covering sheets cover everything except the highest
Where do ice sheets exist on Earth today? Greenland and Antarctica. land in a large region.)
Verbal

Glaciers, Deserts, and Wind 189

Download a worksheet on glaciers

for students to complete, and find
additional teacher support from
NSTA SciLinks.

Answer to . . .
Greenland, Antarctica

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Section 7.1 (continued) How Glaciers Move

You might wonder how a glacier, which is solid, can move. The
How Glaciers Move movement of glaciers is referred to as flow. Glacial flow happens two
Use Visuals L1 ways: plastic flow and basal slip. Plastic flow involves movement within
Figure 4 Have students look at the the ice. Under high enough pressure, the normally brittle ice begins to
illustration. Ask: What is the zone of distort and change shape—a property known as plasticity. The weight
accumulation? (the region of the glacier of overlying ice exerts this pressure on the ice below, causing it to flow.
where snow accumulates and ice forms) Plastic flow begins at about 50 meters below the glacier surface.
What is the zone of wastage?(the foot Basal slip is the second cause of glacial movement. Due to gravity, the
of the glacier where it loses ice and snow) entire ice mass actually slips and slides downhill along the ground. The
What must happen for a glacier to upper 50 meters of a glacier is not under enough pressure to have plastic
advance? (The glacier must accumulate flow. The surface of the glacier behaves differently than the ice below. This
more ice and snow than is lost at the uppermost zone of a glacier is brittle, and it is referred to as the zone of
foot.) What must happen for a glacier fracture. This brittle topmost ice piggybacks a ride on the flowing ice
to retreat? (The amount of accumulation below. The zone of fracture experiences tension when the glacier moves
must be less than the amount of waste.) over irregular terrain. This tension results in gaping cracks called
Verbal crevasses. Crevasses can be 50 meters deep. They are often hidden by snow
and make travel across glaciers dangerous, as shown in Figure 3.
Integrate Physics L2
Figure 3 Crevasses like this one
Most glaciers are blue, unless they in Pakistan can extend 50 meters Rates of Glacial Movement Different glaciers move at dif-
contain a large amount of eroded into a glacier’s brittle surface ice. ferent speeds. Some flow so slowly that trees and other vegetation grow
sediment at the surface. Invite students in the debris on their surface. Other glaciers can advance several meters
to search the Internet or printed per day. Some glaciers alternate between periods of rapid movement
reference sources to find photographs and periods of no movement whatsoever.
of blue glaciers. Explain that glacial ice
absorbs the longer red wavelengths of Budget of a Glacier Glaciers form where more snow falls in
visible white light while reflecting and winter than can melt during the summer. They constantly gain and lose
scattering shorter blue wavelengths. ice. Snow accumulates, and ice forms at the head of the glacier in the
Ask: What is another real-world zone of accumulation, shown in Figure 4. Here new snowfall
example of something that reflects thickens the glacier and promotes movement. The area of
short wavelengths to cause a blue the glacier beyond the snowline is called the zone
appearance? (the sky) of wastage. Here the glacier loses ice—and
Verbal, Logical Zone of any new snow—to melting.
accumulation

Snowline

Crevasses Iceberg formed

by calving

Zone of
wastage

Figure 4 How a Glacier Moves

Whether the margin of a glacier
advances, retreats, or remains
stationary depends on the balance
or lack of balance between
accumulation and wastage.

190 Chapter 7

Facts and Figures

Glaciers are a part of a fundamental cycle in However, when precipitation falls at high
the Earth system—the water cycle. Water is elevations or high latitudes, the water may
constantly cycled through the atmosphere, not immediately make its way toward the
biosphere, and geosphere. Time and time sea. Instead, it may become part of a glacier.
again, the same water is evaporated from the Although the ice will eventually melt and make
oceans into the atmosphere, precipitated its way to the sea, it may be stored as glacial
upon the land, and carried by rivers and ice for tens, hundreds, or even thousands
underground streams back to the sea. of years.

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Integrate Social Studies L2

A Glaciers in North America Have
students research glaciers that are or
have been in North America. Have
students prepare a computer presentation
showing pictures of different elements
of glaciers, such as types of glaciers,
physical landforms left by glaciers,
and glacial erosion.
Verbal, Visual

Build Science Skills L2

Applying Concepts Remind students
that a glacier advances when it
accumulates more ice than it loses.
Tell students about Hubbard Glacier in
Alaska, which is pictured in Figure 5.
B Several other smaller glaciers feed
Hubbard Glacier, and the bulk of it is
advancing at a rate of about 6 m per
Glaciers also lose ice when large pieces break off their fronts in a Figure 5 Calving A Ice calves year (although one part is advancing at
process called calving. Calving creates icebergs where glaciers meet the from the front of the Hubbard
glacier in Alaska’s Wrangell-St.
a rate of about 11 m per day and is
ocean. Because icebergs are just slightly less dense than seawater, they Elias National Park. Once it lands threatening to close off the Russell Fiord
float low in the water. Only about 10 percent of their mass is visible in the water the ice is called an from the sea). Unlike Hubbard Glacier,
iceberg. Icebergs float on their
above the surface, as shown in Figure 5. The Greenland Ice Sheet calves sides. B Just 10 percent of their
most glaciers have actually thinned and
thousands of icebergs each year. Many drift southward into the North mass is visible above the surface. retreated in the last century. Instruct
Atlantic where they are navigational hazards. students to find an example of a
The foot of a glacier can advance, retreat, or remain in place. Which retreating glacier. (Sample answers:
course it follows depends on the glacier’s budget. The glacial Aletsch Glacier in Switzerland, Bering
budget is the balance or lack of balance between accumulation at the Glacier in Alaska)
upper end of a glacier and loss, or wastage, at the lower end. If more Verbal
ice accumulates at the glacier head than melts or calves at the glacier
foot, then the glacier advances. The glacier retreats when it loses ice
faster than it gains ice. If a glacier gains ice at the same rate as ice melts
or calves off, the front or terminus of the glacier remains stationary.
Whether the front of a glacier advances, retreats, or remains stationary,
the ice within the glacier continues to flow forward. In the case of a
receding glacier, the ice still flows forward, but not rapidly enough to
offset wastage.

What causes a glacier to retreat?

Glaciers, Deserts, and Wind 191

Answer to . . .
A glacier retreats when
it loses ice faster than
it gains ice.

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Section 7.1 (continued) Glacial Erosion

Glaciers are nature’s bulldozers. Their ice
Glacial Erosion scrapes, scours, and tears rock from valley
floors and walls. Glaciers then carry the rocks
down the valley. The rock fragments that are
eroded by the glacier drop at the glacier’s foot
L2 where the ice melts. Unlike streams, which
Glacial Erosion drop sediments while they flow, glaciers hold
Purpose Students will observe how everything until they melt. They can carry
rocks and sand incorporated into rocks as big as buses over long distances.
glaciers form striations. Many landscapes were changed by the
Materials sand, soap, ice cube widespread glaciers of the recent ice age.
Procedure Place the ice cube in the
sand. Sand will stick to the ice cube. How Glaciers Erode Glaciers mainly
The sand represents the rocks and erode the land in two ways: plucking and abra-
debris that glaciers pick up as they sion. Rock surfaces beneath glaciers break up
move. Then, scrape the ice cube across as melted water from the glacier penetrates the
the bar of soap. The scratches in the cracks. When the water refreezes it expands
soap represent the striations carved and pries the rock apart. As a glacier flows over
into the surrounding rock by a the fractured bedrock surface, it loosens and
moving glacier. lifts blocks of rock and incorporates them into
the ice. This type of glacial erosion is called
Expected Outcome Students will see
plucking.
how easily the sand carves grooves into
A second form of glacial erosion is called
the soap. The same process occurs Figure 6 Glacial Abrasion A abrasion. As the glacial ice and its load of rock fragments slide over
between glaciers and surfaces such as glacier smoothed and polished
bedrock and valley walls that surround this rock surface in Alaska’s bedrock, they work like sandpaper to smooth and polish the surface
a glacier. Glacier Bay. Rock fragments below. The pulverized rock produced by this glacial gristmill is appro-
embedded in the glacier carved priately called rock flour. So much rock flour may be produced that
Visual, Logical the scratches and grooves.
streams of meltwater leaving the glacier often have the grayish appear-
ance of skim milk—visible evidence of the grinding power of the ice.
When the ice at the bottom of a glacier contains large rock fragments,
long scratches and grooves may be gouged in the bedrock, shown in
Figure 6. These glacial striations provide valuable clues to the direction
of past glacial movement. By mapping the striations over large areas,
geologists often can reconstruct the direction the ice flowed.
As with other agents of erosion, the rate of glacial erosion is highly
variable. These differences are mainly controlled by four factors:
1) rate of glacial movement; 2) thickness of the ice; 3) shape, abun-
dance, and hardness of the rock fragments in the ice at the base of the
glacier; and 4) the type of surface below the glacier.

How do glaciers cause erosion?

192 Chapter 7

Facts and Figures

In addition to valley and continental glaciers, glaciers, occupies broad lowlands at the bases
other types of glaciers also exist. Covering of steep mountains and forms when one or
some uplands and plateaus are masses of more valley glaciers emerge. The advancing
glacial ice called ice caps. Like ice sheets, ice spreads out to form a large sheet. The size
ice caps completely bury the underlying of individual piedmont glaciers varies greatly.
landscape but are much smaller. Ice caps The largest piedmont glacier in North America
occur in Iceland and many other places. is the Malaspina Glacier in southeastern
Another type of glacier, known as piedmont Alaska.

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Landforms Created
Landforms Created by by Glacial Erosion
Glacial Erosion V-shaped Use Visuals L1
Erosion by valley glaciers produces many valley
Figure 7 Have students look carefully
spectacular features in mountainous areas.
at Figures 7A and 7B. Ask: How would
Glaciers are responsible for a variety
you describe a cirque? (a bowl-shaped
of erosional landscape features, such as
depression that is surrounded on three
glacial troughs, hanging valleys, cirques,
sides by steep rock walls) How did the
arêtes, and horns. Compare and contrast
arête form? (The rock walls surrounding
the mountain setting before, during, and the cirques eroded, cirques on opposite
A Unglaciated
after glaciation as shown is Figure 7. topography sides of the divide grew and formed a
Horn Arête Medial sharp ridge.) How did the horn form?
Glaciated Valleys Before glaciation, moraine (Several cirques surrounded a single high
alpine valleys are usually V-shaped because
mountain. As the cirques grew, a single
streams are well above base level and are Cirques
horn emerged.)
downcutting. However, in mountain
Visual, Verbal
regions that have been glaciated, the valleys
Main
are no longer narrow. As a glacier moves L2
glacier Build Science Skills
down a valley once occupied by a stream,
the glacier widens, deepens, and straightens Using Analogies Ask students if they
the valley. The once narrow V-shaped valley have ever taken a bath when they were
is changed into a U-shaped glacial trough. dirty. Ask: What does the bottom of
The amount of glacial erosion depends B Region during period the tub look like if you let the water
of maximum glaciation
in part on the thickness of the ice. Main gla- drain out? (All of the dirt settles to the
ciers cut U-shaped valleys that are deeper Horn Tarn
bottom of the tub.) Explain that this is
Arête
than those carved by smaller side glaciers. Cirques similar to the way a glacier deposits its
load of debris. As the ice melts from the
When the ice recedes, the valleys of the Pater noster
lakes glacier, the debris falls to the terrain just
smaller side glaciers are left standing higher
as the suspended dirt falls to the bottom
than the main glacial trough. These higher
Hanging of the tub.
valleys are called hanging valleys. Rivers valley Verbal
flowing from hanging valleys sometimes
produce spectacular waterfalls, such as
those in Yosemite National Park, California. Glacial
trough
What is a glacial
trough? C Glaciated topography

Figure 7 Erosional Landforms Caused by Valley Glaciers

A shows what the valley glaciers looked like in this mountainous
region. B reveals the modified landscape and its features.
Inferring What direction did the main valley glacier flow?
How do you know?

Glaciers, Deserts, and Wind 193

Answer to . . .
Figure 7 from lower left to upper
right; because the glacial trough forms
at the beginning of the glacier
Glaciers erode by
plucking and abrasion.
a once narrow V-shaped
valley that changes into
a U-shape after a glacier moves down
the valley

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Section 7.1 (continued) Cirques A cirque is a bowl-shaped depression at the head of a glacial
valley that is surrounded on three sides by steep rock walls, as shown in
Glacial Deposits Figure 8. These impressive features are the focal point of the glacier’s
Use Visuals L1 growth because they form where snow and ice accumulate at the head of
a valley glacier. Cirques begin as irregularities in the mountainside.
Figure 9 Have students look carefully
Glaciers carve cirques by plucking rock from along the sides and the
at Figure 9. Ask: Why is glacial till an
unsorted mixture of debris? (Glacial till bottom. The glaciers then act as conveyor belts that carry away the debris.
is debris that drops out of the glacier as it Sometimes the melting glacier leaves a small lake in the cirque basin.
melts. The till consists of a random
Arêtes and Horns Other mountain landscapes carved by valley
assortment of whatever the glacier has
glaciers reveal more than glacial troughs and cirques. Snaking, sharp-
picked up as it moved along.) What is the
edged ridges called arêtes and sharp pyramid-like peaks called horns
difference between till and stratified
project above the surroundings. You can see these features in the Alps
drift? (Till is material deposited directly by Figure 8 Cirque Natural
amphitheaters like this one in and the northern Rockies. Horns like the Matterhorn in Switzerland
a glacier. Stratified drift is deposited by
Canada’s Yukon Territory result form where several cirques surround a single high mountain. The con-
glacial meltwater. Till consists of random- from the plucking action of ice in
sized objects that are picked up by the a glacier’s zone of accumulation.
verging cirques create one distinctive horn. Arêtes form where cirques
glacier. Stratified drift is deposited by size occur on opposite sides of a divide. As these cirques grow, the divide
and weight.) separating them is reduced to a narrow, sharp ridge.
Verbal
Glacial Deposits
Use Community Glaciers transport huge loads of debris as they slowly advance across
Resources L2 the land. When a glacier melts it deposits its sediment. For example, in
Invite an Earth science specialist from a many areas once covered by the ice sheets of the recent ice age, the
local college that is familiar with glaciers bedrock is rarely exposed because glacial deposits that are dozens—or
to speak to the class. Ask the person to even hundreds—of meters thick completely cover the terrain. Rocky
bring pictures or slides that he or she pastures in New England, wheat fields in the Dakota plains, and rolling
can share with the class. Midwest farmland are all landscapes resulting from glacial deposition.
Interpersonal, Visual
Types of Glacial Drift Glacial drift applies to all sediments
of glacial origin, no matter how, where, or in what form they were
deposited. There are two types of glacial drift: till and stratified drift.
Till is material deposited directly by the glacier. It is deposited as the
glacier melts and drops its load of rock debris. Unlike moving water
and wind, ice cannot sort the sediment it carries. Therefore, till deposits
are usually unsorted mixtures made up of many particle sizes. Notice
the unsorted till in Figure 9.
Close up Stratified drift is sediment laid down by glacial meltwater.
of cobble
Stratified drift contains particles that are sorted according to size and
weight of the debris. Some deposits of drift are made by streams
coming directly from the glacier. Stratified drift often consists of sand
and gravel, because the meltwater cannot move large boulders and
Figure 9 Glacial till is an unsorted
mixture of many different finer sediments remain suspended and are carried far from the glacier.
sediment sizes. A close look often Boulders found in till or lying free on the ground are glacial erratics.
reveals cobbles that have been
scratched as they were dragged
Their mineral content is different from the underlying bedrock, which
along by the glacier. shows they were carried there by some means. In parts of New England
and other glaciated areas, glacial erratics are scattered throughout

194 Chapter 7

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pastures and farm fields. Early settlers cleared the smaller ones from their
Moraines, Outwash
fields and piled them into stone fences that remain today. Geologists can Plains, and Kettles
sometimes determine the path of a long-gone glacier by studying the Build Science Skills L2
minerals in glacial erratics. Comparing and Contrasting Have
students read the text on moraines.
What is glacial drift? Ask: What do all moraines have in
common? (All moraines are glacial
deposits of till.) Ask: How do the various
types of moraines differ? (Moraines are
Moraines, Outwash Plains, and Kettles categorized by how and where the till is
Glaciers are responsible for a vari- deposited. The till of lateral moraines
ety of depositional features, including forms on the side of the glacier. The till of
moraines, outwash plains, kettles, a stationary glacier forms at the end of the
drumlins, and eskers. glacier, forming an end moraine. Receding
When glaciers melt, they leave layers glaciers scatter till across the width of the
or ridges of till called moraines. These glacier as it retreats. Terminal and
widespread glacial features come in several recessional moraines form when a glacier
varieties. forms an end moraine and ground moraines
many times before it completely melts.)
Lateral Moraines The sides of a Verbal
valley glacier gather large amounts of debris
from the valley walls. Lateral moraines are Build Science Skills L2
ridges that form along the sides of glacial
valleys when the glacier melts and leaves the Designing
material it has gathered. Medial moraines Experiments Instruct
students to design an
are formed when two valley glaciers join to
experiment that models
form a single ice stream. Observe the medial
glacial deposition of till. Suggest they
and lateral moraines in Figure 10. The till Figure 10 The dark stripe
running down the middle of this
use a freezer and the following
that was once carried along the edges of each glacier joins to form a dark
glacier is a medial moraine. It materials: sand, ice cube trays, water,
stripe of debris within the newly enlarged glacier. formed from the lateral moraines and a pan or tray with a slope, such as
of these two merging valley
End Moraines and Ground Moraines Glaciers can remain glaciers.
the type used with painting rollers.
stationary for long periods of time. When a glacier is stationary it means (Students’ designs will vary, but may
snow and ice accumulate at the head of the glacier at the same rate snow involve covering sand with water in the ice
cube tray and using the freezer to make
and ice melt at the foot of the glacier. Within the glacier, the ice still flows.
ice, then placing the ice cubes with sand
It acts as a conveyor belt to carry rock debris to the end of the glacier.
on the sloped pan or tray to see how sand
When the ice there melts, it deposits the debris and forms a ridge called
collects as the ice melts.)
an end moraine. The longer the glacier remains stationary, the larger the
Kinesthetic, Logical
end moraine grows.
Ground moraines form when glaciers begin to recede. The glacier
front continues to deliver debris. The glacier deposits sediment as the
ice melts away. However, instead of forming a ridge, the retreating gla-
cier creates a rock-strewn, gently rolling plain. This ground moraine
fills in low spots and clogs old stream channels. Ground moraine can
thus result in poorly drained swamp lands.

Glaciers, Deserts, and Wind 195

Customize for Inclusion Students

Gifted Have interested students conduct any moraines or glacial features were created.
research to find out what glacial activity their Encourage them to contact local geologists
area has experienced. Their research should if they can. Then have them prepare a
include current activity if there are glaciers in presentation of their findings for the class. If
your area, or historical activity of glaciers and no notable glacial activity has occurred in your
ice sheets during ice ages. They should investi- area, instruct students to pick a region that
gate whether till, stratified drift, or glacial was affected by glaciers, such as the Great Answer to . . .
erratics have been deposited, and whether Lakes region.
Glacial drift is all
sediment that is
deposited by a glacier.

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Section 7.1 (continued) CT

MA
Boston
Terminal and Recessional
RI Cape
Cod
Moraines Glaciers can periodically
Build Science Skills L2 Harbor Hill moraine retreat, then find equilibrium again
Comparing and Contrasting Have and remain stationary for some time.
NY
students read the text on pp. 196–197 Martha’s A glacier forms a new end moraine
Vineyard Nantucket

about outwash plains, kettles, drumlins,

NJ during the stationary period, then
and eskers. Ask: What do outwash another ground moraine once it starts
Long Island
plains, kettles, drumlins, and eskers Ronkonkoma moraine retreating again. This pattern can
have in common? (All are landscape repeat many times before the glacier
features formed by glaciers.) How do completely melts. The farthest end
they differ? (An outwash plain is a Figure 11 Long Island, Cape Cod, moraine is the terminal end moraine.
Martha’s Vineyard, and Nantucket
deposit of sediment left by the glacial The end moraines that form when the ice front occasionally becomes
are remnants of an end moraine.
meltwater. A kettle forms when blocks stationary during its retreat are recessional end moraines.
of stagnant ice become buried and End moraines that formed in the recent ice age are prominent in the
eventually melt. This melting leaves pits landscapes of the Midwest and Northeast. The Kettle Moraine is a scenic
in the glacial sediment. Drumlins are one that occurs in Wisconsin near Milwaukee. New York’s Long Island is
streamlined hills composed of till. The part of a series of end moraines stretching from eastern Pennsylvania to
steep side of a drumlin once faced the Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Figure 11 shows the locations of these end
direction of the advancing ice and the moraines that form part of the Northeast coast.
gentler slope points in the direction the
ice moved. Eskers are snake-like ridges Outwash Plains At the same time that an end moraine is form-
composed of sand and gravel that were ing, streams of fast-moving meltwater emerge from the bases of
deposited by streams once flowing in glaciers. As mentioned before, this water is often so choked with fine
tunnels beneath the glaciers.) sediment that it looks like milk. Once it leaves the glacier, the water
Verbal slows and drops the sediment in a broad, ramp-like accumulation
downstream from the end moraine. This type of sediment ramp result-
ing from an ice sheet is called an outwash plain.

Kettles You can often find depressions and small lakes called kettles
within end moraines and outwash plains, as shown in Figure 12. Kettles
form when blocks of stagnant ice become buried in drift and eventu-
ally melt. This melting leaves pits in the glacial sediment. A well-known
example of a kettle is Walden Pond near Concord, Massachusetts.
Thousands of kettles dot the landscape of the Upper Midwest in
Wisconsin and Minnesota.

Drumlins and Eskers Moraines are not the only landforms

deposited by glaciers. Some landscapes have many elongated parallel
hills made of till. Other areas have conical hills and narrow winding
ridges made mainly of stratified drift. If you know what to look for,
the signs of a once-glaciated landscape are unmistakable—especially
from an airplane.
Drumlins are streamlined hills composed of till. Drumlins are taller
and steeper on one end, and they range in height from 15 to 60 meters
and average 0.4 to 0.8 kilometer long. The steep side of the hill faces the
direction the ice came from, and the gentler slope points in the direction

196 Chapter 7

Customize for Inclusion Students

Learning Disabled You can revise the pro- containing pepper and various planar surfaces
cedure described in “Designing Experiments” (one grooved, and one flat) to model these
on p. 195 to help slow and visual learners depositional features. You may alternatively
understand the formation of the depositional choose to have students use these materials
features caused by glaciers. Use ice cubes to design experiments themselves.

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the ice moved. Drumlins occur in clusters called drumlin fields. Near
Glaciers of the
Rochester, New York, one cluster contains nearly 10,000 drumlins. Their Ice Age
streamlining shows they were molded by active glaciers. Integrate Biology L2
Eskers are snake-like ridges composed of sand and gravel that were Change in Sea Level A far-reaching
deposited by streams once flowing in tunnels beneath glaciers. They effect of the most recent ice age was the
can be several meters high and many kilometers long. Many eskers are worldwide change in sea level that
mined for the sand and gravel they contain. accompanied each advance and retreat
of the ice sheets. The snow that forms
What depositional features do glaciers form? glaciers ultimately comes from moisture
evaporated from the oceans. Therefore,
when the ice sheets increased in size,
sea level fell and the shorelines shifted
seaward. Estimates suggest that sea level
Recessional end
moraine Terminal end was as much as 100 m lower than today.
moraine Land that is presently flooded by the
Drumlin field
oceans was dry. The Atlantic Coast of
the United States lay more than 100 km
to the east of New York City. France and
Esker
Outwash Britain were joined where the English
Retreating plain
glacier Channel is today. Alaska and Siberia
were connected across the Bering Strait.
Southeast Asia was tied by dry land to
the islands of Indonesia. Ask: If Siberia
and Alaska were connected by a land
bridge, would biologists find evidence
Kettle of this? Explain. (Yes, biologists should
Ground moraine lake find evidence such as fossil remains of the
Bedrock
same animals in both locations. In fact,
fossil remains suggest that there was a
migration of mammoths across the Bering
Figure 12 The landscape left by
a retreating glacier includes a
Strait from Asia into North America.)
Glaciers of the Ice Age number of distinctive features. Verbal, Logical
During the recent ice age continental ice sheets and alpine glaciers cov- The terminal end moraine marks
the farthest extent of the glacier.
ered a lot more land than they do today. People once thought that Recessional moraines occur where
glacial deposits had drifted in on icebergs or that they swept across the a retreating glacier temporarily
becomes stationary.
landscape in a catastrophic flood. However, scientific field investiga-
Using Analogies How is a
tions during the nineteenth century provided convincing evidence that glacier like a conveyor belt?
an extensive ice age explained these deposits and many other features.
During the recent ice age, glaciers covered almost 30 percent of
Earth’s land, including large portions of North America, Europe, and
Siberia, as shown in Figure 13. The Northern Hemisphere had twice
the ice of the Southern Hemisphere. The Southern Hemisphere has far
less land, so glaciation was mostly confined to Antarctica. By contrast,
North America and Eurasia have plenty of land where the ice sheets
could spread.

Glaciers, Deserts, and Wind 197

Answer to . . .
Figure 12 It carries rock and debris
along with it as it moves, just as a
conveyor belt carries items along with
it as it moves.
moraines, outwash
plains, drumlins, eskers

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Section 7.1 (continued) The recent ice age began two to three million years ago.
Many of the major glacial episodes occurred during the
RUSSIA
3 ASSESS Pleistocene epoch when wooly mammoths and saber-
toothed cats roamed the landscape. To some people
Evaluate
L2 the Pleistocene is synonymous with the recent ice
Understanding
North Pole age, but it actually began before this epoch on the
Divide the class into six groups. Have geologic time scale.
Arctic
each group write three questions about Ocean
the material covered in one of the Alps Ice Age Effects on Drainage The ice
following headings: Types of Glaciers; Iceland sheets greatly affected the drainage patterns over
How Glaciers Move; Glacial Erosion; Pacific large regions. For example, before glaciation, the
Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion; Ocean Atlantic
Ocean Missouri River flowed northward toward Hudson
Glacial Deposits; Moraines, Outwash Bay in Canada. The Mississippi River flowed
Plains, and Kettles; and Glaciers of the through central Illinois. Furthermore, the Great
Ice Age. Invite students to take turns Lakes did not exist. Their locations were marked by
asking one question of the class. UNITED STATES lowlands with rivers that flowed toward the east. During
the recent ice age, glacial erosion transformed these low-
Reteach L1
lands into wide, deep basins that filled with water and
Use Figures 4 and 7 to review information eventually became the Great Lakes.
Figure 13 This map
about glaciers. shows the extent of Northern The formation and growth of ice sheets triggered changes in cli-
Hemisphere ice sheets during mates beyond the glacial margins. Regions that are arid today became
the recent ice age. cooler and wetter. This change in climate resulted in the formation of
lakes in such areas as the Basin and Range region of Nevada and Utah.
One of these lakes was ancient Lake Bonneville, which covered much of
Solution western Utah. The Great Salt Lake is all that remains of this glacial lake.
7. 10 m / 1 month ⫻ 1 month / 30 days
⫽ 0.33 m/day or about 33 cm/day

Section 7.1 Assessment

Reviewing Concepts Critical Thinking

1. What are the two basic types of glaciers? 5. Comparing and Contrasting Compare
Where is each type found? and contrast advancing and retreating glaciers.
2. Describe how glaciers move. Which 6. Inferring The snowline at the poles is sea
property or properties of ice allow this level. Close to the equator, the snowline
movement? occurs high up on the tallest mountains. What
3. How does glacial till differ from stratified is the relationship between the distance from
drift? Describe one glacial feature made of the equator and snowline?
each type of sediment.
4. Name three glacial features formed by
erosion and three that are formed by deposition.
What does each feature look like?
7. A glacier advances 20 meters over a
period of about two months. What is its
approximate rate of advance per day?

198 Chapter 7

Section 7.1 Assessment 3. Glacial till is an unsorted mixture of many dropped in a ridge at the face of a stationary
different sizes. Moraines, which are ridges glacier; ground moraine—a rock-strewn,
1. Valley glaciers look like streams of ice flow- formed from material dropped by glaciers, gently rolling plain formed from sediments
ing between steep rock walls. They exist in are made of till. Stratified drift contains parti- dropped by a retreating glacier; drumlins—
high mountains. Ice sheets are enormous ice cles sorted by size and weight of the debris. streamlined hill made of glacial till
masses that cover everything but the highest Outwash plains, which are sediment ramps 5. Both types flow and carry debris.
land. The biggest ones are in Greenland and that extend downstream of an end moraine, Advancing glaciers accumulate ice faster
Antarctica. are composed of stratified drift. than ice melts; retreating glaciers melt
2. Glaciers slip downhill due to gravity as 4. Erosion: cirque—a bowl-shaped depression faster than ice accumulates.
well as flowing due to actual movement at the head of a glacial valley; arête—snaking, 6. The farther away from the equator you
within the ice. The property known as plas- sharp-edged ridge; horn—pyramid-shaped travel, the lower the snowline is.
ticity allows for this. peak. Deposition: end moraine—debris

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Section 7.2
7.2 Deserts
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
Key Concepts Reading Strategy Weathering
7.5 Describe how running water
?
How does running water Summarizing Write each blue affects deserts.
affect deserts? heading in the section on a sheet ?
of paper. Write a brief summary 7.6 Explain the roles mechanical
What roles do mechanical
and chemical weathering of the text for each heading. The Role of Water
and chemical weathering play
play in forming deserts? in the formation of deserts.
Vocabulary ?

◆ alluvial fan ?
◆ playa lake
Reading Focus

Build Vocabulary L2
D esert landscapes reveal the effects of both running water and
wind. As you will see, these combine in different ways in different
Paraphrase Have students write the
definition of each vocabulary term in
places to result in a variety of desert landscapes. their own words.

Reading Strategy L2
Geologic Processes in Arid Climates
If you live in a humid region, visiting a desert might at first seem like Weathering Sample answer:
encountering an alien planet. Rounded hills and curving slopes are typ- Mechanical weathering is dominant in
ical of humid regions. By contrast, deserts have angular rocks, sheer the desert. Chemical weathering does
Figure 14 Desert landscapes vary occur, but the process is very slow.
canyon walls, and surfaces covered in pebbles or sand, shown in Figure 14. a great deal. This landscape is in
Despite their differences, the same geologic processes operate in both California’s Death Valley. The Role of Water Sample answer:
humid regions and deserts. Although it doesn’t rain often in the
desert, the erosional effects of rain are
Weathering In humid regions, well-developed significant.
soils support an almost continuous cover of vegeta-
tion. In these regions, the slopes and rock edges are 2 INSTRUCT
rounded and the landscape reflects the strong influ-
ence of chemical weathering . By contrast, much
of the weathered debris in deserts has resulted from
Geologic Processes
mechanical weathering. That debris consists of rock in Arid Climates
whose minerals remain unchanged. In dry lands, Build Science Skills L2
rock weathering of any type is greatly reduced
Observing Have students look closely
because of the lack of moisture and scarcity of at Figure 14. Ask: If someone showed
organic acids from decaying plants. Chemical you this photograph, what are three
weathering, however, is not completely absent in features that would lead you to
deserts. Over long time spans, clays and thin soils conclude that this was a desert
do form. Many iron-bearing silicate minerals oxi- climate? (Sample answers: sparse
dize, producing the rust-colored stain found tinting vegetation; only small, shrub-like
some desert landscapes. vegetation present; lots of exposed
soil and gravel)
Glaciers, Deserts, and Wind 199 Visual, Logical

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Section 7.2 (continued) Figure 15 A Most of the time

stream channels in deserts remain
dry. B This is the same stream
Build Reading Literacy L1 shortly after a heavy shower.
Ephemeral streams can cause a
Refer to p. 586D in Chapter 21, which large amount of erosion in a
provides the guidelines for SQ3R short time.
Predicting How long will the
(Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review). water flow in this stream?
SQ3R Teach this independent-study
skill as a whole-class exercise. Direct
students to survey the section and write
headings such as Geologic Processes in
Arid Climates. As they survey, ask students
to write one question for each heading,
such as “What type of weathering
occurs in a desert climate?” Then, have
students write answers to the questions A
as they read the section. After students
finish reading, demonstrate how to
recite the questions and answers,
explaining that vocalizing in your own
words helps you retain what you have
learned. Finally, have students review
their notes the next day.
Verbal

Use Visuals L1
Figure 16 Have students look carefully
at Figure 16. Ask: When rain falls at the
top of these barren mountains, what
will the water look like when it reaches
the bottom? (The water will be dirty
because it will contain a lot of sediment
that it has picked up as it flowed down the
mountainside.) What happens to the B
sediment when the water reaches the
gentle slopes in the foreground of this Why do deserts experience less chemical
picture? (The rain water loses velocity and weathering than humid regions?
dumps its load of sediment on the gentle
slopes.)
The Role of Water Permanent streams are normally found in
Verbal
humid regions. However, in the desert, you’ll find bridges with no
water beneath them and dips in the road where empty stream channels
cross. In the desert, most streams are ephemeral—they only
carry water after it rains. A typical ephemeral stream might flow for
only a few days or just a few hours during a year. In some years, the
channels may not carry any water. In the western states people call
these dry creeks washes or arroyos.

200 Chapter 7

Customize for Inclusion Students

Learning Disabled For students with students to make a multimedia presentation
difficulty reading and writing, customize the instead of a written report.
Writing in Science feature on p. 202 to allow

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Figure 16 Alluvial Fans Over

Basin and Range:
the years, alluvial fans enlarge
and merge with fans from
A Desert Landscape
adjacent canyons to produce an
apron of sediment along the
mountain front.

Desert Water Erosion L2

Purpose Students will observe how
water erodes a barren landscape and
San
Francisco
how alluvial fans form.
Materials sharpened pencil, paper
NV cup, scissors, 1/2 of a drinking straw,
modeling clay, cookie sheet, ruler, large
CA
beaker, water, soil, two 2" ⫻ 4" boards
Death about 15 cm long
Pacific Valley
Ocean Procedure Use the sharpened pencil to
make a hole in the side of the paper cup
near the bottom. Insert one end of the
Ephemeral streams are known for dangerous flash flooding after straw into the hole in the cup. Seal the
heavy rains. During heavy showers, so much rain falls that the soil hole around the straw with modeling
cannot absorb it. The lack of vegetation allows water to quickly run clay. Cover the cookie sheet with a thin
off the land, as shown in Figure 15. The floods end as quickly as they layer of soil. Elevate the cookie sheet
start. Because there are fewer plants in deserts to anchor the soil, the about 10 cm with a board. Set the cup
amount of erosion caused during a single-short lived rain event is at the top of the cookie sheet. Hold your
impressive. Floods in humid regions are different. A flood on a river finger over the end of the straw to keep
like the Mississippi can take days to reach its crest and days to subside. the water from flowing. Use the beaker
to fill the cup with water. Remove your
Basin and Range: A Desert Landscape finger and let the water flow. Observe
what happens to the soil. Observe how
Because arid regions typically lack permanent streams, they have inte- far the soil flowed past the end of the
rior drainage. This means that they have intermittent streams that do cookie sheet. Elevate the cookie sheet
not flow out of the desert to the ocean. In the United States, the dry 5 cm and repeat the experiment.
Basin and Range provides an excellent example. The region includes Observe what happens to the soil and
southern Oregon, all of Nevada, western Utah, southeastern California, how far the soil flowed past the end of
southern Arizona, and southern New Mexico. The name Basin and the cookie sheet. Note any differences
Range is an apt description for this region, because it contains more in the two elevations.
than 200 relatively small mountain ranges that rise 900 to 1500 meters
Expected Outcomes Students will
above the basins that separate them.
observe the soil flow off the cookie
When the occasional torrents of water produced by sporadic rains
sheet just as the soil flows off a barren
move down the mountain canyons, they are heavily loaded with sedi-
landscape. Students also should observe
ment. Emerging from the confines of the canyon, the runoff spreads that soil will not flow as far when the
over the gentler slopes at the base of the mountains and quickly loses slope is less steep. Alluvial fans form
velocity. Consequently, most of its load is dumped within a short dis- when the slope is not steep.
tance. The result is a cone of debris known as an alluvial fan at the Visual
mouth of a canyon, as shown in Figure 16.

Glaciers, Deserts, and Wind 201

Facts and Figures

Many of the world’s deserts are located in two deserts include the Patagonia in Argentina,
belts. One belt is located along the Tropic of the Kalahari in southern Africa, and the Great
Answer to . . .
Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere. The Victoria and Great Sandy deserts of Australia. Figure 15 for a few hours to a
deserts located in this belt are the Gobi in These belts are formed when hot, moist air at few days
China, the deserts in southwestern North the equator rises, cools, and loses its moisture.
America, the Sahara in North Africa, and the Then, the air descends, picking up moisture Water is necessary for
Arabian and Iranian deserts in the Middle East. and drying out the land, creating these desert chemical weathering, so
The second belt is located along the Tropic of regions along the tropics. arid climates experience less chemical
Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere. These weathering than humid regions. Also,
fewer plants exist to decay and
contribute organic acids.

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Section 7.2 (continued) On the rare occasions of abundant rainfall, or snowmelt in the
mountains, streams may flow across the alluvial fans to the center of
3 ASSESS the basin, converting the basin floor into a shallow playa lake. Playa
Q I heard that deserts are lakes last only a few days or weeks, before evaporation and infiltration
Evaluate
L2 expanding. Is that true? remove the water. The dry, flat lake bed that remains is called a playa.
Understanding
A Yes. The problem is called Humid regions have complex systems of rivers and streams that
Have students write three review desertification, and it refers to drain the land. Streams in dry regions lack this extensive drainage
questions for the section. Invite students the alteration of land to desert- system. Most desert streams dry up long before they ever reach
to take turns asking questions to the like conditions as the result of
the ocean. The streams are quickly depleted by evaporation and soil
class. human activities. It commonly
takes place on the margins of infiltration.
deserts and results mostly from Some permanent streams do manage to cross arid regions. The
Reteach L1 inappropriate land use. It is trig- Colorado and Nile Rivers begin in well-watered mountains with huge
Use Figures 14, 15, and 16 to review the gered when the modest natural
water supplies. The rivers are full enough at the beginning to survive
vegetation in marginal areas is
main ideas in this section. removed by plowing or grazing. their desert crossings. The Nile River, for example, leaves the lakes and
When drought occurs, as it mountains of central Africa and covers almost 3000 kilometers of the
often does in these regions, and Sahara without a single tributary adding to its flow. In humid regions,
the vegetative cover has been
however, rivers generally gain water from both incoming tributaries and
First the ephemeral stream will be dry. destroyed beyond the minimum
to hold the soil against erosion, groundwater.
Then, a sudden rush of water will occur the destruction becomes irre- The point to remember about running water in the desert is this:
that builds both in volume and velocity versible. Desertification is although it is infrequent, it is an important geological force. Most
for several hours. The flood will then occurring in many places but
desert erosion results from running water. Although wind erosion is
subside as quickly as it started. is particularly serious in the
region south of the Sahara more significant in deserts than elsewhere, water does most of the
Desert known as the Sahel. erosional work in deserts. Wind plays a different primary role in the
desert. It transports and deposits the sediments to create dunes.

Section 7.2 Assessment

Reviewing Concepts Critical Thinking

1. How are ephemeral streams different form 5. Comparing and Contrasting Compare
streams in humid locations? and contrast the Nile River with the Mississippi
2. How do weathering processes affect River. Which factor is most responsible for their
deserts? differences?
3. Why is erosion by running water important in 6. Applying Concepts Explain how evaporation
deserts? affects drainage systems in desert areas.
4. How does a river survive crossing an arid
region?

Suppose you are standing on a bridge

over an ephemeral stream in the desert.
Write a paragraph describing what you
might see following a sudden downpour.

202 Chapter 7

Section 7.2 Assessment 4. It must be full enough at the beginning to

survive the soil infiltration and evaporation
1. Ephemeral streams are not permanent but that occur in the desert.
have a greater propensity to produce flash 5. Both carry water. The Nile has few tribu-
floods, which cause substantial erosion. taries. The Mississippi drainage system is
2. Water and wind cause mechanical weather- highly branched. The Mississippi takes longer
ing and produce angular rocks, sheer canyon to crest and subside. Climate is the factor
walls, and pebble-covered surfaces. most responsible for the rivers’ differences.
3. Because there are fewer plants in deserts to 6. Streams in desert areas lack extensively
anchor the soil, there can be a great amount branched drainage systems. They do not flow
of erosion caused during a single short-lived out of the desert to oceans, and instead have
rain event. interior drainage, helping evaporation to dry
up ephemeral streams.
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Section 7.3
7.3 Landscapes Shaped by Wind
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy 7.7 Describe two ways that wind
How does deflation cause ◆ deflation Outlining Before you read, make an outline can cause erosion.
erosion in the desert? ◆ desert pavement of this section. Use the green headings as the
main topics and the blue headings as subtopics. 7.8 Identify types of landforms
How does abrasion shape ◆ loess
desert landscapes? As you read, add supporting details. that are deposited by the wind.
◆ dune
What types of landforms 7.9 Describe how sand dunes differ.
Landscapes Shaped by Wind
are deposited by wind?
I. Wind Erosion
How do sand dunes
differ? A. Deflation
B. Abrasion Reading Focus
II. ?
A. ? Build Vocabulary L2
Concept Map Have students construct
a concept map using all of the vocabulary
terms. Students should place the main
concept (Landscapes Shaped by Wind)
Wind Erosion in the center oval and use descriptive
Compared with running water, wind does not do nearly as linking phrases to connect the terms.
much erosional work on the land, even in deserts. But wind Instruct students to place the terms in
is still an important force. Humid areas can resist wind ero- ovals and connect the ovals with lines
sion because moisture binds soil particles together and on which linking words are placed.
plants anchor the soil. But desert soils are dry and have less
vegetation to hold soil in place. Therefore, wind does its Reading Strategy L2
most effective erosional work in deserts. II. Wind Deposits; A. Loess; B. Sand
Strong desert winds pick up, transport, and deposit Dunes; III. Types of Sand Dunes;
great quantities of fine sediment. Farmers of the Great A. Barchan Dunes; B. Transverse Dunes;
Plains experienced the power of wind erosion during the C. Barchanoid Dunes; D. Longitudinal
1930s. After they plowed the natural vegetation from this semi-arid Figure 17 The mounds in this Dunes; E. Parabolic Dunes; F. Star Dunes
region, a severe drought set in. The land was left exposed to wind photo show the level of the land
before deflation removed the
erosion. Vast dust storms swept away the fertile topsoil. The area topsoil. The mounds are 1.2 2 INSTRUCT
became known as the Dust Bowl. meters tall and are anchored by
vegetation. The photo was taken
Wind erodes in the desert in two ways: deflation and abra-
sion. Deflation is the lifting and removal of loose particles such as clay
in July 1936 in Granville, North
Dakota and reveals the extent of
Wind Erosion
and silt. Coarser sand particles roll or skip along the surface in a the damage in the Dust Bowl.
Applying Concepts How did
process called saltation. These large sand particles make up the bed farmers contribute to ruining the
load. In portions of the Dust Bowl, deflation lowered the land by a land during the Dust Bowl? L2
meter or more in only a few years, as shown in Figure 17.
Deflation also results in shallow depressions called blowouts. You Students may think that an area shrouded
can see thousands of blowouts in the Great Plains. They range from in mist cannot be a desert. This is not
small dimples less than 1 meter deep and 3 meters wide to depressions true. Deserts shrouded in mist form along
coastlines. Cold waters from the Arctic
more than 45 meters deep and several kilometers across.
and Antarctic regions and cold water
Glaciers, Deserts, and Wind 203 from ocean depths move toward the
equator and cool the air currents above
them. This cool air carries fog and mist,
but little rain. These misty air currents
flow across the coastal regions of
southern California, Baja California,
southwest Africa, and Chile.

Answer to . . .
Figure 17 Mechanized cultivation
removed prairie grass from large areas,
leaving soil vulnerable to wind.

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Section 7.3 (continued) A

Deflation
Deflation
B

Use Visuals L1
Desert pavement
Figure 18 Have students look closely
at Figure 18A. Ask: What is occurring Deflation Desert
in the first picture of Figure 18A? Deflation begins continues pavement
to remove finer established,
(Deflation of the desert surface begins. particles deflation ends
Fine sediment is removed from the surface
of the desert floor.) What is occurring
Figure 18 A These cross sections In portions of many deserts, the surface is characterized by a layer of
in the second picture of Figure 18A? show how deflation removes the
(Deflation continues as fine sediment is sand and silt of the desert surface course pebbles and cobbles that are too large to be moved by the wind.
removed, leaving only coarse particles.) until only coarser particles remain. Deflation creates a stony surface layer called desert pavement when it
These coarser particles concentrate removes all the sand and silt and leaves only coarser particles. See
What is occurring in the third picture into a tightly packed layer called
of Figure 18A? (All fine particles are desert pavement. B Desert Figure 18. The remaining surface of coarse pebbles and cobbles is pro-
removed. The remaining coarse particles pavement like this in Arizona’s tected from further deflation—unless vehicles or animals break it up. If
Sonoran Desert protects the
have been compressed into desert surface from further deflation.
something does disturb the surface, the wind begins eroding once again.
pavement.) Predicting What will happen if Wind can erode by abrasion, too. Abrasion happens when wind-
Visual, Verbal a vehicle disturbs this desert blown sand cuts and polishes exposed rock surfaces. Blowing sand can
pavement?
grind away at boulders and smaller rocks, sometimes sandblasting
Wind Deposits them into odd shapes. Abrasion is often credited for features such as
Build Reading Literacy L1 balanced rocks that stand high atop narrow pedestals or the detailing
Refer to p. 392D in Chapter 14, which on tall pinnacles. However, these features are not the results of abra-
provides the guidelines for preview. sion. Sand rarely travels more than a meter above the surface, so the
wind’s sandblasting effect is limited in a vertical extent. However, in
Preview Have students read the bold
some areas, telephone poles have been cut through near the base.
subheads and examine the figures in the
section. Then, ask students to list the
What is deflation?
important concepts they learned or will
learn in the section. (how landscapes are
shaped by wind and what wind erosion
and wind deposits can do) Wind Deposits
Visual, Verbal The wind can create landforms when it deposits its sediments,
especially in deserts and along coasts. Both layers of loess and sand
Integrate Language Arts L2 dunes are landscape features deposited by wind. These blankets of silt
Dust Bowl Literature John Steinbeck’s and mounds of sand are striking features in some parts of the world.
novel The Grapes of Wrath is about an
Oklahoma farming family who are forced Loess Loess is windblown silt that blankets the landscape. Dust storms
to leave their home and move to over thousands of years picked up this material, transported it, and then
California in a desperate attempt to deposited it. The thickest and most extensive deposits of loess on Earth
survive during the Dust Bowl and the occur in western and northern China. The silt was derived from nearby
Figure 19 This loess bluff near
Depression. Select a passage from this deserts. This fine, buff-colored sediment gives the Yellow River its name.
the Mississippi River in southern
novel to share with the class. Illinois is about 3 meters high. You also can find loess in the United States. See Figure 19. Strong winds
Verbal sweeping across glacial sediments created significant loess deposits in por-
tions of South Dakota, Nebraska, Iowa, Missouri, Illinois, and the
Columbia Plateau in the Pacific Northwest.

204 Chapter 7

Customize for English Language Learners

Help beginning language learners by using a are landscape features deposited
Cloze strategy to extract key information from by the . Unlike deposits of
the text about wind deposits. After reading the , which forms blanket-like layers
section Wind Deposits, have students fill in the over broad areas, winds commonly deposit
blanks in the following sentences: The wind in mounds or ridges called
can create landforms when it deposits its . (sediments, coasts, sand dunes,
, especially in deserts and along wind, loess, sand, dunes)
. Both layers of loess and

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Wind Erosion L2
Purpose Students will observe how
wind erodes the landscape.
Materials sand, large piece of
cardboard, water
Procedure Make two mounds of sand
on the cardboard. Sprinkle water over
one and leave the other one dry. Blow
Figure 20 Sand slides down the steeper face of a dune across the wet sand. Then, blow across
in New Mexico’s White Sands National Monument.
the dry sand.
Wind blows sand up the opposite, windward, face of
the dune, then it drops down this sheltered side. Expected Outcomes Students will
Slippage along the steep side results in migration of
observe the wet sand does not move.
the dune in the direction the wind blows.
They will also observe that the dry sand
is blown away by the movement of air
Sand Dunes Like running water, wind releases its load of sedi- Figure 21 These cross beds are
part of the Navajo Sandstone in just as wind moves the sand in a desert
ment when its velocity falls and the energy available for transport Zion National Park, Utah. or in a dry region.
diminishes. Sand begins to accumulate wherever an obstruction Visual, Logical
crosses its path and slows its movement. Unlike deposits of loess,
which form blanket-like layers over broad areas, winds commonly
deposit sand in mounds or ridges called dunes. Dunes can occur in
places where the wind encounters an obstruction. The wind’s velocity
falls and the sand particles drop to the ground. Dunes can begin near
obstructions as small as a clump of vegetation or a rock. Once the sand
starts to mound up it serves as its own obstruction, and it traps more
and more sand. With enough sand and long periods of steady wind, the
mound of sand becomes a dune.
Dunes often are steeper on the sheltered side and more gently slop-
ing inclined on the side facing the wind. Wind blows sand grains up the
gentler windward side. Once the sand blows over the crest of the dune,
the wind slows and the sand drops out. The sheltered side of the dune
becomes steeper, and the sand eventually slides down the slope, as
shown in Figure 20. In this way, the dune tends to migrate in the direc-
tion the wind blows.
As sand is deposited on the sheltered side of the dune, it forms
layers inclined in the direction the wind is blowing. These sloping
layers are called cross beds. When the dunes are eventually buried
under other layers of sediment and become sedimentary rock, the cross
beds remain as a record of their origin, as shown in Figure 21.
For: Links on wind erosion
Visit: www.SciLinks.org
How do obstructions help to form dunes?
Web Code: cjn-2073

Download a worksheet on wind

erosion for students to complete,
Glaciers, Deserts, and Wind 205 and find additional teacher support
from NSTA SciLinks.

Facts and Figures

What caused the Dust Bowl? Clearly, the fact cultivation in the region expanded nearly Answer to . . .
that portions of the Great Plains experienced tenfold, from about 10 million acres to more Figure 18 Further deflation will
some of North America’s strongest winds is than 100 million acres. As long as precipitation remove more sand and silt.
important. However, it was the huge expansion was adequate, the soil remained in place.
of agriculture that set the stage for this However, when a prolonged drought struck Deflation occurs when
disastrous period of soil erosion. Mechanization in the 1930s, the unprotected fields were wind lifts and removes
allowed the rapid transformation of the grass- vulnerable to the wind. The results were severe loose particles such as clay and silt.
covered prairies of this semiarid region into crop loss, crop failures, and economic hardship.
Obstructions reduce
farms. Between 1870 and 1930, the area of
wind velocity and cause
sand particles to drop to the ground.

Glaciers, Deserts, and Wind 205

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Section 7.3 (continued) Types of Sand Dunes

Dunes are not just random heaps of sand. They occur in a variety of
Types of Sand Dunes consistent forms worldwide. What form sand dunes assume
Build Science Skills L2 depends on the wind direction and speed, how much sand is avail-
Interpreting Diagrams Have able, and the amount of vegetation. Figure 22 shows six different
students study Figure 22. Ask: Which types of dunes.
sand dunes form from wind that
blows in a single direction? (barchan, Barchan Dunes Solitary sand dunes shaped like crescents are
transverse, barchanoid, and parabolic) called barchan dunes. These form on flat, hard ground where supplies
Which sand dunes form from wind of sand and vegetation are limited. Barchan dunes move slowly and
that blows in multiple directions? only reach heights of about 30 meters. If the wind direction is con-
(longitudinal and star) stant, barchan dunes remain symmetrical. One tip of the dune can
Verbal, Logical grow larger than the other if the wind direction varies somewhat.

Integrate Language Arts L2 Transverse Dunes If prevailing winds are steady, sand is plentiful,
and vegetation is sparse, dunes form in a series of long ridges. They are
Word Roots Tell students that one of
called transverse dunes because these ridges are perpendicular to the
the meanings of the Latin root trans- is
direction of the wind. Transverse dunes are typical in many coastal areas.
“across.” Ask students to discuss why
transverse is an appropriate name for
this type of dune. (The wind blows across Types of Sand Dunes Figure 22
the dune.)
Verbal
Wind

Wind

A Barchan
D Longitudinal

Wind Wind

B Transverse E Parabolic

Wind Wind

F Star
C Barchanoid

206 Chapter 7

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Visually Impaired Use dampened sand to pictured in Figure 22 for students with visual
create models of each type of sand dune impairments.

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They also comprise the “sand seas” found in parts of the Sahara and
3 ASSESS
Arabian deserts. Transverse dunes in both of these deserts reach heights Evaluate
of 200 meters, measure 1 to 3 kilometers across, and extend for distances Understanding L2
of 100 kilometers or more. Q Aren’t deserts mostly covered Ask students to write three quiz questions
with sand dunes? using the information in this section.
Barchanoid Dunes A common dune form that is intermediate A Many people think a desert Have students work in groups to quiz
between a barchan and transverse dune is the barchanoid dune. These is covered in drifting sand each other.
scalloped rows of sand form at right angles to the wind. The rows dunes. Some deserts do have
striking sand dunes. But sand
resemble a series of barchans that have been positioned side by side.
dunes worldwide represent only Reteach L1
You can see them at White Sands National Monument in New Mexico. a small percentage of the total
Have students explain in their own
desert area. Dunes cover only
Longitudinal Dunes Longitudinal dunes are long ridges of sand one-tenth of the world’s largest words how the sand dunes are formed
that form parallel to the prevailing wind. These dunes occur where desert, the Sahara, and only in Figure 22.
one-third of the world’s sandiest
sand supplies are moderate and the prevailing wind direction varies
desert, the Arabian, is covered
slightly. In portions of North Africa, Arabia, and central Australia, lon- in dunes.
gitudinal dunes can reach nearly 100 meters high and extend for more
Star dunes would travel the least,
than 100 kilometers.
because variable winds will move the
Parabolic Dunes Parabolic dunes look like backward barchans. dunes back and forth rather than in a
single direction.
Their tips point into the wind instead of away from it. They form where
some vegetation covers the sand. Parabolic dunes often form along the
coast where strong onshore winds and abundant sand are available.

Star Dunes Star dunes are isolated hills of sand mostly found in
parts of the Sahara and Arabian deserts. Their bases resemble stars and
they usually have three or four sharp ridges that meet in the middle.
Star dunes develop in areas of variable wind direction, and they some-
times reach heights of 90 meters.

Section 7.3 Assessment

Reviewing Concepts Critical Thinking

1. How does deflation lower the surface of 5. Comparing and Contrasting Compare
the desert? and contrast loess and sand dunes.
2. What would you expect to see in areas 6. Designing Experiments Describe how you
subject to abrasion? would conduct an experiment to determine
3. What was the Dust Bowl, and why did it the wind speed necessary to suspend sand,
occur? silt, and clay particles.
4. How does a dune help itself to grow?
5. What factors determine the shape of
sand dunes?
Which dune type would you expect to travel
the least? Explain your answer.

Glaciers, Deserts, and Wind 207

Section 7.3 Assessment 4. It serves as its own wind obstruction, causing

the wind to slow and sand to drop out.
1. Wind removes the loose clay and silt 5. wind direction and speed, how much sand
particles from the surface. is available, amount of vegetation
2. polished rock surfaces; oddly shaped rocks 6. Both are wind-blown deposits. Loess is
called ventifacts made of silt; dunes are made of sand.
3. a vast area of the Great Plains where wind 7. Answers should include a reasonable way
erosion occurred in the 1930s; because a to alter and measure the wind speed, as well
drought made the plowed ground vulnerable as to collect particles.
to wind erosion

Glaciers, Deserts, and Wind 207

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How the Earth Works

Erosion
1 FOCUS Erosion is the process by which rocks are broken down
by weathering and the loose material is carried away.
Rock material can be moved by streams and rivers,
Objectives by waves, by glacial ice, or by wind. The number of
In this feature, students will fragments that are moved and the distance that they
• define erosion and identify its agents. travel are affected by factors such as the size and
• describe the effects of erosion on weight of the particles and the speed at which the
different landforms. eroding agent is moving. The eroded material is carried
to another site where it is deposited as sediment.
Erosion affects the landscapes of Central Asia, the
Reading Focus Caucasus, and all regions of the world.
WATER FLOWING
Build Vocabulary L2 As water flows from highlands to the sea,
sharp descents result in rapids and waterfalls.
Define Terms Write the word erosion Flowing water is an important agent of erosion.

on the board. Have students define it.

Have students brainstorm a list of places
that show the effects of erosion in your SAND DUNES Sand
Rock
A dune begins to form dunes
region. Remind them of beaches, where a plant or other obstacle
arch Wadi
canyons, and other appropriate places. slows the wind, which drops its Rock fragments
load of sand. As the sand piles up, collect in wadi
it creates an ever-growing barrier
to the wind, causing more sand to
2 INSTRUCT be dropped. Eventually the dune
crest may collapse like
Bellringer L2 an ocean wave.

Ask students if they have ever collected

rocks from a river or ocean. Ask: What
was the texture of the rocks you
collected? (Most of them are smooth.)
Ask: What would account for the
smoothness of these rocks? (The EROSION IN ARID LANDS
When rare torrential rain comes to arid areas
constant motion of the water on the rocks in Central Asia and elsewhere, entire mountain-
sides may be swept clean of boulders, rock
wears down rough points and makes the fragments, sand, and clay. Flash floods wash
surface smooth.) Discuss how running eroded material down wadis—the valleys of
streams that are usually dry.
water affects hard objects and land over SEAS OF SAND
The huge amounts of sand that comprise
time. some deserts started out as rock that was
Logical weathered to form fine particles. The finer
the particle, the farther it can be transported
by agents of erosion.
Use Visuals L1
Have students study the pictures and
diagrams on this page and the next.
Ask: Are the effects of erosion obvious
from year to year? Why or why not?
(In most cases, the effects are not obvious
because erosion is a gradual process. In
208 Chapter 7
the case of erosion due to desert storms,
the effects are more immediately obvious.)
Visual

Customize for Inclusion Students

Gifted Have students research ways to diagram that shows what people can do to
minimize erosion at the library or on the minimize erosion. Students can present their
Internet. Ask them to create a flowchart or diagrams to the class and explain them.

208 Chapter 7
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EROSION BY GLACIAL ICE

3 ASSESS
Huge masses of moving ice are called
glaciers. Over thousands or millions Evaluate
of years, they can scour mountain- Understanding L2
sides and dramatically change the
shapes of valleys. Have students write sentences using the
key terms from this feature. Remind
1. Before
glaciation them that the sentences should include
A narrow, the definition of each term. Encourage
V-shaped
river valley students to use more than one key term
is surrounded
by rounded per sentence when possible.
mountains.

Reteach L1
Draw a two-column chart on the board.
2. During Label the columns Eroding Agent and
glaciation
Moving ice erodes
STREAM EROSION Effects. Have students use information
Streams erode their banks
mountaintops and beds, continually widening from the text to describe how streams,
and carves and deepening them. In some
wider valleys. cases, a canyon may result.
waves, glaciers, and other eroding
A canyon, such as this one agents change the landscape.
in Utah, is a deep valley with
vertical sides that have been
eroded by river water.

3. After
glaciation
The result is a
U-shaped valley
with rugged,
sharp peaks
above. WAVE ACTION
Coastlines are constantly eroded by waves
that are formed by winds blowing over water.
Cracked and soft rocks are eroded away first,
leading to the creation of arches. If the arch
roof collapses, a sea stack results.

1. Waves curve 2. An arch forms. 3. A sea stack results.

around headland.

Sea
1. Key Terms Define (a) erosion, 4. Physical Processes Analyze the stack
off the
(b) sediment, (c) wadi, (d) glacier, three diagrams of glacial erosion. How British
(e) canyon, (f) sea stack. can glaciers change the shapes of Isles
2. Environmental Change How does mountain valleys?
water gradually reshape the land? 5. Critical Thinking Analyzing
3. Physical Characteristics What are Causes and Effects How can ero-
some major physical characteristics sion on farmlands cause a reduction
of an arid landscape eroded by wind in agricultural production?
and rain?
209

Assessment 3. Sample answer: sand dunes formed and

unformed by wind, wadis created during flash
1. (a) the transport of loose material broken floods, sand formed from rocks eroded by
down by weathering; (b) eroded material wind
that is deposited; (c) a valley of a usually dry 4. Glaciers can change narrow, V-shaped
stream; (d) a huge mass of moving ice; (e) a valleys into wider, U-shaped valleys.
deep valley with vertical sides that have been 5. The soil’s nutrients wash or blow away,
eroded by river water; (f) a column of eroded making the land less productive.
coastline
2. Flowing water in the form of waterfalls,
rivers, oceans, or rain breaks up rocks and
other loose material.

Glaciers, Deserts, and Wind 209

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Section 8.1
8.1 What Is an Earthquake?
1 FOCUS

Section Objectives
8.1 Compare and contrast the Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy
What is a fault? ◆ earthquake Building Vocabulary Copy the table below.
epicenter and focus of an Then as you read the section, write a definition
What is the cause of ◆ focus
earthquake. for each vocabulary term in your own words.
earthquakes? ◆ epicenter
8.2 Identify the cause of ◆ fault
earthquakes. Vocabulary Definition
◆ elastic rebound
8.3 Compare and contrast hypothesis earthquake a. ?

aftershocks and foreshocks. ◆ aftershock b. ? c. ?

◆ foreshock
d. ? e. ?

f. ? g. ?
Reading Focus

Build Vocabulary L2
Word Parts Tell students that the
prefix epi- is from the Greek word for E ach year, more than 30,000 earthquakes occur worldwide that are
strong enough to be felt. Fortunately, most of these earthquakes are
“on” or “above.” Ask them to guess
what the word epicenter means based minor tremors and do very little damage. Generally, only about
on this (above the center). What other 75 major earthquakes take place each year. Most of these occur in
words can students come up with that remote regions. However, occasionally a large earthquake occurs near
have the same prefix? (epidermis, a city. Under these conditions, an earthquake is one of the most
epidemic) destructive natural forces on Earth, as shown in Figure 1.

Reading Strategy L2 Earthquakes

a. vibration of Earth due to release of Figure 1 This damage occurred An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the rapid
in San Francisco’s Marina District
pressure from the 1989 Loma Prieta release of energy. Earthquakes are often caused by slippage along a
b. focus earthquake. break in Earth’s crust.
c. location inside Earth where energy
is released in earthquake Focus and Epicenter The point
d. epicenter within Earth where the earthquake starts is
e. spot on surface of Earth directly called the focus. The released energy radi-
above focus ates in all directions from the focus in the
f. fault form of waves. These waves are similar to
g. large fracture in Earth’s crust and the waves produced when a stone is
mantle dropped into a calm pond. The impact
of the stone sets water waves in motion.
2 INSTRUCT An earthquake is similar because it
produces seismic waves that radiate
throughout Earth.
Earthquakes
Use Visuals L1
Figure 1 Direct student’s attention
to the facade of the building. Ask: 218 Chapter 8
How many stories do you think this
building was originally? (at least three)
What happened to the other stories?
(They were crushed in the motion of the
earthquake.)
Visual

218 Chapter 8
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Fault scarp

The focus of an earthquake is the place within Earth

Cause of Earthquakes
Build Science Skills L2
where the earthquake originates. When you see a news
report about an earthquake, the reporter always men- Using Models Have
Epicenter
tions the place on Earth’s surface where the earthquake students use a plastic,
has been located. The epicenter is the location on the Wave fronts flexible ruler to model
surface directly above the focus, as shown in Figure 2. the vibrations that
cause earthquakes. Students should
Faults A lot of evidence shows that Earth is constantly Focus place the ruler on the edge of their desk,
changing. We know that Earth’s crust has been uplifted at with approximately half of the ruler
times. We have found many ancient wave-cut features Fault hanging off the edge. Tightly holding
meters above the level of the highest tides. Offsets in fence the other half to the desk, they should
lines, roads, and other structures indicate that horizontal movements of Figure 2 The focus of each bend the ruler down. Releasing the ruler
Earth’s crust are also common, as seen in Figure 3. Earthquakes are usu- earthquake is the place within will model the release of energy along a
Earth where the earthquake
ally associated with large fractures in Earth’s crust and mantle called originated. The foci (plural of
fault. Students will be able to visualize
faults. Faults are fractures in Earth where movement has occurred. focus) are located along faults. the waves generated along the fault as
The surface location directly the energy is released.
above the focus is called the
What is a fault? epicenter.
Kinesthetic, Visual
Predicting Where do you
think the damage from an
earthquake is usually greatest?

Cause of Earthquakes
Sweet Stress L2
Before the great 1906 San Francisco earthquake, the actual causes and
effects of earthquakes were not understood. The San Fransisco earth- Purpose Students witness the buildup
quake caused horizontal shifts in Earth’s surface of several meters along of stress and the result of the release of
the northern portion of the San Andreas Fault. The 1300-kilometer energy in an earthquake through the
San Andreas fracture extends north and south through southern use of a candy bar as a model.
California. Studies following the 1906 quake found that during this Materials chocolate-covered candy
single event, the land on the western side of the San Andreas Fault Figure 3 Slippage along a fault bar with nougat center (such as Three
moved as much as 4.7 meters to the north compared to the land on caused an offset in this orange Musketeers)
the eastern side of the fault. grove east of Calexico, California.
The white arrows show the Procedure Unwrap the candy bar and
Based on these measurements and related studies, a hypothesis was direction of movement on either ask students to describe the surface of
developed to explain what had been observed. Figure 4 on page 220 illus- side of the fault.
the chocolate coating. Grab both ends
trates this hypothesis. Part A shows an existing fault. In part of the candy bar and slowly begin to
B, forces within Earth slowly deform the crustal rocks on bend the ends down. Ask students to
both sides of the fault, shown by the bent features of the observe the cracks on the surface as
rocks. These forces cause the rocks to bend and store elas- the stress is built up. Keep bending the
tic energy, just like a wooden stick does if it is bent. Elastic candy bar until it breaks or snaps. Ask
energy is the same kind of energy that is stored when you students to describe the final moments
stretch a rubber band. Eventually, the resistance caused by of the candy bar as well as what
internal friction that holds the rocks together is overcome. happened when the candy bar broke.
The rocks slip at the weakest point (the focus). The move- Visual, Logical
ment will exert forces farther along the fault, where
additional slippage will occur until most of the built-up
energy is released. This slippage allows the deformed rock
to snap back in place. The vibrations we call an earthquake
occur as the rock elastically returns to its original shape.

Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 219

Customize for English Language Learners

Earthquakes only happen in certain areas of under the Atlantic Ocean. With a partner, look
the world. These areas are called Earthquake at a map of the world. Identify the areas where
belts. The rim or edge of the Pacific Ocean is there are earthquake belts. List on a piece of
the largest of these belts. Another belt paper the names of the oceans or land masses
stretches from China to Southeast Asia to where you think there are earthquake belts. Answer to . . .
Africa and Europe. A third earthquake belt lies
Figure 2 at the epicenter
A fault is a fracture in
Earth where movement
has occurred.

Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 219

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Section 8.1 (continued) Figure 4 As rock is stressed Elastic Rebound Hypothesis The springing back of the rock
it bends, storing elastic energy.
Once the rock is strained beyond into its original place is called elastic rebound. The rock behaves much
Use Community its breaking point, it ruptures like a stretched rubber band does when it is released. The explanation
Resources L2 and releases the stored energy in says that when rocks are deformed, they first bend and then break,
the form of seismic waves.
Help students conduct a Web search of Inferring How do you think the releasing stored energy. This explanation for the release of energy
their town’s geologic history. Compile a temperature of rock would affect stored in deformed rocks is called the elastic rebound hypothesis.
list of any earthquakes or notable seismic its ability to bend or break?

activity, and have students investigate

major events further. They can consult Elastic Rebound
reference and online sources, or gather
firsthand knowledge by interviewing Deformation of rocks Deformation of a limber stick
people who experienced any events. See
if their research leads to any evidence of
property damage or rock deformations
in their area, such as a photograph like Stream
Figure 3.
If information on local geologic events
Fault Original position
is not available, have students visit the
U.S. Geological Survey’s Web site to Original position A
search for recent earthquakes. Then
have groups look at online articles
from newspapers in the area of
an earthquake.

Use Visuals L1
Figure 4 Ask: What evidence of Fault
Buildup of energy
deformation is present in the fourth Buildup of energy B
picture? (Each stream has been divided
in two.)

Integrate Physics L2
Potential and Kinetic Energy Read
the first paragraph of the section on
Elastic Rebound Hypothesis aloud. Ask Rupture
students to identify the words that relate Slippage (earthquake) C
to energy. Explain that stored energy is
potential energy, and the release of
energy is kinetic energy.

Energy released
Energy released D

220 Chapter 8

Facts and Figures

San Diego, California, and Santa Barbara, the same rate as your fingernails grow, or
California, are on opposite sides of the San about 45 mm/yr. At this rate, San Diego will
Andreas fault. They are currently approx- reach Santa Barbara’s current location in
imately 562 km apart. The plates on either approximately 10 million years!
side of the San Andreas fault move at about

220 Chapter 8
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Build Reading Literacy L1

Most earthquakes are produced by the rapid release of elas-
tic energy stored in rock that has been subjected to great forces. Refer to p. 216D, which provides the
When the strength of the rock is exceeded, it suddenly breaks, caus- guidelines for compare and contrast.
ing the vibrations of an earthquake. Earthquakes most often happen Compare and Contrast Have students
For: Links on earthquakes
along existing faults. They occur when the frictional forces on the fault review the section on aftershocks and
Visit: www.SciLinks.org
surfaces are overcome. foreshocks. Ask them to complete a
Web Code: cjn-3081
Venn diagram.
Aftershocks and Foreshocks The intense shaking of the 1906 Verbal
San Francisco earthquake lasted about 40 seconds. Most of the move-
ment along the fault occurred in this short time period. However, 3 ASSESS
additional movements along this and nearby faults continued for sev-
eral days. The movements that follow a major earthquake often produce Evaluate
Understanding L2
smaller earthquakes called aftershocks. These aftershocks are usually
much weaker than the main earthquake, but they can sometimes Have students create a diagram that
destroy structures weakened by the main quake. Small earthquakes shows the difference between the focus
called foreshocks often come before a major earthquake. These fore- and the epicenter of an earthquake.
shocks can happen days or even years before the major quake.
The San Andreas Fault is the most studied fault system in the Reteach L1
world. Studies have shown that displacement has occurred along seg- Ask students to use Figure 4 to explain
ments that are 100 to 200 kilometers long. Each fault segment behaves how deformation can occur in rocks.
a bit differently than the other segments. Some parts of the San Provide them with a popsicle stick so
Andreas show a slow, gradual movement known as fault creep. This they can recreate the phenomena.
movement happens fairly smoothly. Other segments regularly slip and
produce small earthquakes. However, some segments stay locked and
store elastic energy for hundreds of years before they break and cause
great earthquakes.
Solution
9. 25 yr ⫻ 1.5 cm/yr ⫽ 37.5 cm

Section 8.1 Assessment

Reviewing Concepts 7. Inferring What is meant by elastic rebound?

1. What is a fault? 8. Making Judgments Why do most
earthquakes cause little damage and loss of life?
2. Describe the cause of earthquakes. Download a worksheet on earth-
3. What is an earthquake? quakes for students to complete,
4. What is the source of an earthquake called? and find additional teacher support
5. What are foreshocks and aftershocks? from NSTA SciLinks.
9. In 25 years, how much movement will
Critical Thinking result from a fault that slowly slips
6. Connecting Concepts How are faults, foci, 1.5 centimeters per year?
and epicenters related? Answer to . . .
Figure 4 Rocks at higher tempera-
Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 221 tures would bend more before breaking.

Section 8.1 Assessment 4. The source of an earthquake is the focus. 7. Elastic rebound is the process in which
5. Aftershocks are smaller, weaker earth- deformed rocks first bend and then break,
1. A fault is a fracture in Earth where move- quakes that occur after the main earthquake. releasing energy.
ment has occurred. Foreshocks are small earthquakes that come 8. Most earthquakes do little damage
2. Earthquakes are caused by the release of before a major earthquake. because most of them occur in areas that
elastic energy stored in rock that has been 6. The focus of an earthquake is the place are not populated.
subjected to great forces. This causes the within Earth where the earthquake begins.
vibrations of an earthquake as the rocks The spot on the surface directly above the
elastically return to their original state. focus is the epicenter. Most earthquakes are
3. An earthquake is the motion that results usually associated with large fractures in the
as rocks release elastic energy. crust known as faults.

Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 221

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Section 8.2
8.2 Measuring Earthquakes
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
8.4 Identify the three types of Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy
seismic waves. What are the types of ◆ seismograph Outlining As you read, make an outline of
seismic waves? ◆ seismogram the important ideas in this section. Use the
8.5 Explain how to locate the green headings as the main topics and the
How is an earthquake ◆ surface wave
epicenter of an earthquake. epicenter located? blue headings as subtopics.
◆ P wave
8.6 Describe the different ways How is the size of an ◆ S wave Measuring Earthquakes
earthquakes are measured. earthquake measured? ◆ moment
magnitude I. Earthquake Waves
A. Surface Waves
B. ?
Reading Focus
II. ?

Build Vocabulary L2 A. ?

Word Parts Tell students that the

prefix seismo- is Greek for “shaking.” Ask
them to infer what a seismograph and a
seismogram are. Challenge them to
come up with other terms that begin Figure 5 The seismograph
T he study of earthquake waves, or seismology, dates back almost
2000 years. The first attempts to discover the direction of earthquakes
with the prefix seismo- (seismology, (seismos
shake, graph
write)
seismologist). amplifies and records ground were made by the Chinese. Seismographs are instruments that record
motion.
earthquake waves. The idea behind seismographs can be demonstrated
Reading Strategy L2 with a weight suspended from a support attached to bedrock as shown
B. Body Waves in Figure 5. When waves from an earthquake reach the instrument, the
II. Locating an Earthquake inertia of the weight keeps it stationary, while Earth and the support
A. Earthquake Distance vibrate. Because the weight stays almost
B. Earthquake Direction motionless, it provides a reference point
Weight hinged
C. Earthquake Zones to allow movement to measure the amount of movement
III. Measuring Earthquakes that occurs as waves pass through the
A. Richter Scale ground below. The movement of Earth
B. Moment Magnitude Support compared to the stationary weight can
moves with Weight does
Earth not move be recorded on a rotating drum, shown
with ground in Figure 5.
motion due
Pen to inertia Modern seismographs amplify and
electronically record ground motion,
producing a trace, called a seismogram.
Bedrock Rotating drum
records motion A typical seismogram (seismos
shake,
Bedrock
gramma
what is written) is shown in
Figure 6.
Earth moves

222 Chapter 8

Customize for Inclusion Students

Learning Disabled Place the palms of your a pencil between them. Slide one hand
hands together and slide one quickly against forward to represent the slipping rock surfaces.
the other. This movement represents two rock The pencil rotates, or twists, as you move your
surfaces slipping against each other. The finger- palm. In the same way, rocks twist between
tips of the hand that moves forward are like slipping surfaces. The twisting rocks send a
the rock that moves forward. This is called a “twist wave,” or S wave, throughout Earth.
“push wave” or P wave. The wave travels at A twist wave travels more slowly than a push
about 8 km/s. wave, moving through Earth at about 5 km/s.
Earthquakes also send out a second kind of
wave. This time put your hands together with

222 Chapter 8
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2 INSTRUCT
Earthquake Waves
The energy from an earthquake spreads outward as Earthquake Waves
waves in all directions from the focus. Seismograms
show that two main types of seismic waves are pro-
duced by an earthquake—surface waves and body Surface waves

waves. L2
First P wave First S wave Seismic Waves
Surface Waves Surface waves are seismic waves Purpose Students will see the ways
that travel along Earth’s outer layer. The motion of that the three different seismic waves
surface waves is complex. Surface waves travel along move though substances with the use
the ground and cause the ground and anything rest- of a coiled spring toy.
1 minute
ing upon it to move. This movement is like ocean (Earlier) Materials coiled spring toy
(Later)
waves that toss a ship. Surface waves move in an up- T I M E
Procedure Have a student hold one
and-down motion as well as a side-to-side motion, as end of the spring toy. Hold the other
shown in Figures 7E and 7F. The side-to-side motion end of the toy and step away from the
is especially damaging to the foundations of build- Figure 6 Typical Seismogram
student to stretch the spring out. Gather
ings. These movements make surface waves the most The first wave to arrive is the P
wave, followed later by S waves. approximately one fifth of the spring in
destructive earthquake waves. The last waves recorded are the your hand and let go. Ask students to
surface waves.
explain what they observed as the
Body Waves The other waves that travel through Earth’s interior Measuring What is the time
bunch of coils moves down the
interval in minutes between the
are called body waves. Body waves are identified as either P waves or start of the first P wave and extending spring. Explain to students
S waves, depending on how they travel through the materials within the start of the first S wave?
that this is how a P wave travels through
Earth. Figures 7B and 7D shows differences between the two kinds of a medium. Again, with the spring
waves. P waves are push-pull waves—they push (compress) and pull stretched out, gently move the toy
(expand) rocks in the direction the waves travel. P waves are also from side to side in a snake-like motion.
known as compression waves. In contrast, S waves shake the particles Students should observe how the
at right angles to their direction of travel. This can be shown by fas- toy moves as a result of such motion.
tening one end of a rope and shaking the other end, as in Figure 7C. Explain that this is how an S wave
S waves are transverse waves. P waves temporarily change the volume moves. Finally, move your end of the toy
of the material they pass through by alternately compressing and in a rolling motion (like winding a
expanding it, as in Figure 7A. S waves temporarily change the shape of fishing reel) creating waves. Students
the material they pass through. Gases and liquids will not transmit should realize they are observing the
S waves because they do not rebound elastically to their original shape. motion of surface waves.
A seismogram shows all three types of seismic waves— Kinesthetic, Visual
surface waves, P waves, and S waves. By observing a typical seismic
record, as shown in Figure 8 on page 225, you can see that the first
P wave arrives at the recording station, then the first S wave, and then Integrate
surface waves. The waves arrive at different times because they travel at Language Arts L2
different speeds. Generally, in any solid material, P waves travel about Ancient cultures had their own ways of
1.7 times faster than S waves. Surface waves travel the slowest explaining earthquakes. For example,
at about 90 percent of the speed of the S waves. an ancient Indian legend explains how
elephants carried Earth on their backs.
Which seismic wave travels fastest? When the elephants grew tired and
lowered their heads, an earthquake
occurred. An ancient Siberian legend
says that Earth was pulled on a sled
Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 223 by dogs. Whenever one of the dogs
stopped to scratch its fleas, an earth-
quake resulted. Challenge students to
discover more ancient legends about
earthquakes, and then to make up their
own myth or legend that might serve as
an explanation for earthquakes.
Verbal

Answer to . . .
Figure 6 approximately 5 minutes
P waves

Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 223

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Section 8.2 (continued) Locating an Earthquake

The difference in velocities of P and S waves provides a way to locate
Locating an the epicenter. You can compare this difference to a race between two
Earthquake cars. The winning car is faster than the losing car. The P wave always
Build Reading Literacy L1 wins the race, arriving ahead of the S wave. The longer the race, the
Refer to p. 156D in Chapter 6, which greater will be the difference in arrival times of the P and S waves at the
provides the guidelines for reciprocal finish line (the seismic station). The greater the interval measured on
teaching. Figure 7 Each type of seismic a seismogram between the arrival of the first P wave and the first S
wave has characteristic motions. wave, the greater the distance to the earthquake source.
Reciprocal Teaching Have students
read the section with a partner. One
Seismic Waves
partner reads a paragraph out loud.
Then the other partner summarizes the
Slinky at rest
paragraph’s contents and explains the
main concepts. The partners continue to
Push slinky
switch roles with each new paragraph
until they have finished the section. Compress
Wave direction
Intrapersonal
Expand Compress

Build Reading Literacy L1 Wave direction

Refer to p. 216D which provides the Particle motion

guidelines for this reading strategy. A P waves are compression waves that alternately compress
and expand the material through which they pass.
B The back-and-forth motion produced as P waves travel
along the surface can cause the ground to buckle and fracture.

Compare and Contrast Ask students

Rope at rest
to use the visuals and the captions in
Figure 7 to describe how the three types Shake rope
of waves are different. (P waves compress
and expand material in the same horizon-
Wave direction Particle motion
tal direction of the waves’ energy. S waves
are transverse waves that cause the ground
Wave direction
to shake up and down, perpendicular to
Particle motion
the waves’ direction. Surface waves travel
along the outer layer and can move in C S waves are transverse waves which cause material to shake
at right angles to the direction of wave motion. The length of D S waves cause the ground to shake up-and-down
and sideways.
both up-and-down motions and side-to- the red arrow is the displacement, or amplitude, of the S wave.

side motions.)

One type of surface wave moves the ground from side to Another type of surface wave travels along Earth’s surface
E side and can damage the foundations of buildings. F much like rolling ocean waves. The arrows show the
movement of rock as the wave passes. The motion follows
the shape of an ellipse.

224 Chapter 8

Customize for Inclusion Learners

Learning Disabled Ask students to simulate pictured in Figure 7A and 7C if they require
P waves and S waves with a slinky and jump help getting started.
rope. Instruct them to recreate the scenarios

224 Chapter 8
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Integrate Math L2
1000 2000 3000 mi
16 The epicenter of an earthquake is located
15 Paris using information on the arrival times of
Montréal
14 the P and S waves at three seismograph

m
84

0k
13

00
stations. Ask: Why must three

670
km
12 First S wave
seismograph stations be used? Why
11
aren’t two enough to locate the
Travel time (minutes)

e
10

rv
epicenter? (The intersection of three

cu
5 min.
9

e
av
8
S-
w
circles will yield a more exact location. If
7 First P wave Epicenter only two stations were used, these two
6 rve
circles would most likely intersect at two
cu m
ve 0k points. This would give two possible
550
5 a
w
P- locations for the same earthquake.)
4
São Paulo
3 Logical, Visual
2
1 Use Visuals L1
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 km Figure 8 Make sure students
Distance to epicenter
understand how to read the travel-time
A B graph. Explain that distance is expressed
in both kilometers (bottom) and miles
Figure 8 Locating an Earthquake A A travel-time graph is used to determine the distance to
the epicenter. The difference in arrival times of the first P wave and the first S wave in the graph is
(top), and tell them that one kilometer
5 minutes. So the epicenter is roughly 3800 kilometers away. B The epicenter is located using the equals approximately 0.6 miles. Ask:
distance obtained from three seismic stations. The place the circles intersect is the epicenter. If a station records 2 minutes elapsed
time between the arrival of the first
P wave and the arrival of the first
Earthquake Distance A system for locating earthquake epicen- S wave, how far in kilometers is that
ters was developed by using seismograms from earthquakes whose station from the epicenter? (about
epicenters could be easily pinpointed from physical evidence. Travel- 1000 km) A good way to help students
time graphs are constructed from these seismograms, as shown in Figure comprehend all the information
8A. Using the sample seismogram in Figure 6 and the travel-time curves compiled in a travel-time graph is to
in Figure 8A, we can determine the distance from the recording station create one on the board. Plot data
to the earthquake in two steps. First, find the time interval between the points to simulate how seismic
arrival of the first P wave and the first S wave on the seismogram. Second, recordings are used to create P
find on the travel-time graph the equivalent time spread between the P and S wave curves.
and S wave curves. From this information, you can see that this earth-
quake occurred 3800 kilometers from the seismograph.

Earthquake Direction Now we know the distance, but what

about the direction? The epicenter could be in any direction from the
seismic station. As shown in Figure 8B, the precise location can be
found when the distance is known from three or more different seis-
mic stations. On a globe, we draw a circle around each seismic station.
Each circle represents the distance of the epicenter from each station.
The point where the three circles intersect is the epicenter of the quake.
Travel-time graphs from three or more seismographs can be
used to find the exact location of an earthquake epicenter.

Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 225

Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 225

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Section 8.2 (continued) Mediterranean-Asian

belt

Measuring Circum-Pacific
belt
Earthquakes

Measuring the Distance

to Epicenters L2
Objective
After completing this activity, students
should be able to use a travel-time
graph and data from a seismogram to
determine information about the
epicenter of an earthquake. Figure 9 Distribution of the 14,229 earthquakes with magnitudes equal to or greater than 5 from 1980 to 1990.
Observing Where do you find most of the earthquakes—in the interiors of the continents or at the edges?
Skills Focus Inferring, Predicting

Prep Time 5 minutes

Earthquake Zones About 95 percent of the major
Class Time 20 minutes earthquakes occur in a few narrow zones, as shown in
Expected Outcome Students will Measuring the Distance Figure 9. Most of these earthquakes occur around the
successfully use the travel-time graph to Epicenters outer edge of the Pacific Ocean. This zone is known as the
and seismogram to answer the circum-Pacific belt. Active earthquake areas in this zone
questions. Procedure include Japan, the Philippines, Chile, and Alaska’s Aleutian
Analyze and Conclude 1. Look at Figures 6 and 8A. Figure 6 is a Islands. A second zone of earthquake activity occurs along
1. 1000 km
approximately 2 minutes seismogram and Figure 8A is a travel- the Mediterranean Sea. This is the Mediterranean-Asian
2000 km
approximately 3.5 minutes time graph. Use the graph to answer belt. Another continuous belt extends for thousands of
2400 km
approximately 4 minutes the Analyze and Conclude questions.
kilometers through the world’s oceans. This zone coin-
3000 km
approximately 4.4 minutes 2. Make sure to use only the bottom scale cides with the oceanic ridge system.
on the x-axis, measured in kilometers,
2. The farther away from the epicenter, to answer the questions.
the greater the time between the arrival Where do most earthquakes occur?
of the first P wave and the first S wave. Analyze and Conclude
3. The vibrations recorded on the 1. Reading Graphs What is the difference
seismogram would probably become in arrival times in minutes between the
less pronounced, with peaks that were first P wave and first S wave for stations Measuring Earthquakes
that are the following distances from an
not as high, or in some other way Historically, scientists have used two different types of
epicenter: 1000 km, 2000 km, 2400 km,
different, as the distance to the and 3000 km? measurements to describe the size of an earthquake—
epicenter increases. 2. Inferring How does the difference in intensity and magnitude. Intensity is a measure of the
arrival times of the first P wave and first amount of earthquake shaking at a given location based on
S wave on a seismogram change? How the amount of damage. Intensity is not a quantitative meas-
does it change if the station is farther urement because it is based on uncertain personal damage
from the epicenter?
estimates. Quantitative measurements, called magnitudes,
3. Predicting How do you think the
vibrations recorded on a seismogram
were developed that rely on calculations using seismograms.
would change as the distance to the Magnitudes are a measure of the size of seismic waves or the
epicenter increases? amount of energy released at the source of the earthquake.

226 Chapter 8

Facts and Figures

The circum-Pacific belt, or the Ring of Fire, part of the Ring of Fire: the Andes Mountains
accounts for approximately 75 percent of the and the volcanoes Cotopaxi and Azul, the
world’s earthquake activity. It also contains Mexican volcanoes Popocatepetl and
some of the major volcanic mountains and Paricutin, the Cascade Mountains and
mountain ranges on Earth. That is why it is Mount Saint Helens, the Aleutian Islands,
called the Ring of Fire. The following is a list of and Mount Fuji volcano in Japan.
the mountain ranges and volcanoes that are

226 Chapter 8
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Richter Scale A familiar but outdated scale for measuring the

magnitude of earthquakes is the Richter scale. The Richter scale is L2
based on the amplitude of the largest seismic wave (P, S, or surface
wave) recorded on a seismogram. Earthquakes vary greatly in strength, Many students may think that small- to
so Richter used a logarithmic scale. A tenfold increase in wave ampli- medium-sized earthquakes in an area
tude equals an increase of 1 on the magnitude scale. For example, the will reduce the chances of a major
amount of ground shaking for a 5.0 earthquake is 10 times greater than earthquake in the same region because
the shaking produced by an earthquake of 4.0 on the Richter scale. the smaller earthquakes will release all of
Seismic waves weaken as the distance between the earthquake focus the built-up energy. To challenge this
misconception, ask students to consider
and the seismograph increases. The Richter scale is only useful for
the amount of energy released in an
small, shallow earthquakes within about 500 kilometers of the epicenter.
earthquake. Ask: How much more
Most of the earthquake measurements you hear on news reports use
ground shaking does an earthquake
the Richter scale. Scientists, however, no longer use it.
with a measure of 8.0 on the Richter
Moment Magnitude In recent years, scientists have been using scale have compared with an earth-
a more precise means of measuring earthquakes. It is called the quake with a measure of 3.0 on the
moment magnitude scale. The moment magnitude is derived from Richter scale? (about 100,000 times
the amount of displacement that occurs along a fault zone. It doesn’t more ground shaking) How many
smaller earthquakes measuring 3.0 on
measure the ground motion at some distant point. The moment mag-
the Richter scale would need to occur
nitude is calculated using several factors. These factors include the
to equal the same amount of ground
average amount of movement along the fault, the area of the surface
shaking of an 8.0 earthquake? (about
break, and the strength of the broken rock: (surface area of fault) 
100,000 smaller earthquakes)
(average displacement along fault)  (rigidity of rock). Together these
Logical
factors provide a measure of how much energy rock can store before
it suddenly slips and releases this energy during an earthquake. L1
Moment magnitude is the most widely used measurement for earth-
Build Reading Literacy
quakes because it is the only magnitude scale that estimates the Refer to p. 474D in Chapter 17, which
energy released by earthquakes. provides guidelines for monitor your
Table 1 describes the damage and incidence of earthquakes of dif- understanding.
ferent magnitudes. Compare this information to the earthquakes listed Monitor Your Understanding
in Table 2 on page 228. Display a world map with the names of
major cities. Help students find the
Table 1 Earthquake Magnitudes and Expected World Incidence locations where the earthquakes listed in
Estimated Number Table 2 occurred. Then ask students
Moment Magnitudes Effects Near Epicenter per Year whether the earthquake’s location is in
 2.0 Generally not felt, but can be recorded  600,000 any of the earthquake zones described
on page 226. (Most are in the circum-
2.0–2.9 Potentially perceptible  300,000
Pacific belt. Armenia—1988; Iran—1990;
3.0–3.9 Rarely felt  100,000
Latur, India—1993; and Izmit, Turkey—
4.0–4.9 Can be strongly felt 13,500 1999 are in the Mediterranean-Asian belt.
5.0–5.9 Can be damaging shocks 1,400 The Charleston, SC, earthquake of 1886 is
6.0–6.9 Destructive in populous regions 110
not in any of the zones described in the
text.)
7.0–7.9 Major earthquakes; inflict serious damage 12

8.0 and above Great earthquakes; destroy communities 0–1

near epicenter

Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 227

Answer to . . .
Figure 9 at the edges
along the edge of the
Pacific Ocean

Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 227

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Section 8.2 (continued) Table 2 Some Notable Earthquakes

Year Location Deaths (est.) Magnitude† Comments
3 ASSESS *1886 Charleston, South Carolina 60 Greatest historical earthquake in the eastern
Evaluate United States
Understanding L2 *1906 San Francisco, California 1500 7.8 Fires caused extensive damage.
1923 Tokyo, Japan 143,000 7.9 Fire caused extensive destruction.
Have students write three review
1960 Southern Chile 5700 9.6 Possibly the largest-magnitude earthquake ever
questions for this section. Students recorded
should then break into groups of *1964 Alaska 131 9.2 Greatest North American earthquake
three or four and ask each other
1970 Peru 66,000 7.8 Large rockslide
their questions.
*1971 San Fernando, California 65 6.5 Damages exceeded $1 billion.
1985 Mexico City 9500 8.1 Major damage occurred 400 km from epicenter.
Reteach L1
1988 Armenia 25,000 6.9 Poor construction practices caused great
Review the types of seismic waves from damage.
earthquakes by asking students to *1989 Loma Prieta, California 62 6.9 Damages exceeded $6 billion.
explain what they see in Figure 7. 1990 Iran 50,000 7.3 Landslides and poor construction practices
caused great damage.
1993 Latur, India 10,000 6.4 Located in stable continental interior
*1994 Northridge, California 57 6.7 Damages exceeded $40 billion.
An earthquake measuring a moment 1995 Kobe, Japan 5472 6.9 Damages estimated to exceed $100 billion.
magnitude of 6 could prove to be 1999 Izmit, Turkey 17,127 7.4 Nearly 44,000 injured and more than 250,000
potentially devastating to structures not displaced.

built to new earthquake standards. 1999 Chi Chi, Taiwan 2300 7.6 Severe destruction; 8700 injuries

Poorly built structures would suffer 2001 El Salvador 1000 7.6 Triggered many landslides

significant damage. However, structures 2001 Bhuj, India 20,000† 7.9 1 million or more homeless

that were constructed with earthquake *U.S. earthquakes

†Widely differing magnitudes have been estimated for some earthquakes. When available, moment magnitudes are used.
safety in mind would most likely fare
SOURCE: U.S. Geological Survey
well. Students should use Tables 1 and 2
from the text as a reference in looking at
the damage caused by earthquakes with Section 8.2 Assessment
a moment magnitude of 6 or more.

Reviewing Concepts 6. Applying Concepts How does a seismograph

1. List the two categories of seismic waves. measure an earthquake?
2. Briefly describe how the epicenter of an
earthquake is located.
3. Describe the two different ways to
measure the size of an earthquake.
4. In what order do the basic types of seismic
waves reach a seismograph?

Critical Thinking
5. Comparing and Contrasting Describe the Descriptive Paragraph Write a para-
differences in speed and mode of travel graph describing in your own words what
between primary waves and secondary waves. would occur in an earthquake that has been
measured as a moment magnitude of 6.0.

228 Chapter 8

Section 8.2 Assessment station. A circle is drawn around each seismo- 6. In concept, a seismograph has a weight
graph station and the circles meet where the which is suspended from a support that is
1. The two categories of seismic waves are earthquake epicenter is likely to be found. attached to bedrock. When the bedrock
body waves (P and S) and surface waves. 3. Earthquakes can be measured by their shakes, the weight remains stationary which
2. The epicenter of an earthquake is located intensity (or level of damage done) or by the allows it to act as a reference point. The
using data taken from at least three different magnitude (amplitude of seismic waves). movement of Earth can then be compared
seismograph stations. The time that the first 4. P wave, S wave, surface wave to the weight and recorded on a stationary
P wave arrives at the station is then subtracted 5. P waves push and pull rocks in the direc- drum.
from the time that the first S wave arrives. tion of travel. Their velocity is greater than
This value can then be turned into a distance the velocity of S waves. S waves shake the
using a travel-time diagram. This distance particles of material at right angles to their
means that the epicenter is that far from the direction of travel.

228 Chapter 8
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Section 8.3
8.3 Destruction from
Earthquakes
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
8.7 Describe the factors
Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy contributing to earthquake
What destructive events ◆ liquefaction Monitoring Your Understanding Preview
damage.
can be triggered by ◆ tsunami the Key Concepts, topic headings, vocabulary, 8.8 Identify other dangers
earthquakes? ◆ seismic gap and figures in this section. List two things you associated with earthquakes.
expect to learn. After reading, state what you
Can earthquakes be
learned about each item you listed.
8.9 Explain the potential for
predicted?
earthquake prediction.
What I Expect
To Learn What I Learned

a. ? b. ?
Reading Focus
c. ? d. ?

Build Vocabulary L2
Paraphrase Ask students to write the
vocabulary words on a sheet of paper.
T he Good Friday Alaskan Earthquake in 1964 was the most violent
earthquake to jar North America in the 20th century. The earthquake
Instruct students to write a definition, in
their own words, for each term as they
encounter the term while going through
was felt throughout Alaska. It had a moment magnitude of 9.2 and lasted
the chapter. After writing their own
3 to 4 minutes. The quake left 131 people dead and thousands home- Figure 10 Earthquake Damage
definition, they should also write a
less. The state’s economy was also badly damaged because the quake This five-story building in
Anchorage, Alaska, collapsed complete sentence with the term.
affected major ports and towns. Had the schools and businesses been from the great earthquake of
open on this holiday, the death toll would surely have been much higher. 1964. Very little structural damage
Reading Strategy L2
was incurred by the steel-framed
Seismic Vibrations building to the left. Sample answers:
Inferring Why do some buildings
undergo little damage, while
a. how seismic vibrations can cause
The 1964 Alaskan earthquake gave geologists new insights into the role damage
nearby buildings are nearly
of ground shaking as a destructive force. The damage to build- destroyed? b. Damage depends on the building
ings and other structures from earthquake waves depends on several design, intensity and length of time of
factors. These factors include the intensity and duration of the vibrations, and the material that the
the vibrations, the nature of the material on which the building was constructed on.
structure is built, and the design of the structure. c. dangers associated with earthquakes
d. These include tsunamis, landslides,
Building Design All multistory buildings in Anchorage,
and fire.
Alaska, were damaged by the vibrations. However, the more flex-
ible wood-frame buildings, such as homes, were less damaged.
Figure 10 offers an example of how differences in construction 2 INSTRUCT
can affect earthquake damage. You can see that the steel-frame
building on the left withstood the vibrations. However, the Seismic Vibrations
poorly designed building on the right was badly damaged. Reading Strategy L2
Engineers have learned that unreinforced stone or brick build-
Invite a structural engineer to speak
ings are the most serious safety threats during earthquakes.
to the class about the construction of
Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 229 earthquake-safe buildings. Have
students ask about specific regulations
for building codes in your area.
Interpersonal
Customize for Inclusion Students
Gifted When we consider how many or substandard building sites. Another serious
earthquakes there are in one year, the number problem is not knowing how to respond to an
of earthquakes that cause terrible damage is earthquake. When people panic and rush out
actually very small. The amount of damage an of buildings there is a danger of being trampled,
earthquake causes depends on many conditions. suffocated, or injured by falling debris. Go to Answer to . . .
For example, if a building is well constructed the Red Cross website at http://www.redcross. Figure 10 Damage to buildings often
and built on solid ground, it may survive an org/services/disaster and read about depends on the construction and
earthquake. Most injuries and deaths during earthquake safety. design of the building. For example,
earthquakes are because of poor construction buildings made of wood often are more
flexible than buildings made of concrete.

Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 229

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Section 8.3 (continued) Liquefaction Where loosely consolidated sediments are saturated
with water, earthquakes can cause a process known as liquefaction.
Under these conditions, what had been stable soil turns into a liquid
Q What is the largest wave that is not able to support buildings or other structures. Buildings and
L2 triggered by an earthquake?
bridges may settle and collapse. Underground storage tanks and sewer
A The largest wave ever lines may float toward the surface.
Many students may have heard that recorded occurred in Lituya
the safest place in a house during an Bay, about 200 kilometers west
earthquake is in a doorway. Challenge of Juneau, Alaska. On July 9, When does liquefaction occur?
this misconception by pointing out that 1958, an earthquake triggered
an enormous rockslide that
modern doorways are no stronger than dumped 90 million tons of rock
other sections of a house and usually into the upper part of the bay. Tsunamis
have doors that could swing and injure The rockslide created a huge
someone. Encourage students to come splash wave that swept over the Most deaths associated with the 1964 Alaskan quake were caused by
up with another plan for earthquake ridge facing the rockslide. The seismic sea waves, or tsunamis. These destructive waves often are called
splash uprooted or snapped off tidal waves by news reporters. However, this name is incorrect because
safety. This should involve ducking trees 522 meters above the bay.
under a sturdy table or desk and staying these waves are not produced by the tidal effect of the moon or sun.
Even larger splash waves may
clear of objects that could tip over, such have occurred 65 million years
ago when an estimated 900- Causes of Tsunamis A tsunami triggered by an earthquake
as file cabinets and bookcases.
meter wave is thought to have occurs where a slab of the ocean floor is displaced vertically along a
resulted from a meteorite fault. A tsunami also can occur when the vibration of a quake sets
Build Reading Literacy L1 impact in the Gulf of Mexico.
an underwater landslide into motion. Once formed, a tsunami
Refer to p. 334D in Chapter 12, for resembles the ripples created when a pebble is dropped into a pond.
guidelines on outlining content. A tsunami travels across the ocean at speeds of 500 to 950 kilometers
Outline Have students read the per hour. Despite this speed, a tsunami in the open ocean can pass
section. Then have students use the without notice because its height is usually less than 1 meter, and the
headings as major divisions in an distance between wave crests can range from 100 to 700 kilometers.
outline. Allow students to refer to their However, when the wave enters shallower coastal water, the waves are
outlines when answering the questions slowed and the water begins to pile up to heights that sometimes are
in Section 8.3 Assessment. greater than 30 meters, as shown in Figure 11.
Visual

Tsunamis
L2 Tsunami speed: Tsunami speed: Tsunami speed:
Build Science Skills 835 km/h 340 km/h 50 km/h
Observing Have pairs of students Sea level
investigate recent or historically Water depth: Water depth:
Water depth:
5500 meters 900 meters
significant tsunamis. (They may use 20 meters
library resources or conduct a Web
search.) After students have had time to
obtain information, have them compare
Displacement
their findings with another group.
Interpersonal, Verbal Figure 11 Movement of a Tsunami A tsunami is generated by movement
of the ocean floor. The speed of a wave moving across the ocean is related to
the ocean depth. Waves moving in deep water travel more than 800
kilometers per hour. Speed gradually slows to 50 kilometers per hour at
depths of 20 meters. As waves slow down in shallow water, they grow in
height until they topple and hit shore with tremendous force.

230 Chapter 8

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Other Dangers
Tsunami Warning System The destruction from a large
tsunami in the Hawaiian Islands led to the creation of a tsunami warn-
Build Science Skills L2
ing system for coastal areas of the Pacific. Large earthquakes are reported
to the Tsunami Warning Center in Honolulu from seismic stations Using Models
around the Pacific. Scientists use water levels in tidal gauges to determine Students should create
whether a tsunami has formed. Within an hour of the reports, a warning a model of a house on a
is issued. Although tsunamis travel very rapidly, there is sufficient time small hill using sand,
to evacuate all but the area closest to the epicenter. Fortunately, most potting soil, and thin wire netting. The
earthquakes do not generate tsunamis. On the average, only one or two model should be no more than 30 cm
destructive tsunamis are generated worldwide every year. Only about one high. Then, students will shake their
tsunami in every 10 years causes major damage and loss of life. model in such a way that mimics an
earthquake. They will then observe what
What areas are protected by the happens to the hill and the buildings
tsunami warning system? placed on it. Ask: What happens to the
buildings on the slope? (Answers will
vary but students should see that the
Other Dangers buildings slid down the slope.) What
The vibrations from earthquakes impact could water have on the
cause other dangers, including land- model earthquake? (The damage
slides, ground subsidence, and fires. would probably be worse if the hillside
was saturated with water.)
Landslides With many Kinesthetic
earthquakes, the greatest damage
to structures is from landslides Use Community
and ground subsidence, or the Resources L2
sinking of the ground triggered by Instruct students to ask their village
the vibrations. The violent shaking or city officials about local tsunamis,
of an earthquake can cause the soil landslides, or fires that resulted from an
and rock on slopes to fail, resulting earthquake. Some sources to contact
in landslides. Figure 12 shows some might be fire departments, city halls,
of the damage landslides can cause. and newspaper or media archives.
Earthquake vibration can also Ask them to brainstorm appropriate
cause large sections of the ground to collapse, liquefy, or subside. Figure 12 This landslide caused questions and ask the official they hope
by the 1964 Alaskan earthquake
Ground subsidence can cause foundations to collapse, as shown destroyed many homes. More to interview.
in Figure 12. It can also rupture gas and water pipelines. than 200 acres of land slid toward
the ocean.
Fire The 1906 San Francisco earthquake reminds us of the major Interpreting Photos Assuming
the land was originally horizontal,
threat of fire. The city contained mostly large wooden structures and to what angle have the trees
brick buildings. The greatest destruction was caused by fires that on the left side of the photo
been tilted?
started when gas and electrical lines were cut. Many of the city’s water
lines had also been broken by the quake, which meant that the fires
couldn’t be stopped. A 1923 earthquake in Japan caused an estimated
250 fires. They devastated the city of Yokohama and destroyed more
than half the homes in Tokyo. The fires spread quickly due to unusu-
ally high winds. More than 100,000 people died in the fires.

Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 231

Facts and Figures

The 1906 earthquake in San Francisco was one of San Francisco. On the San Andreas fault,
of the most devastating in the United States. buildings were completely destroyed or torn Answer to . . .
The earthquake and resulting fires caused an apart; trees fell to the ground. The surface of Figure 12 45°
estimated 3,000 deaths and $524 million in the ground was torn and heaved into furrow-
property loss. Damage in San Francisco alone like ridges. Roads crossing the fault line were Liquefaction occurs
was estimated at $20 million; outside the city, impassable. Pipelines were broken, shutting off when loosely consoli-
it was estimated at $4 million. The duration of the water supply to the city. The fires that dated soils saturated with water are
the shaking in San Francisco was about ignited soon after the earthquake quickly shaken by earthquake waves.
1 minute. raged through the city because of the lack coastal areas of the
The earthquake damaged buildings and of water to control them. Pacific
structures in all parts of the city and county
Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 231
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Section 8.3 (continued) Predicting Earthquakes

The earthquake in Northridge, California, in 1994 caused 57 deaths
Predicting and about $40 billion in damage. Scientists warn that quakes of simi-
Earthquakes lar or greater strength will occur. But can earthquakes be predicted?
Integrate Biology L2
Short-Range Predictions The goal of short-range prediction
Can Animals Predict Earthquakes?
is to provide an early warning of the location and magnitude of a large
There is much speculation as to the
earthquake. Researchers monitor possible precursors—things that pre-
ability of animals to predict earthquakes.
cede and may warn of a future earthquake. They measure uplift,
Documented cases have shown snakes Figure 13 Effects of subsidence, and strain in the rocks near active faults. They measure
and bees rapidly leaving their homes, Subsidence Due to
water levels and pressures in wells. Radon gas emissions from fractures
excessive dog barking, and erratic Liquefaction This tilted building
rests on unconsolidated sediment and small changes in the electromagnetic properties of rocks are also
behavior in domesticated and wild that imitated quicksand during monitored. So far, methods for short-range predictions of earth-
animals prior to major earthquakes. the 1985 earthquake in Mexico.
The US Geological Survey, however, quakes have not been successful.
is more skeptical. They acknowledge
Long-Range Forecasts Long-range forecasts give the probabil-
the abundance of cases of reported
ity of a certain magnitude earthquake occurring within 30 to 100-plus
behavioral changes prior to an
years. These data are important for updating building codes, which have
earthquake but there aren’t enough
standards for designing earthquake-resistant structures. Long-range
reproducible connections to conclusively
forecasts are based on the idea that earthquakes are repetitive or cycli-
state that animals are predicting the
cal. In other words, as soon as one earthquake is over, the forces in Earth
earthquakes. Have students research
will begin to build strain in the rocks again. Eventually the rocks will slip
specific cases of odd animal behavior
prior to earthquakes and present their again, causing another earthquake. Scientists study historical records
findings in a newspaper article. of earthquakes to see if there are any patterns of recurrence. They also
Verbal study seismic gaps. A seismic gap is an area along a fault where there has
not been any earthquake activity for a long period of time. There has
For: Links on predicting
earthquakes been only limited success in long-term forecasting. Scientists don’t
3 ASSESS Visit: www.SciLinks.org yet understand enough about how and where earthquakes will occur
Evaluate Web Code: cjn-3082 to make accurate long-term predictions.
Understanding L2
Have students work in groups to develop
a short public service announcement on Section 8.3 Assessment
the other dangers facing areas that have
experienced an earthquake.
Reviewing Concepts 6. Drawing Conclusions Why is it incorrect to
Reteach L1 1. What destructive events can be triggered refer to tsunamis as tidal waves?
by an earthquake?
Ask students to use the diagram in
2. What physical changes have been used in
Figure 11 to explain how tsunamis are the attempts to predict earthquakes?
generated and how they move to shore.
3. What is a tsunami? Earthquakes In Section 8.1, you
4. What is a seismic gap? learned about the elastic energy stored
in rocks before an earthquake and the
Critical Thinking elastic rebound hypothesis. How could
If there were some way to measure the 5. Making Judgments Do you think scientists this information be used to try to
amount of energy stored in rocks, this are close to being able to accurately predict predict earthquakes?
might lead to the prediction of earthquakes? Explain your answer.
earthquakes. If scientists could observe
and measure the buildup of stress within
232 Chapter 8
rocks, they might be able to determine
the amount of stress the rocks could
withstand before the energy needed to
be released. This could provide an
estimate of time for an earthquake. Section 8.3 Assessment 4. A seismic gap is an area along a fault that
has not had any earthquake activity for a long
1. Events such as landslides, tsunamis, and period of time.
fires can be triggered by earthquakes. 5. Answers will vary. Sample answer: Scientists
2. Physical changes such as uplift, subsidence, don’t yet understand enough about how and
strain in rocks along faults, water levels in where earthquakes occur to make accurate
wells, and radon gas emissions from fractures predictions.
have been measured in hopes of predicting 6. Tidal waves are caused by the gravitational
Download a worksheet on predicting earthquakes. pull of the moon and sun. Tsunamis are large
earthquakes for students to 3. A tsunami is a seismic sea wave created by waves caused by earthquake movements.
complete, and find additional an underwater earthquake or a landslide under
teacher support from NSTA SciLinks. the ocean floor generated by an earthquake.

232 Chapter 8
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Section 8.4
8.4 Earth’s Layered Structure
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy 8.10 List the layers of Earth based
What is Earth’s internal ◆ crust Sequencing Copy the flowchart. After you on composition and physical
structure? ◆ mantle read, complete the sequence of layers in
Earth’s interior. properties.
What is the composition ◆ lithosphere
of Earth’s interior?
8.11 Describe the composition of
◆ asthenosphere Earth’s Internal Structure
◆ outer core
each layer of Earth.
◆ inner core ? Outer
Lithosphere a. b. ? c. ?
core
◆ Moho
Reading Focus

Build Vocabulary L2
E arth’s interior lies not very far beneath our feet, but we can’t reach
it. The deepest well has drilled only 12 kilometers into Earth’s crust.
LINCS Have students: List the parts of
the vocabulary that they know, such as
With such limited access, how do we know what Earth’s interior is like? core, sphere, and litho-. Imagine what
Most knowledge of the interior comes from the study of earthquake Figure 14 The arrows show only
the interior of Earth might look like and
waves that travel through Earth. a few of the many possible paths how the terms might fit together. Note
that seismic waves take through a reminding, sound-alike term, such as
Earth.
Layers Defined by Composition Inferring What causes the wave
apple core or atmosphere. Connect the
paths to change? terms, perhaps in a long sentence or as
If Earth were made of the same materials throughout, seismic waves
labels on a diagram. Self-test.
would spread through it in straight lines at constant speed. However, this
is not the case. Seismic waves reaching seismographs located farther Reading Strategy L2
from an earthquake travel at faster average speeds than those
recorded at locations closer to the event. This general increase in a. asthenosphere
speed with depth is due to increased pressure, which changes the b. lower mantle
c. inner core
elastic properties of deeply buried rock. As a result, the paths of
seismic waves through Earth are refracted, or bent, as they travel.
Figure 14 shows this bending. Earth’s interior consists of 2 INSTRUCT
three major zones defined by its chemical composition—the
crust, mantle, and core. Layers Defined by
Crust The crust, the thin, rocky outer layer of Earth, is divided Composition
into oceanic and continental crust. The oceanic crust is roughly Use Visuals L1
7 kilometers thick and composed of the igneous rocks basalt and Figure 14 Have students look at the
gabbro. The continental crust is 8–75 kilometers thick, but averages a model of Earth and seismic waves in the
thickness of 40 kilometers. It consists of many rock types. The average diagram. Ask: One seismic wave travels
composition of the continental crust is granitic rock called granodiorite. straight through the center of Earth.
Continental rocks have an average density of about 2.7 g/cm3 and some Would this be a P wave or an S wave?
are over 4 billion years old. The rocks of the oceanic crust are younger (P wave)
(180 million years or less) and have an average density of about 3.0 g/cm3. Visual

Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 233

Answer to . . .
Figure 14 Seismic rays change
direction because as pressure increases
with depth, elastic properties of rocks
change.

Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 233

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Section 8.4 (continued) Continental

crust
Oceanic crust
Layers Defined by Lithosphere
Physical Properties Figure 15 Earth’s Layered Structure The left side of the globe
(sphere of rock)

Build Reading Literacy L2 shows that Earth’s interior is divided into three different layers
100

based on compositional differences—the crust, mantle, and core.

Depth (km)
Refer to p. 502D in Chapter 18, which The right side of the globe shows the five main layers of Earth’s Asthenosphere
200 (weak sphere)
provides the guidelines for using interior based on physical properties and mechanical strength—
Upper
the lithosphere, asthenosphere, mesosphere, outer core, and inner
visualization. core. The block diagram shows an enlarged view of the upper
mantle

portion of Earth’s interior. 300

Visualize Have students keep their
books closed. Tell them to listen
carefully while you read the paragraph 400

about defining the layers of Earth based 660

on physical properties. Ask students to

describe how they visualize the interior Mantle Over 82 percent of Earth’s volume is contained in the
of Earth. Then, ask students to work in mantle—a solid, rocky shell that extends to a depth of 2890 kilometers.
pairs and discuss how they visualized the The boundary between the crust and mantle represents a change in
process. chemical composition. The dominant rock type in the uppermost
Visual mantle is peridotite, which has a density of 3.4 g/cm3.

Core The core is a sphere composed of an iron-nickel alloy. At the

extreme pressures found in the center of the core, the iron-rich material
hasan average density of almost 13 g/cm3 (13 times heavier than water).
Floating Crackers L2
Purpose To model for students the What is the composition of the core?
characteristics and behavior of the
lithosphere and asthenosphere.
Materials shallow baking pan, package Layers Defined by Physical Properties
of chocolate pudding, 2 cups of milk,
Earth’s interior has a gradual increase in temperature, pressure, and den-
several animal crackers
sity with depth. When a substance is heated, the transfer of energy
Procedure Review with students the increases the vibrations of particles. If the temperature exceeds the melt-
general characteristics and thicknesses ing point, the forces between particles are overcome and melting begins.
of the lithosphere and asthenosphere. If temperature were the only factor that determined whether a sub-
You may want to introduce the idea of stance melted, our planet would be a molten ball covered with a thin,
the lithosphere being broken into smaller solid outer shell. Fortunately, pressure also increases with depth and
pieces called plates. These plates move increases rock strength. Depending on the physical environment (tem-
about on top of the asthenosphere. perature and pressure), a material may behave like a brittle solid, a
Then make the pudding and pour it into putty, or a liquid. Earth can be divided into layers based on phys-
the shallow baking pan. This will model
ical properties—the lithosphere, asthenosphere, outer core, and
the asthenosphere. Once the pudding
inner core.
has set, place the animal crackers on top
of the asthenosphere to represent the Lithosphere and Asthenosphere Earth’s outermost layer
lithosphere. consists of the crust and uppermost mantle and forms a relatively
Expected Outcomes Students should cool, rigid shell called the lithosphere. This layer averages about
see that the lithospheric plates are 100 kilometers in thickness.
relatively thin compared to the
asthenosphere. They also can see how
234 Chapter 8
the lithosphere “floats” on top of the
asthenosphere, without sinking into it.
The asthenosphere has a solid consistency
yet has some ability to move.
Logical, Visual Customize for English Language Learners
Imagine that Earth was a ball. If you could cut still so hot that some of the rock is completely
it in half, you would see that Earth is made up liquid.
of layers. The deepest layer is a solid core of A brittle crust of solid rock covers the
metal, which is surrounded by a core of liquid mantle. All life on Earth exists on the top layer
metal. The liquid metal spins as Earth rotates. of this crust. Now imagine that you are taking
These two parts are thick and unbelievably a trip through Earth. Write and illustrate a
hot. The next layer is called the mantle. The journal entry for your trip. Share your journal
mantle is much cooler than the core, but it is entry with the class.

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Build Science Skills L2

Lithosphere
5–250 km Calculating The mantle makes up
roughly 82 percent of Earth. The
mantle is composed of two different

Up
layers, the upper mantle and the lower

pe
rm
mantle. The mantle reaches to

an
Lower a depth of approximately 2900 km.

tl e
Mantle
Inner Outer mantle
core core Using the numbers given on Figure
2890 Core 660
km 2230
km
km 15, what percent of the mantle is
Crust 5–70 km 3480 2260
km 1220 km upper mantle? (660 km/2900 km =
km
23 percent) What percent is lower
mantle? (2230 km/2900 km =
77 percent)
Logical

Integrate
Language Arts L2
Word Parts Students can remember
vocabulary by recognizing word parts in
certain words. For example, the Greek
Beneath the lithosphere lies a soft, comparatively weak layer known suffix litho- means “rock, or stone.” Ask:
as the asthenosphere. The asthenosphere has temperature/pressure con- What other word part is a clue to
ditions that may result in a small amount of melting. Within the meaning of vocabulary terms such
asthenosphere, the rocks are close enough to their melting temperatures as lithosphere and asthenosphere?
that they are easily deformed. Thus, the asthenosphere is weak because it (–sphere) What do you think it means?
(Sample answer: rounded)
is near its melting point, just as hot wax is weaker than cold wax. The
lower lithosphere and asthenosphere are both part of the upper mantle.

Lower Mantle From a depth of about 660 kilometers down to

near the base of the mantle lies a more rigid layer called the lower
mantle. Despite their strength, the rocks of the lower mantle are still
very hot and capable of gradual flow. The bottom few hundred kilo-
meters of the mantle, laying on top of the hot core, contains softer,
more flowing rock like that of the asthenosphere.

Inner and Outer Core The core, which is composed mostly of

an iron-nickel alloy, is divided into two regions with different physical
properties. The outer core is a liquid layer 2260 kilometers thick. The
flow of metallic iron within this zone generates Earth’s magnetic field.
The inner core is a sphere having a radius of 1220 kilometers. Despite
its higher temperature, the material in the inner core is compressed
into a solid state by the immense pressure.

Why is the inner core solid?

Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 235

Answer to . . .
The core is composed of
an iron-nickel alloy.
because it is under
extreme pressure and
is compressed into a solid as a result

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Section 8.4 (continued) Discovering Earth’s Layers

In 1909, a Croatian seismologist, Andrija Mohorovičić, presented evi-
Discovering dence for layering within Earth. By studying seismic records, he found
Earth’s Layers that the velocity of seismic waves increases abruptly below about
Integrate Physics L2 50 kilometers of depth. This boundary separates the crust from the
Physical and Chemical Properties underlying mantle and is known as the Mohorovičić discontinuity.
Have students read the caption for The name is usually shortened to Moho.
Figure 16. Then ask students for Another boundary was discovered between the mantle and outer
examples of physical and chemical core. Seismic waves from even small earthquakes can travel around the
properties. Make a two-column chart on world. This is why a seismograph in Antarctica can record earthquakes
the board and compile a list of physical in California or Italy. However, it was observed that P waves were bent
and chemical properties. (Examples of around the liquid outer core beyond about 100 degrees away from an
physical properties: conductivity, hardness, earthquake. The outer core also causes P waves that travel through the
melting point, density, pressure. Examples core to arrive several minutes later than expected. This region, where
of chemical properties: flammability, bent P waves arrive, is sometimes called the shadow zone.
reactivity.) Ask: What physical prop- The bent wave paths can be explained if the core is composed of
erties change between the mantle material that is different from the overlying mantle. The P waves bend
and outer core? (hardness, density, around the core in a way similar to sound waves being bent around the
pressure, state; outer core is liquid, corner of a building. For example, you can hear people talking from
mantle is solid) around the side of a building even if you cannot see them. In this way,
rather than actually stopping the P waves in the shadow zone, the outer
Build Reading Literacy L1 core bends them, as you can see modeled in Figure 16. It was further
Refer to p. 186D in Chapter 7, which shown that S waves could not travel through the outer core. Therefore,
provides guidelines for relating text and geologists concluded that this region is liquid.
visuals.
Key Earthquake epicenter What is the Moho?
Relate Text and Visuals Instruct P-wave
students to look at Figure 16. Refer S-wave
them to the key and point out that P
waves and S waves are different colors in
the picture. Ask: What happens when P
waves hit the mantle-core boundary?
(They bend around the core, or go
through the core.) What sentences in
the text support this observation?
(“It was observed that P waves were bent
around the liquid outer core. . . P waves
that travel through the core. . . ”) What
Area where
happens when S waves meet the P waves are
100°
boundary? (They stop travelling.) What 100° deflected
around the
sentence in the text supports this? liquid outer
core Figure 16 Earth’s Interior Showing P and S
(“It was further shown that S waves could Wave Paths The change in physical properties
not travel through the outer core.”) at the mantle-core boundary causes the wave
paths to bend sharply. Any location more than
140° 100 degrees from an earthquake epicenter will
140° not receive direct S waves because the liquid
outer core will not transmit them.

236 Chapter 8

Facts and Figures

Andrija Mohorovičić was a Croatian scientist and winds. After studying the seismic waves
who lived from 1857 to 1936. Best known for from the October 8, 1909, earthquake in the
his work as a seismologist, Mohorovičić also Kupa valley of Croatia, he made a very important
contributed to the sciences of meteorology discovery. At a depth of approximately 50 km,
and astronomy. there was a dramatic change in material within
He established a station to follow thunder- Earth. This was based on his observation of
storms, conducted climatic studies that lead to a change in velocity of seismic waves at this
the conclusion that temperature in the atmo- depth. This inconsistency became known as
sphere decreases with an increase in altitude, the Moho, which is the boundary between
and published widely on clouds, rainstorms, the crust and the mantle.

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Discovering Earth’s
Discovering Earth’s Composition
We have examined Earth’s structure, so now let’s look at the composi-
Composition
tion of each layer. Early seismic data and drilling technology
indicate that the continental crust is mostly made of lighter, granitic 3 ASSESS
rocks. Until the late 1960s, scientists had only seismic evidence they Evaluate
could use to determine the composition of oceanic crust. The recov- Understanding L2
ery of ocean-floor samples was made possible with the development of
Ask students to draw two cross sections
deep-sea drilling technology. The crust of the ocean floor has a
of Earth: one where the layers are
basaltic composition.
defined by composition and one where
The composition of the rocks of the mantle and core is known
the layers are defined by physical
from more indirect data. Some of the lava that reaches Earth’s surface
properties. Have students exchange
comes from the partially melted asthenosphere within the mantle. In
papers and check each other’s work.
the laboratory, experiments show that partially melting the rock called
peridotite produces a substance that is similar to the lava that erupts L1
Reteach
during volcanic activity of islands such as Hawaii.
Surprisingly, meteorites that collide with Earth provide evidence Use Figure 15 to review the layers
of Earth’s inner composition. Meteorites are assumed to be composed of Earth.
of the original material from which Earth was formed. Their compo-
sition ranges from metallic meteorites made of iron and nickel to
stony meteorites composed of dense rock similar to peridotite.
Stories will vary but students should
Because Earth’s crust contains a smaller percentage of iron than do include accurate information on the
meteorites, geologists believe that the dense iron, and other dense lithosphere, upper mantle, lower mantle,
metals, sank toward Earth’s center during the planet’s formation. as well as the inner and outer core.
Lighter substances may have floated to the surface, creating the less-
dense crust. Earth’s core is thought to be mainly dense iron and
nickel, similar to metallic meteorites. The surrounding mantle is
believed to be composed of rocks similar to stony meteorites.

Section 8.4 Assessment

Reviewing Concepts 6. Inferring Why are meteorites considered

important clues to the composition of
1. List the major layers of Earth’s internal
Earth’s interior?
structure based on physical properties. List the
layers in order from Earth’s center to the surface.
2. What is the composition of Earth’s core?
3. What evidence indicates that Earth’s outer core
is liquid?
4. What is the composition of the mantle?
Creative Writing Write a short fictional
Critical Thinking story about a trip to Earth’s core. Make
5. Comparing and Contrasting Compare the sure the details about the layers of Earth’s
physical properties of the asthenosphere and interior are scientifically accurate.
the lithosphere.

Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior 237

Section 8.4 Assessment 5. The lithosphere is a cool, rigid shell formed

from the crust and upper mantle. On average
1. inner core, outer core, lower mantle, it is 100 km thick. The asthenosphere is a soft,
asthenosphere, lithosphere (upper mantle) weak layer that experiences the conditions
2. The core is made of an iron-nickel alloy. needed to produce a small amount of melting.
3. the fact that S waves do not travel though 6. Meteorites are thought to be made of the
this layer same material from which Earth was formed.
4. The mantle is composed of peridotite. Therefore, when they are found, they can
Answer to . . .
give us an indication of the composition of
the interior of Earth. The Moho is the
boundary between the
crust and the mantle.

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How the Earth Works

Effects of Earthquakes
1 FOCUS An earthquake is a shaking of the ground caused by sudden movements in the
Earth’s crust. The biggest quakes are set off by the movement of tectonic plates.
Some plates slide past one another gently. However, others get stuck, and the
Objectives
forces pushing the plates build up. The stress mounts until the plates suddenly
In this feature, students will shift their positions and cause the Earth to
• explain what causes an earthquake. shake. Most earthquakes last less than one
• describe the possible physical effects minute. Even so, the effects of an earth-
of an earthquake. quake can be devastating and long-lasting.

Reading Focus TSUNAMI

In 1755, an earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal, caused a
tsunami, as illustrated in this painting. A tsunami is a
Build Vocabulary L2 huge sea wave that is set off by an undersea earthquake or
volcanic eruption. When tsunamis break on shore, they
often devastate coastal areas. Tsunamis can race at speeds
Key Terms Write the key terms on the of about 450 miles per hour and may reach heights of
board. Ask volunteers to write definitions about 100 feet (30.5 m).
beside them. Then have the class work
together to use the words in sentences
that describe the causes and effects of
LANDSLIDE
earthquakes. In January 2001, an earthquake struck El Salvador. It caused
the landslide that left these Salvadoran women homeless.
A landslide is a sudden drop of a mass of land down a
2 INSTRUCT mountainside or hillside. Emergency relief workers from
around the world often rush to the site of an earthquake
disaster like the one that occurred in El Salvador.
Bellringer L1
Ask students what comes to mind when
they think of earthquakes. Discuss earth-
quake experiences they may have had
or heard about.
Verbal

Use Visuals L1
Have students read and examine the
photographs on this page and the next.
Ask: What do you suppose people in
these regions had to do after the
earthquake? (They had to find people
who were trapped under snow and rubble,
rebuild buildings, and fix streets.)
Visual

238 Chapter 8

Customize for Inclusion Students

Gifted Ask students to research a historic details and fictional interviews in their stories.
earthquake, like the one that hit Lisbon in Before they begin, remind them that the first
1755. Have them imagine that they survived it paragraph should answer these questions:
and are writing a story about it for a foreign Who? What? Where? When? and Why?
newspaper. Encourage them to use factual

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3 ASSESS
Evaluate
Understanding L2
Work with students to model how an
earthquake happens. Encourage them
to build models using everyday class-
room materials, such as books for
tectonic plates and paper strips for
seismic waves.

INFRASTRUCTURE DAMAGE
When an earthquake occurred in Los Angeles Reteach L1
AVALANCHE
in 1994, underground gas and water lines Earthquakes
burst, causing fires and floods. Earthquakes may trigger an Group students in groups of four or five.
often cause tremendous damage to the avalanche—a Have each group create an earthquake
infrastructure—the network of services sudden fall of a
that supports a community. Infrastructure mass of ice and safety pamphlet. Tell students to find
includes power utilities, water supplies, and snow. In 1970, a
transportation and communication facilities. severe earthquake
out the recommended ways to protect
off the coast of Peru themselves during an earthquake. Have
caused a disastrous
slide of snow and rock them create a pamphlet that explains
that killed some 18,000 and illustrates safety instructions. Each
people in the valley below.
group should have researchers, an editor
to compile the instructions, and an
illustrator to create the pictures. Post
the completed pamphlets on a bulletin
When two tectonic plates suddenly board.
move past each other, waves of
built-up energy are released.
Epicenter

WHEN THE EARTH CRACKS As shock

Most people killed or injured by an earthquake are waves travel
hit by debris from buildings. Additional damage can away from the
be caused by aftershocks—tremors that can occur epicenter, the
hours, days, or even months after an earthquake. The destruction
scene above shows the city of Anchorage, Alaska, Shock waves radiate caused by the
after a major earthquake. Extensive ground tremors outward and upward earthquake
caused the street to break up as the soil below it col- from the focus, or decreases.
lapsed. Buildings and cars were dropped more than Focus, or
hypocenter. hypocenter
10 feet (3 m) below street level.

SEISMIC WAVES
As tectonic forces build,
rock beneath the surface
bends until it finally
1. Key Terms Define (a) earthquake, 4. Natural Hazards (a) How can an breaks. The tectonic plates
suddenly move, causing
(b) tsunami, (c) landslide, (d) infra- earthquake change the human charac- seismic waves, or vibra-
structure, (e) avalanche, (f) aftershock, teristics of a place? (b) How does the tions, to travel through
(g) seismic wave, (h) epicenter. international community respond to a the ground. The waves
radiate outward from an
2. Physical Processes What physical devastating earthquake? underground area called
processes cause an earthquake to 5. Critical Thinking Solving Problems the focus, or hypocenter.
Damage is usually greatest
occur? What can a community do to reduce near the epicenter, the
the amount of earthquake damage that point on the surface
3. Environmental Change How can directly above the focus.
an earthquake cause changes to the might occur in the future?
physical characteristics of a place?
239

an earthquake; (g) vibrations that travel to help with rescue and cleanup efforts.
Assessment
through the ground; (h) the point on the People around the world may donate
1. (a) a shaking of the ground caused by surface directly above the focus money to help victims survive until they
sudden movements in Earth’s crust; (b) a 2. sudden movements in Earth’s crust rebuild their lives.
huge sea wave that is set off by an undersea 3. Earthquakes can change the level of the 5. Sample answers: Design buildings to
earthquake or volcanic eruption; (c) a sud- land, cause fires and floods, and cover areas withstand the shock of an earth quake. Build
den drop of a mass of land down a moun- with snow and ice. villages, towns, and cities far from fault lines.
tainside or hillside; (d) the network of servic- 4. (a) Sample answer: Damage from an
es that supports a community; (e) a sudden earthquake can destroy buildings and make
fall of a mass of ice and snow; (f) tremors a place uninhabitable; (b) Emergency relief
that can occur days, or even months, after workers from around the world may arrive

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Section 9.1
9.1 Continental Drift
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
9.1 Describe the hypothesis of Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy
continental drift. What is the hypothesis of ◆ continental drift Summarizing Copy the table. Fill it in as
continental drift? ◆ Pangaea you read to summarize the evidence of
9.2 Evaluate the evidence in continental drift.
What evidence supported
support of continental drift. continental drift?
9.3 Identify the main objections Hypothesis Evidence

to Wegener’s hypothesis of Continental a. continental puzzle

Drift
continental drift. b. ?

c. ?

d. ?
Reading Focus

Build Vocabulary L2
Word Forms Before students read this
section, ask them to write a sentence or
two describing the meaning of the word
Figure 1 A Curious Fit This
map shows the best fit of South
America and Africa at a depth
W ill California eventually slide into the ocean? Have continents
really drifted apart over the centuries? Early in the twentieth century,
of about 900 meters. The areas
drift. Then have them write a prediction where continents overlap appear most geologists thought that the positions of the ocean basins and con-
for what they think continental drift in brown. tinents were fixed. During the last few decades, however, new data have
Inferring Why are there areas of
means. After students read the section, overlap? dramatically changed our understanding of how Earth works.
have them examine their predictions and
discuss whether their predictions must An Idea Before Its Time
be changed.
The idea that continents fit together like pieces of
L2 a jigsaw puzzle came about when better world
Reading Strategy maps became available. Figure 1 shows the two
a. continental puzzle most obvious pieces of this jigsaw puzzle. However,
b. matching fossils little significance was given this idea until 1915,
c. matching rocks and structures when Alfred Wegener, a German scientist, pro-
d. ancient climates Africa
posed his radical hypothesis of continental drift.
South America Wegener’s continental drift hypothesis stated
that the continents had once been joined to form
2 INSTRUCT a single supercontinent. He called this supercon-
tinent Pangaea, meaning all land.
An Idea Before Wegener also hypothesized that about 200 mil-
lion years ago Pangaea began breaking into smaller
Its Time continents. These continents then drifted to their
Use Visuals L1 present positions, as shown on page 250. Wegener
Figure 1 Point out the small areas of and others collected much evidence to support
brown and light blue between Africa these claims. Let’s examine their evidence.
and South America. Ask: What could
cause the brown-shaded regions of
overlap? (accumulation of sediments
248 Chapter 9
deposited by rivers and stretching of the
plates) What do you think the light
blue areas represent? (the continental
shelf)
Visual

248 Chapter 9
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Evidence: The Continental Puzzle Wegener first thought

that the continents might have been joined when he noticed the sim-
ilarity between the coastlines on opposite sides of the South Atlantic Evidence:
Ocean. He used present-day shorelines to show how the continents fit Q If all the continents were once Matching Fossils L2
together. However, his opponents correctly argued that erosion con- joined as Pangaea, what did the
rest of Earth look like?
Purpose Students compare two
tinually changes shorelines over time. groups of fossils from two continents
A When all the continents
to identify those fossils that are common
Evidence: Matching Fossils Fossil evidence for conti- were together, there must also
have been one huge ocean sur- to both continents.
nental drift includes several fossil organisms found on different
rounding them. This ocean is Materials 2 groups of photographs or
landmasses. Wegener reasoned that these organisms could not have called Panthalassa (pan = all,
crossed the vast oceans presently separating the continents. An exam- thalassa = sea). Today all that
samples of fossils, including at least one
ple is Mesosaurus, an aquatic reptile whose fossil remains are limited remains of Panthalassa is the type of fossil found in both groups
to eastern South America and southern Africa, as shown in Figure 2. Pacific Ocean, which has been Procedure Have students examine the
decreasing in size since the
If Mesosaurus had been able to swim well enough to cross the vast breakup of Pangaea.
two groups of fossils. Tell them that the
South Atlantic Ocean, its fossils should be more widely distributed. two groups were found on different
This is not the case. Therefore, Wegener argued, South America and continents. Ask them to identify any
Africa must have been joined somehow. fossils that were found on both
The idea of land bridges was once the most widely accepted expla- continents. Have students infer the
nation for similar fossils being found on different landmasses. Most implications of this observation.
scientists believed that during a recent glacial period, the lowering of Expected Outcome Students should
sea level allowed animals to cross the narrow Bering Strait between Figure 2 Location of infer that the two continents had to be
Asia and North America. However, if land bridges did exist between Mesosaurus Fossils of connected at some point in the past
Mesosaurus have been found on
South America and Africa, their remnants should still lie below sea both sides of the South Atlantic
when the organism in the fossil lived.
level. But no signs of such land bridges have ever been found in the and nowhere else in the world. Visual, Logical
Atlantic Ocean. Fossil remains of this and other
organisms on the continents of
Africa and South America appear
How does the distribution of Mesosaurus fossils
to link these landmasses at some
provide evidence for continental drift? time in Earth’s history.

Africa

South America

Plate Tectonics 249

Customize for Inclusion Students

Visually Impaired Puzzle pieces of continents students and students who learn tactilely.
can be made out of sandpaper by gluing a Remind students who use these pieces that the
map onto the back of a piece of sandpaper piece must be held with the rough side down Answer to . . .
and cutting out the continents. This learning for correct geographical orientation of the
tool can be used by both visually impaired continent. Figure 1 Areas where there are rivers
or streams have deposited large
amounts of sediments.
Mesosaurus occurs only
in eastern South America
and southern Africa.

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Section 9.1 (continued) Breakup of Pangaea

Use Visuals L1
A 250 Million Years Ago
Figure 3 Have students study the maps Pangaea consisted of all the
showing the breakup of Pangaea. Ask: major continents.

P
Tethys

A
Sea
In the breakup of Pangaea, what

N
G
continents appear to have separated A
E
A
first? (North America and Africa) What
L A U R A S I A
ocean began to form when North
America and Africa separated? (Atlantic
Ocean) How was India formed? (India G
O
broke away from Gondwanaland. It moved

N
D
north and eventually collided with Asia.)

W
Visual, Logical

A
N
A
L A
N D
North Asia
B 200 Million Years Ago The America
L2 rifting that eventually resulted in
Europe

the Atlantic Ocean occurred over

Some students may think that the an extended period of time. The
continents have remained in approx- first rift developed between
North America and Africa. South Africa
imately the same positions since the America
breakup of Pangaea. Make transparencies India
of the five parts of Figure 3. Superimpose
Australia
the transparencies two at a time to show Antarctica
students the changes. Ask students to North
Europe
America Asia
come up to the projection to point out C 100 Million Years Ago
Continued rifting of the southern
changes in the location of continents landmasses sent India on a
from one transparency to another. northward journey.
Africa India
Ask which continent has moved the South
farthest. (Asia) America

Visual, Logical
Australia

Eurasian
Antarctica North plate
D 50 Million Years Ago American
Australia began to separate plate
from Antarctica.
African Pacific
plate plate
South
American
plate
Australian-Indian
plate

E Present A modern map shows

that India has collided with
Asia, creating the Himalayas. Antarctic plate

Figure 3 Pangaea broke up gradually over a

period of 200 million years.

250 Chapter 9

Facts and Figures

Recently, a unique species of purple frog eastern coast of Africa and almost 3000 km
that lives underground was discovered in across the Indian Ocean from India. Biologists
southwestern India. DNA analysis showed that think that the two frog populations are
the frog was related to a group of frogs that additional evidence for continental drift.
live only in the Seychelles Islands off the

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Build Science Skills L2

Matching Mountain Ranges
Using Models Have
students use a child’s
Caledonian jigsaw puzzle with
Mountains
several large pieces to
Greenland
demonstrate matching rock types and
North British Scandinavia
America Isles Europe mountain belts as follows. Students
should put the puzzle together on a
Appalachian
Mountains piece of cardboard. After putting it
together, the puzzle should be covered
Africa North with another piece of cardboard and
America
Africa flipped over. On the back of the puzzle,
South students should draw lines representing
America
A B South a mountain belt that extends across
America
several puzzle pieces. Students will
understand when the puzzle is put
Evidence: Rock Types and Structures Anyone who has Figure 4 A The Appalachian together how mountain chains form
Mountains run along the eastern
worked a jigsaw puzzle knows that the pieces must fit together to form side of North America and continuous belts across land masses.
a clear picture. The clear picture in the continental drift puzzle is one disappear off the coast of Kinesthetic, Visual
of matching rock types and mountain belts. If the continents existed Newfoundland. Mountains that
are similar in age and structure
as Pangaea, the rocks found in a particular region on one continent are found in the British Isles and Build Reading Literacy L1
should closely match in age and type those in adjacent positions on Scandinavia. B When these
Refer to p. 246D which provides the
landmasses are united as Pangaea,
the adjoining continent. guidelines for relating cause and effect.
these ancient mountain chains
Rock evidence for continental drift exists in the form of sev- form a nearly continuous belt.
Relate Cause and Effect Have stu-
eral mountain belts that end at one coastline, only to reappear on a
dents read the section on pp. 251–252
landmass across the ocean. For example, the Appalachian mountain
about ancient climates as evidence
belt runs northeastward through the eastern United States, ending off
for continental drift. Ask: Why did
the coast of Newfoundland, as shown in Figure 4A. Mountains of the
Wegener believe that the existence
same age with similar rocks and structures are found in the British
of glaciers in tropical regions of the
Isles and Scandinavia. When these landmasses are fit together as in
Southern Hemisphere was evidence of
Figure 4B, the mountain chains form a nearly continuous belt.
continental drift rather than climatic
How does the location of mountain chains provide change? (The Northern Hemisphere
evidence of continental drift? was once tropical, as evidenced by coal
deposits that were formed from tropical
Evidence: Ancient Climates Wegener was a meteorologist, plants. If the Northern Hemisphere had
so he was interested in obtaining data about ancient climates to sup- once been closer to the equator, the
port continental drift. And he did find evidence for dramatic global Southern Hemisphere probably had also
climate changes. Wegener found glacial deposits showing that been further south, closer to the South
between 220 million and 300 million years ago, ice sheets covered Pole. It was not likely that such a large
large areas of the Southern Hemisphere. Layers of glacial till were change in climate could have taken place
found in southern Africa and South America, as well as in India and without continental drift.)
Logical
Australia. Below these beds of glacial debris lay scratched and grooved
bedrock carved by the ice. In some locations, the scratches and For: Links on continental drift
grooves showed that the ice had moved from what is now the sea onto Visit: www.SciLinks.org
land. It is unusual for large continental glaciers to move from the sea Web Code: cjn-3091

Plate Tectonics 251

Download a worksheet on
Facts and Figures continental drift for students to
complete, and find additional
Scientists think that 200 million years ago, also typical of tropical plants because there teacher support from NSTA SciLinks.
what is now Pennsylvania was located farther is little seasonal temperature fluctuation to
south, near the equator. Fossils from coal fields produce the rings. Scientists believe that these
in Pennsylvania show that the plants from fossils are evidence that Pennsylvania once had
which the coal formed had large leaf-like a tropical climate and was located closer to the Answer to . . .
structures that are typical of tropical plants. equator.
The trunks of the plants had no growth rings, If mountain chains can
be continued across
present-day oceans, they provide
evidence that the areas were once
connected.

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Section 9.1 (continued) onto land. It is also interesting that much of the land area that shows
evidence of this glaciation now lies near the equator in a subtropical
or tropical climate.
Charting the Could Earth have been cold enough to allow the formation of con-
Age of the tinental glaciers in what is now a tropical region? Wegener rejected this
Charting the Age idea because, during this same time period, large tropical swamps
of the Atlantic Ocean L2 Atlantic Ocean
existed in the Northern Hemisphere. The lush vegetation of these
Objective Procedure swamps eventually became the major coal fields of the eastern United
After completing this activity, students 1. The distance between States, Europe, and Siberia.
two locations across
will be able to calculate the length of Wegener thought there was a better explanation for the ancient cli-
the Atlantic Ocean,
time it takes two land masses to one in South America mate evidence he observed. Thinking of the landmasses as a
separate, given the rate of spreading. and one in Africa, is supercontinent, with South Africa centered over the South Pole, would
approximately 4300 km. create the conditions necessary to form large areas of glacial ice over
Skills Focus Calculating, Inferring 2. Assume that these two much of the Southern Hemisphere. The supercontinent idea would
locations were once also place the northern landmasses nearer the tropics and account for
Prep Time none joined as part of
Pangaea. their vast coal deposits, as shown in Figure 5.
Class Time 10 minutes
Summarize the climate evidence for continental
Teaching Tips You might want to Analyze and
Conclude drift.
review conversion factors with students.
1. Calculating If the two
Expected Outcome The two continents landmasses moved
took more than 130 million years to away from each other Glacier Evidence
separate. at a rate of 3.3 cm/y,
how long did it take
Analyze and Conclude these two locations to
1. 130.3 million years move to their current
2. The rate would probably have positions?
varied over time because the driving 2. Inferring Do you
think the Atlantic Ocean Eurasia
mechanism was most likely not uniform. Equator North
would have formed at a America
Few Earth processes are uniform over constant rate or would
time. that rate have varied
South Africa Tethys Sea
Logical over time? Why? Ice mass America
Australia
For Enrichment L3 India
A Antarctica
Have students research the following
question: Pangaea began to break up
and South America and Africa began to
separate 200 million years ago. What
types of living organisms were found on
Earth when the two continents reached
Figure 5 A The area of Pangaea Equator
their current positions? covered by glacial ice 300 million
years ago. B The continents as
they are today. The white areas
indicate where evidence of the
old ice sheets exists.
Interpreting Diagrams Where
were the continents located
when the glaciers formed? B

252 Chapter 9

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Rejecting a
Rejecting a Hypothesis Hypothesis
Wegener’s drift hypothesis faced a great deal of criticism from other L2
scientists. One objection was that Wegener could not describe a mech-
Build Science Skills
anism that was capable of moving the continents across the globe. Q Some day will the continents Using Tables and Graphs Have
come back together and form a students make a table listing the reasons
Wegener proposed that the tidal influence of the Moon was strong single landmass?
enough to give the continents a westward motion. However, physicists why Wegener’s hypothesis was criticized
A Yes, but not anytime soon. by some people and accepted by others.
quickly responded that tidal friction of the size needed to move the Based on current plate motions,
continents would stop Earth’s rotation. Intrapersonal, Verbal
it appears that the continents
Wegener also proposed that the larger and sturdier continents may meet up again in the
broke through the oceanic crust, much like ice breakers cut through Pacific Ocean—in about
300 million years.
3 ASSESS
ice. However, no evidence existed to suggest that the ocean floor was
Evaluate
weak enough to permit passage of the continents without the ocean L2
Figure 6 Mountain ranges are Understanding
floors being broken and deformed in the process. commonly formed at plate
Most scientists in Wegener’s day rejected his hypothesis. However, boundaries. This photograph To assess students’ knowledge of section
a few geologists continued to search for additional evidence of conti- shows part of the Canadian content, have them write two or three
Rockies in Banff National Park, sentences describing each of the four
nents in motion. Alberta, Canada.
lines of evidence for Wegener’s
continental drift hypothesis.
Why was Wegener’s hypothesis rejected?

Reteach L1
Have students explain in their own
A New Theory Emerges During the years that followed
words why Figure 2 shows evidence
Wegener’s hypothesis, major strides in technology enabled scientists
for continental drift.
to map the ocean floor. Extensive data on earthquake activity and
Earth’s magnetic field also became available. By 1968, these findings
led to a new theory, known as plate tectonics. This theory provides the
framework for understanding most geologic processes, such as the for-
mation of the mountains shown in Figure 6. Pangaea was a supercontinent made
up of all the major continents joined
together. It began breaking into smaller
continents about 200 million years ago.
Pangaea was located near the South
Section 9.1 Assessment Pole. The southern part of Pangaea,
made up of South America, Africa, India,
Australia, and Antarctica, had a cold
Reviewing Concepts 6. Drawing Conclusions How did Wegener
explain the existence of glaciers in the southern climate with large continental glaciers.
1. What is the hypothesis of continental
landmasses, and the lush tropical swamps in
drift?
North America, Europe, and Siberia?
2. List the evidence that supported the
hypothesis of continental drift.
3. What was one of the main objections to
Wegener’s continental drift hypothesis?
4. What is Pangaea? Descriptive Paragraph Write a para-
graph describing Pangaea. Include the
Critical Thinking location and climate of Pangaea. Use the
5. Applying Concepts Would the occurrence equator as your reference for position.
of the same plant fossils in South America and
Africa support continental drift? Explain.
Answer to . . .
Plate Tectonics 253
Figure 5 The continents were near
the South Pole when the glaciers
formed.

5. Yes, a land plant most likely could not travel Glaciers in southern
Section 9.1 Assessment
across a large ocean such as the Atlantic. If South America, southern
1. a hypothesis that proposes that the the plant is found in both Africa and South Africa, India, and Australia are found in
continents where once joined to form America, those areas had to have been joined areas that now have tropical climates.
one supercontinent when the plant was growing. There is also evidence for tropical
2. matching continental outlines, matching 6. It is difficult to imagine that Earth had climates and coal swamps in areas that
fossils, matching rocks and structures, ancient cooled enough to form glaciers in tropical are now at higher latitudes, such as
climates latitudes, so in order to explain the glaciers, northern Europe and the northeastern
3. He could not provide a mechanism to those areas had to have been closer to the United States.
explain the movement of the continents. poles than in the present day. Also, the glacial He could not provide a
4. the supercontinent proposed by Wegener’s grooves indicate the ice was coming from an mechanism for the
hypothesis of continental drift area that at present is ocean. Large continental movement of the continents.
glaciers form only on land, so that area had
to be land. Plate Tectonics 253
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Section 9.2
9.2 Plate Tectonics
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
9.4 Explain the theory of plate Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy
tectonics. What is the theory of plate ◆ plate tectonics Comparing and Contrasting Copy the
tectonics? ◆ plate table. After you read, compare the three types
9.5 Describe lithospheric plates. of plate boundaries by completing the table.
What are lithospheric ◆ divergent boundary
9.6 Identify the three types of plates? ◆ convergent
plate boundaries. What are the three types boundary Boundary Type Relative Plate Motion

of plate boundaries? ◆ transform fault convergent a. ?

boundary
divergent b. ?
Reading Focus transform fault c. ?

Build Vocabulary L2
Concept Map Have students make
a concept map using the term plate
tectonics as the starting point. All the Earth’s Major Plates
vocabulary terms in this section should According to the plate tectonics theory, the uppermost mantle,
be used. along with the overlying crust, behaves as a strong, rigid layer. This
layer is known as the lithosphere. The outer shell lies over a weaker
Reading Strategy L2 region in the mantle known as the asthenosphere. The lithosphere is
a. plates move together divided into segments called plates, which move and continually
b. plates move apart change shape and size. Figure 8 on pages 256-257 shows the seven
c. plates slide past each other major plates. The largest is the Pacific plate, covering most of the
Pacific Ocean. Notice that several of the large plates include an entire
2 INSTRUCT continent plus a large area of the seafloor. This is a major departure
from Wegener’s continental drift hypothesis, which proposed that the
continents moved through the ocean floor, not with it. Note also that
Earth’s Major Plates none of the plates is defined entirely by the margins of a continent.
Build Science Skills L2 The lithospheric plates move relative to each other at a very slow but
Using Analogies continuous rate that averages about 5 centimeters per year—about as
Crack the shell of a fast as your fingernails grow. This movement is driven by the unequal
hard-boiled egg. Ask distribution of heat within Earth. Hot material found deep in the mantle
students if the egg moves slowly upward as part of Earth’s internal convection system. At the
reminds them of anything. The egg can same time, cooler, denser slabs of oceanic lithosphere descend into the
be seen as a tiny model of Earth. The mantle, setting Earth’s rigid outer shell into motion. The grinding move-
thin eggshell is analogous to Earth’s ments of Earth’s lithospheric plates generate earthquakes, create
crust, divided into plates. Within the volcanoes, and deform large masses of rock into mountains.
shell is the firm mantle. Have students
move the pieces of shell around. They What is plate tectonics?
should notice how the shell buckles in
some places and exposes “mantle”
in other places. This movement is
analogous to the movement of Earth’s
crust. However, Earth’s movement 254 Chapter 9
results in the formation of mountains,
earthquakes, and new ocean floor.
Kinesthetic, Visual

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Types of Plate
Types of Plate Boundaries Figure 7 Three Types of Plate
Boundaries Boundaries
All major interactions among individual plates occur along their L1
boundaries. The three main types of boundaries are convergent,
Build Reading Literacy
A
divergent, and transform fault boundaries. Refer to p. 502D in Chapter 18, which
provides the guidelines for this
Divergent boundaries Divergent boundaries (also called visualizing strategy.
spreading centers) occur when two plates move apart. This process Visualize Have students read the
results in upwelling of material from the mantle to create new seafloor, section on types of plate boundaries and
Divergent boundary
as shown in Figure 7A. A relatively new divergent boundary is located then try to form a mental picture of each
in Africa, in a region known as the East African Rift valley. type of boundary. Ask: In which type of
boundary do the plates move without
Convergent boundaries Convergent boundaries form where B
changing the lithosphere? (transform
two plates move together. This process results in oceanic lithosphere fault boundary)
plunging beneath an overriding plate, and descending into the mantle, Visual, Verbal
as shown in Figure 7B. At other locations, plates carrying continental
crust are presently moving toward each other. Eventually, these conti-
nents may collide and merge. Thus, the boundary that once separated
3 ASSESS
Convergent boundary
two plates disappears as the plates become one. Evaluate
Understanding L2
Transform fault boundaries Transform fault boundaries are C
To assess students’ knowledge of section
margins where two plates grind past each other without the production content, have them draw diagrams of
or destruction of lithosphere, as shown in Figure 7C. The San Andreas the three types of plate boundaries.
Fault zone in California is an example of a transform fault boundary. Each diagram should have a caption
Each plate contains a combination of these three types of bound- describing the movement of the plates.
aries. Although the total surface area of Earth does not change, plates
Transform fault boundary
may shrink or grow in area. This shrinking or growing depends on the Reteach L1
locations of convergent and divergent boundaries. The Antarctic plate
Have students use any materials they
is growing larger. The Philippine plate is descending into the mantle
wish, such as blocks of wood, to
along its margins and is becoming smaller. New plate boundaries can
illustrate the plate movements in the
be created because of changes in the forces acting on these rigid slabs.
three types of boundaries.

Section 9.2 Assessment

In Wegener’s hypothesis, the continents

Reviewing Concepts 5. Drawing Conclusions What is the major
difference in the role of the ocean floor
moved through the ocean floor. The
1. Define the term lithospheric plate. ocean floor did not move and was not
between the continental drift hypothesis and
2. List the three types of plate boundaries. the theory of plate tectonics? part of the block of continental crust.
3. What theory proposes that Earth’s outer The boundaries of the continents were
shell consist of a number of rigid slabs?
defined by either the shorelines or
Critical Thinking continental shelves. In plate tectonics,
4. Comparing and Contrasting Compare Plate Boundaries Use what you have the plates are divided by boundaries
the plate motions in the three types of learned about plate tectonics to compare along which different types of motion
boundaries. Wegener’s continental drift hypothesis to and deformation occur. The ocean floors
the theory of plate tectonics. are part of the plates and move along
with the continents.

Plate Tectonics 255

Section 9.2 Assessment 5. In the continental drift hypothesis, the

continents plowed through the ocean floors;
1. a section of the crust and upper mantle in the plate tectonics theory, the ocean floors
(the lithosphere) that moves as a unit are an integral part of the lithospheric plates
2. convergent, divergent, and transform fault and move with the continents.
boundaries Answer to . . .
3. the theory of plate tectonics A theory that states that
4. In convergent boundaries, the two plates Earth’s rigid outer shell is
move together. In divergent boundaries, the broken into plates made up of the crust
two plates move apart. In transform fault and upper mantle, also known as the
boundaries, the two plates grind past each lithosphere. A plate moves as a unit
other. with respect to the surrounding plates.

Plate Tectonics 255

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Section 9.2 (continued)

Earth’s Tectonic Plates

North American
Answer plate
Locate South American plate. Divergent: Urals Aleutian Arc
Caribbean plate, Mid-Atlantic Ridge; Eurasian plate

Southeast Indian Ridge, Antarctic plate. Baikal Rift

Convergent: Nazca plate, South American Japan Arc

plate; Australian-Indian plate, Eurasian
Himalayas
plate. Transform fault: Antarctic plate, Em
per
Pacific plate; Caribbean plate, North or-H
awa
American plate Arabian iian
plate Cha
India Philippine in
Mariana Arc
plate
Use Visuals L1 M
id Pacific
East
African plate

-In
Figure 8 Have students examine the Rift

d ian Ridge
figure. They may need help from an
atlas or a globe to locate the features African plate
in the questions. Ask: How do you think
the Andes Mountains were formed?
g e Australian-Indian plate Tonga
(The Nazca plate collided with the South Rid Arc
American plate.) How do you think the an So
In di uth Kermadec
Red Sea was formed? (The African plate st e
we as
t I Arc
uth nd
and the Arabian plate moved apart, So ian
Ridge
forming a rift that became the Red Sea.) Alpine Fault
Which plate is the largest? Where is
it located? (The Pacific plate; it is mostly Antarctic plate
within the Pacific Ocean.)
Visual
Figure 8

Location None of the

plates are defined entirely
A Convergent Model L2 by the margins of a Seven Major Plates Intermediate Plates
continent. Over a dozen North American Eurasian Caribbean Arabian
Purpose Students will observe what smaller plates have been
South American Australian-Indian Nazca Cocos
happens when two plates collide in a identified but are not
model of a convergent boundary. shown. Pacific Antarctic Philippine Scotia
Locate Find a major plate African
Materials two slabs of modeling clay,
that includes an entire
wax paper continent plus a large area
Procedure Place the slabs of clay on of seafloor. Name two
the wax paper on a table so they will other examples of a
divergent boundary, a
slide easily. Push the two slabs of clay
convergent boundary, and
together to model a collision of two a transform fault boundary.
plates.
Expected Outcome The clay slabs will
buckle up to create folds and breaks that 256 Chapter 9
resemble mountains.
Kinesthetic, Visual

Customize for English Language Learners

Students who are learning disabled will benefit students can better visualize how Earth’s
by having globes in the classroom. You might lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates.
want to mark the major plates on a globe so

256 Chapter 9
HSES_1eTE_C09.qxd 5/16/04 10:12 AM Page 257

L2
Students may think that the movement
of lithospheric plates causes Earth’s
North American surface area to become either larger or
plate
Iceland Eurasian plate
smaller (depending on which way the
Canadian Shield
plates move.) Explain that individual
plates can become larger or smaller, but
Ro
c ky

ts. Alps Earth’s total surface area cannot change.

M

Basin
nM
ou

and hia Give students a basketball or soccer ball

nta

Juan de Fuca Range lac

ins

plate pa and ask them to imagine what will

Ap

San Andreas
happen to the interior of the ball if the
Caribbean
Fault plate surface area changed. (If surface area
African plate decreased, the interior would become

Mi
compressed and internal pressure would

d-
At
Cocos lan
plate Antilles
tic
R increase. If surface area increased, either
idge
Arc the interior would expand or the litho-
Pacific plate Galapagos
Ridge sphere would separate from the mantle.)
An South American
de plate Visual, Logical
East Pacific Rise

s
M

Nazca
ountains

plate Use Community

Resources L2
Invite a geologist or physicist in your
community to talk to the class about
Chile Ridge global positioning systems (GPS), how
they work, and what they are used for.
Scotia plate Encourage students to think about and
ask questions about how GPS can be
used to measure the movements of
Antarctic plate
landmasses.
Verbal, Interpersonal

Plate Tectonics 257

Facts and Figures

The continents are still moving, and eventually the current rate of plate movements, a single
they will probably collide to form a single landmass is formed about once every 500
landmass again. Earth scientists predict that million years. Since it has been about 200
the continents will probably merge again million years since Pangaea broke up, the
somewhere in the Pacific Ocean. When will next supercontinent may form in a few
this happen? Research suggests that, based on hundred million years.

Plate Tectonics 257

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Section 9.3
9.3 Actions at Plate Boundaries
1 FOCUS
Objectives
9.7 Explain how seafloor spreading Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy
and continental rifting cause What is seafloor ◆ oceanic ridge Outlining Before you read, make an
formation of new lithosphere. spreading? ◆ rift valley outline of this section. Use the green
What is a subduction seafloor spreading headings as the main topics and the blue
9.8 Describe the process of litho- ◆
headings as subtopics. As you read, add
zone? ◆ subduction zone
sphere destruction that takes supporting details.
◆ trench
place at subduction zones.
◆ continental Actions at Boundaries
9.9 Differentiate among volcanic arc
subduction at oceanic- ◆ volcanic island arc I. Divergent Boundaries

continental, oceanic-oceanic, A. ?

and continental-continental B. ?

convergent boundaries. II. ?

9.10 Describe the action of plates at

a transform fault boundary.

Reading Focus T remendous forces are at work where tectonic plates meet. Let’s take
a closer look at what happens at the three types of plate boundaries.
Build Vocabulary L2
Word Parts Have students break the Divergent Boundaries
word subduction into roots, prefixes, Most divergent plate boundaries are located along the crests of oceanic
or suffixes. They may need to use a ridges. These plate boundaries can be thought of as constructive plate
dictionary to find the meaning of some margins because this is where new oceanic lithosphere is generated.
parts. (Subduction comes from the Latin Look again at the divergent boundary in Figure 7A on page 255. As the
prefix sub-, meaning “below” and the plates move away from the ridge axis, fractures are created. These frac-
Latin root word ducere, meaning “to draw tures are filled with molten rock that wells up from the hot mantle
or pull.” Thus, subduction means to draw below. Gradually, this magma cools to produce new slivers of seafloor.
or pull below.) Spreading and upwelling of magma continuously adds oceanic litho-
sphere between the diverging plates.
Reading Strategy L2
I. Divergent Boundaries Oceanic Ridges and Seafloor Spreading Along well-
A. Ocean Ridges and Seafloor developed divergent plate boundaries, the seafloor is elevated, forming
Spreading the oceanic ridge. The system of ocean ridges is the longest physical
B. Continental Rifts feature on Earth’s surface, stretching more than 70,000 kilometers in
II. Convergent Boundaries length. This system winds through all major ocean basins like the seam
A. Oceanic-Continental on a baseball. The term ridge may be misleading. These features are
B. Oceanic-Oceanic not narrow like a typical ridge. They are 1000 to 4000 kilometers wide.
C. Continental-Continental For: Links on plate boundaries Deep faulted structures called rift valleys are found along the axes of
III.Transform Fault Boundaries Visit: www.SciLinks.org some segments. As you can see in Figure 9, rift valleys and spreading
Web Code: cjn-3093 centers can develop on land, too.

258 Chapter 9

Download a worksheet on plate

boundaries for students to
complete, and find additional
teacher support from NSTA SciLinks.

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2 INSTRUCT
Spreading Center
Divergent Boundaries
Arabian
Build Math Skills L1

Ni
Peninsula

le
River
Upwarping Conversion Factors Remind students

Re
to label the units of each factor when

d
Se
Continental crust

a
f Ade
n solving the following problem. Doing
Afar Gulf o
AFRICA Lowlands this ensures that all the conversion
Indian
A Ocean factors are included and the answer has
Rift Rift valleys
valley the correct units. Tell students that
Mt. Kenya
Lake
Victoria Mt.
seafloor spreading occurs at an average
Lake Kilimanjaro rate of 5 cm per year. At this rate, how
Tanganyika
long would it take for a narrow sea that
Lake is 1 km wide to form? (about 20,000
Nyasa
years)
Logical
B
Use Visuals L1
Figure 9 Point out the rising magma
Linear sea
in each of the diagrams. Ask: What
happens to the rising magma in the
diagram? (It fills the cracks formed by the
diverging plates.) Why is this process
C called seafloor spreading? Does the
Oceanic ridge seafloor actually get thinner and
spread out? (The seafloor does not get
Rift
thinner. Rather, the seafloor spreads apart
and new rock is constantly added to the
Continental ridge.)
crust
Visual
Oceanic crust

D Build Science Skills L2

Figure 9 The East African rift Using Models Give
valleys may represent the initial students two colors of
stages of the breakup of a
Seafloor spreading is the process by which plate tectonics modeling clay (one
continent along a spreading
produces new oceanic lithosphere. Typical rates of spreading aver- center. A Rising magma forces the color for the magma
age around 5 centimeters per year. These rates are slow on a human crust upward, causing numerous and the other color for the crust) and
cracks in the rigid lithosphere. B
time scale. However, they are rapid enough so that all of Earth’s As the crust is pulled apart, large have them model the activity that
ocean basins could have been generated within the last 200 million slabs of rock sink, causing a rift occurs at a divergent boundary.
years. In fact, none of the ocean floor that has been dated is older zone. C Further spreading causes Kinesthetic, Visual
a narrow sea. D Eventually, an
than 180 million years. ocean basin and ridge system is
created.
Relating Cause and Effect
What causes the continental
crust to stretch and break?

Plate Tectonics 259

Customize for English Language Learners

Encourage students to work in groups to a sidewalk and the strip of grass between the
brainstorm different types of boundaries. sidewalk and the curb. Ask students what all
Their types of boundaries can come from other these boundaries have in common and how
sciences, such as cell membranes, or from they are different.
everyday life, such as the boundary between

Answer to . . .
Figure 9 The continental crust is
stretched and broken by the upwarping
of the crust, caused by rising magma.

Plate Tectonics 259

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Section 9.3 (continued)

Creating a
Continental Rift L2
Purpose Students will observe how
fractures grow to create a continental
rift as a result of the stretching of the
lithosphere.
Materials 2 slices of individually
wrapped American cheese, dull knife
or fingernail, metric ruler
Procedure Using your fingernail or a
dull knife, make a small cut in the center
of a cheese slice parallel to one edge.
Pull on the two cheese edges parallel
to the cut. You will be pulling
Figure 10 East African Rift Continental Rifts When spreading centers develop within a
perpendicular to the direction of the Valley This valley may be where
cut. Observe how the small defect (the the African continent is splitting continent, the landmass may split into two or more smaller segments.
cut) concentrates the tearing. Observe apart. Examples of active continental rifts include the East African rift valley
Interpreting Diagrams What and the Rhine Valley in Northwest Europe.
the shape of the fracture that forms, stage in the drawings on page
especially the pointed tips where the 259 does this photograph show? The most widely accepted model for continental breakup suggests
tearing is taking place, and how the that forces that are stretching the lithosphere must be acting on the plate.
fracture tips move faster as the fracture These stretching forces by themselves are not large enough to actually
gets bigger. tear the lithosphere apart. Rather, the rupture of the lithosphere is
thought to begin in those areas where plumes of hot rock rise from the
Now, make a cut near the center of the
second piece of cheese. Make a second mantle. This hot-spot activity weakens the lithosphere and creates domes
parallel cut about 2 cm below and 2 cm in the crust directly above the hot rising plume. Uplifting stretches the
to the right of the first cut. Pull on the crust and makes it thinner, as shown in Figure 9A. Along with the
cheese as before. Fractures will begin to stretching, faulting and volcanism form a rift valley, as in Figure 9B
form from each of the cuts. As the tips The East African rift valley, shown in Figure 10, may represent the
of these fractures begin to move past beginning stage in the breakup of a continent. Large mountains, such as
each other, they will begin to curve Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya, show the kind of volcanic activity that
toward each other and eventually link accompanies continental rifting. If the stretching forces continue, the
up into a single fracture. rift valley will lengthen and deepen, until the continent splits in two. At
this point, the rift becomes a narrow sea with an outlet to the ocean,
Safety Do not allow students to eat the
similar to the Red Sea. The Red Sea formed when the Arabian Peninsula
cheese.
rifted from Africa about 20 million years ago. In this way, the Red Sea
Expected Outcome Students should provides scientists with a view of how the Atlantic Ocean may have
infer that the fractures in the cheese are looked in its infancy.
analogous to the formation of faults that
result in the development of a rift valley.
Visual, Logical How do rifts begin to form?

260 Chapter 9

Facts and Figures

The first rift that developed as Pangaea began seaboard of the United States. They are buried
to break apart 200 million years ago resulted beneath rocks that form the continental shelf
in the separation of North America and Africa. and have been radiometrically dated as being
Large quantities of basalts were produced. between 200 million and 165 million years
These basalts can be found today as old. The rifting eventually formed the Atlantic
weathered rock beds along the eastern Ocean basin.

260 Chapter 9
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Convergent
Convergent Boundaries Boundaries
Although new lithosphere is constantly being added at the oceanic L1
ridges, our planet is not growing larger. Earth’s total surface area remains
Build Reading Literacy
the same. How can that be? To accommodate the newly created litho- Refer to p. 420D in Chapter 15, which
sphere, older portions of oceanic plates return to the mantle along provides the guidelines for this
convergent plate boundaries. Because lithosphere is “destroyed” at con- predicting strategy.
vergent boundaries, they are also called destructive plate margins. As two Predict Have students read the section
plates slowly converge, the leading edge of one is bent downward, allow- on p. 260 about continental rifts. Ask:
ing it to slide beneath the other. Destructive plate margins where oceanic Predict what a rift valley might look
crust is being pushed down into the mantle are called subduction zones. like if it stopped developing. (The
The surface feature produced by the descending plate is an ocean trench, valley would probably be filled with
as shown in Figure 11. A subduction zone occurs when one oceanic ancient volcanic rocks that formed from
plate is forced down into the mantle beneath a second plate. the magma that rose to the surface.)
Convergent boundaries are controlled by the type of crust involved Logical
and the forces acting on the plate. Convergent boundaries can form
between two oceanic plates, between one oceanic plate and one conti- Use Visuals L1
nental plate, or between two continental plates. Figure 11 Have students study
the diagram showing an oceanic-
Oceanic-Continental When the leading edge of a continental continental convergent boundary. Ask:
plate converges with an oceanic plate, the less dense continental plate Which plate is subducted? Which
remains floating. The denser oceanic slab sinks into the asthenosphere. plate floats? (The oceanic plate is
When a descending plate reaches a depth of about 100 to 150 kilome- subducted. The continental plate floats.)
Figure 11 Oceanic-Continental
ters, some of the asthenosphere above the descending plate melts. The Convergent Boundary Oceanic Why do the two plates in the diagram
newly formed magma, being less dense than the rocks of the mantle, lithosphere is subducted beneath always move the way they do?
rises. Eventually, some of this magma may reach the surface and cause a continental plate.
Inferring Why doesn’t volcanic
(The oceanic plate is denser than the
volcanic eruptions. activity occur closer to the trench? continental plate, so it slides under the
The volcanoes of the Andes, located along western South America, continental plate and sinks into the
are the product of magma generated as the Nazca plate descends asthenosphere.)
beneath the continent. Figure 11 shows this process. The Andes are an Continental Visual, Logical
example of a continental volcanic arc. Such mountains are produced volcanic arc
in part by the volcanic activity that is caused by the subduction of
oceanic lithosphere.

Trench

Oceanic crust

Continental crust Continental

Subduct lithosphere
ing
oce
an
ic
lith 100 km
o sp
he
re
Asthenosphere Melting

200 km

Plate Tectonics 261

Answer to . . .
Figure 10 Large slabs of rock sink,
causing a rift zone.
Figure 11 The plate doesn’t get deep
enough for melting to occur until
farther from the trench.
Rifts begin when the
lithosphere is stretched
and a plume of hot rock from the
mantle weakens and then splits the
lithosphere.

Plate Tectonics 261

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Section 9.3 (continued) Volcanic island arc

Trench

L2 Oceanic crust

A commonly held misconception is that Figure 12 Oceanic-Oceanic

Continental crust
Oceanic lithosphere
the volcanoes in a volcanic island arc are here
Convergent Boundary One osp
oceanic plate is subducted c lith
interconnected and that an eruption of i
an
beneath another oceanic plate, Melting o ce 100 km

one volcano in the arc will trigger erup- g

forming a volcanic island arc. tin
Asthenosphere uc
bd
tions in all the volcanoes. Draw a cross- Predicting What would Su
sectional diagram similar to Figure 12. happen to the volcanic activity
200 km
if the subduction stopped?
Show a separate magma chamber for
each volcano in the arc.
Visual Oceanic-Oceanic When two oceanic slabs converge, one descends
beneath the other. This causes volcanic activity similar to what occurs
Use Visuals L1 at an oceanic-continental boundary. However, the volcanoes form on
Figure 12 Have students study the the ocean floor instead of on a continent, as shown in Figure 12. If this
diagram showing an oceanic-oceanic activity continues, it will eventually build a chain of volcanic structures
convergent boundary. Ask: How is an that become islands. This newly formed land consisting of an arc-
oceanic-oceanic convergent boundary shaped chain of small volcanic islands is called a volcanic island arc.
different from an oceanic-continental The Aleutian Islands off the shore of Alaska are an example of a volcanic
convergent boundary? (Volcanoes form island arc. Next to the Aleutians is the Aleutian trench.
on the ocean floor in an oceanic-oceanic
boundary rather than on Earth’s surface.) Continental-Continental When an oceanic plate is sub-
What is formed by sustained volcanic ducted beneath continental lithosphere, a continental volcanic arc
activity at an oceanic-oceanic conver- develops along the margin of the continent. However, if the subduct-
gent boundary? (an island chain, called ing plate also contains continental lithosphere, the subduction
a volcanic island arc) eventually brings the two continents together, as shown in Figure 13.
Visual, Verbal Continental lithosphere is buoyant, which prevents it from being sub-
ducted to any great depth. The result is a collision between the two
Use Visuals L1 continents, which causes the formation of complex mountains such
as the Himalayas in South Asia.
Figure 13 Have students study
the diagram showing a continental-
continental convergent boundary. Ask:
Why isn’t the continental lithosphere
subducted far into the asthenosphere
in this diagram? (The continental
lithosphere is buoyant and does not sink
into the asthenosphere to a great depth.) Suture
Why aren’t volcanoes formed in a Figure 13 Continental- Continental Continental
Continental Convergent lithosphere lithosphere
continental-continental convergent Boundary Continental
100 km
boundary? (Because molten magma that lithosphere cannot be
forms down deep is unable to rise all the subducted because it floats. late
ic p
The collision of two e an
way to the tops of the mountains. The Oc Asthenosphere
continental plates forms 200 km
magma cools within the cores of the mountain ranges.
mountains to form large granitic plutons.)
Visual, Verbal
262 Chapter 9

Facts and Figures

Only two volcanic island arcs are located in the the town of St. Pierre. More recently, the
Atlantic Ocean—the Lesser Antilles adjacent to Soufriere Hills Volcano on the island of
the Caribbean Sea and the Sandwich Islands Montserrat erupted from 1995 until 1997.
in the South Atlantic. There have been many Although volcanic activity has since decreased,
volcanic eruptions in the Lesser Antilles. In seismic activity has increased. There were
1902 on the island of Martinique, Mount Pelé several earthquakes on Montserrat in
erupted, killing 28,000 people and destroying early 2004.

262 Chapter 9
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Build Science Skills L2

Before continents collide, the landmasses involved are separated
by an ocean basin. As the continents move toward each other, the Using Analogies The discussion on
seafloor between them is subducted beneath one of the plates. When this page uses an analogy of a giant vise
the continents collide, the collision folds and deforms the sediments to help students visualize and
along the margin as if they were placed in a giant vise. A new moun- understand what happens to the
tain range forms that is composed of deformed and metamorphosed lithosphere during a continental-
sedimentary rocks, fragments of the volcanic arc, and possibly slivers continental collision. Be sure students
of oceanic crust. understand what a vise is. (a tool that
This kind of collision occurred when the subcontinent of India holds an object by squeezing two plates
rammed into Asia and produced the Himalayas, as shown in Figure
Figure 14 A The leading edge of together, usually by turning a large screw)
the plate carrying India is
14. During this collision, the continental crust buckled and fractured. subducted beneath the Eurasian
If they are not familiar with the term,
Several other major mountain systems, including the Alps, plate. B The landmasses collide have them look it up in a dictionary, or
and push up the crust. C India’s have another student describe it. Revisit
Appalachians, and Urals, were also formed as a result of continental collision with Asia continues
the text and discuss why the analogy is
collisions. today.
useful. (A squeezing vise could fold and
deform material as colliding continents
fold and deform rock) Ask: What other
analogies might be used to describe
Collision of India and Asia continental-continental collisions?
(Sample answers: small entry rug
A Continental volcanic arc C crumpling as it gets caught between an
opening door and a wall, two cars
Continental Developing
shelf accretionary
Tibet
colliding)
India deposits wedge
Intrapersonal, Logical
Ocean basin
Continental
crust India
g oceanic lithosp today
Subductin he
re

Asthenosphere Melting

10 million
years ago

Himalayas 38 million
B years ago

India
(Ganges Plain)
Tibetan 55 million
Plateau years ago

71 million
years ago
Suture

Asthenosphere

Plate Tectonics 263

Facts and Figures

The Himalayas include the highest mountains This accumulation accounts in part for the
on Earth. When India and Asia collided, the high elevation of the Himalayas and may also
leading edge of the Indian plate was forced explain the elevated Tibetan Plateau to the
partially under Asia, generating an unusually north.
great thickness of continental lithosphere. Answer to . . .
Figure 12 If the subduction stopped,
the volcanic activity would probably
also soon stop because the source of
new magma is the continuing subduc-
tion of the oceanic plate.

Plate Tectonics 263

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Section 9.3 (continued) Fracture Transform fault Fracture Transform Fault

zone (active) zone
Boundaries
Transform Fault The third type of plate boundary is the
Boundaries transform fault boundary. At a
Build Science Skills L2 transform fault boundary, plates
Relating Cause and Effect Remind grind past each other without destroy-
students that plates in a transform fault ing the lithosphere. Most transform
boundary move past each other without faults join two segments of a mid-ocean
production or destruction of lithosphere. ridge, as shown in Figure 15. These
Ask: Why does this movement cause faults are present about every 100 kilo-
earthquakes? (The tremendous friction meters along the ridge axis. Active
caused by two plates grinding past each transform faults lie between the two
Figure 15 A transform fault offset ridge segments. The seafloor produced at one ridge axis moves in
other causes earthquakes.)
boundary offsets segments of
Logical a divergent boundary at an the opposite direction as seafloor is produced at an opposing ridge seg-
oceanic ridge. ment. So between the ridge segments these slabs of oceanic crust are
3 ASSESS grinding past each other along a transform fault.
Although most transform faults are located within the ocean basins,
Evaluate a few cut through the continental crust. One example is the San Andreas
Understanding L2
Fault of California. Along the San Andreas, the Pacific plate is moving
To assess students’ knowledge of section toward the northwest, past the North American plate. If this movement
content, have them write three short continues, that part of California west of the fault zone will become an
paragraphs describing the three island off the west coast of the United States and Canada. It could even-
convergent boundaries and what tually reach Alaska. However, a more immediate concern is the
results when they converge. earthquake activity triggered by movements along this fault system.

Reteach L1
Have students demonstrate the action
of the three convergent boundaries by
using their hands to represent the Section 9.3 Assessment
converging plates.

Reviewing Concepts 6. Relating Cause and Effect During the

1. What is seafloor spreading? collision between two continents, why doesn’t
a subduction zone form?
2. What is a subduction zone? What types of
Answers should be accurate and show plate boundaries have subduction zones? 7. Predicting How will the angle at which an
an understanding of the process of oceanic plate is subducted affect the distance
3. Describe the process that occurs when from the volcanic arc to the trench?
rifting at a divergent plate boundary. continents converge.
4. What actions of plate boundaries cause the
destruction of the lithosphere?

Critical Thinking
Creative Writing Write a paragraph that
5. Drawing Conclusions What evidence
describes the rifting apart of a continent to
supports the idea that the Earth is neither
form a new ocean. The paragraph should
growing nor shrinking in size?
be written from the point of view of a per-
son witnessing the events.

264 Chapter 9

5. the evidence that the production and

Section 9.3 Assessment destruction of the lithosphere is going on at
1. Seafloor spreading is the creation of new about the same rate.
seafloor at oceanic ridges. 6. Continental lithosphere floats and can’t be
2. Subduction zones occur at deep-ocean forced down into the mantle at a subduction
trenches where slabs of oceanic lithosphere zone.
are descending into the mantle. Subduction 7. The higher the angle of subduction, the
zones are associated with convergent bound- closer the volcanic arc will be to the trench.
aries, either oceanic-oceanic or oceanic- If the angle is shallow, the volcanic arc will be
continental. located farther behind the trench because the
3. two continental plates collide with each descending plate doesn’t reach a depth
other, forming a mountain range where melting occurs until farther from
4. Lithosphere is destroyed at convergent the trench.
264 Chapter 9 boundaries in subduction zones.
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Section 9.4
9.4 Testing Plate Tectonics
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy 9.11 Explain how paleomagnetism
What evidence supports ◆ paleomagnetism Predicting Copy the table. Write a and magnetic reversals provide
the theory of plate ◆ normal polarity prediction of where earthquakes will occur.
tectonics? After you read, if your prediction was incorrect evidence that supports the
◆ reverse polarity
How does paleomagnetism or incomplete, write where earthquakes theory of plate tectonics.
◆ hot spot
support the theory of plate actually occur. 9.12 Evaluate how earthquakes,
tectonics? Probable Locations Actual Locations ocean drilling, and hot spots
a. ? b. ?
provide evidence that supports
the theory of plate tectonics.

Reading Focus
Evidence for Plate Tectonics
Build Vocabulary L2
With the birth of the plate tectonics model, researchers from all of the
Earth sciences began testing it. You have already seen some of the evi- Word Parts Have students break the
dence supporting continental drift and seafloor spreading. Additional vocabulary term paleomagnetism into
evidence for plate tectonics came as new technologies developed. roots, prefixes, or suffixes. Students may
need to use a dictionary to find the
Paleomagnetism If you have ever used a compass to find direc- meanings of some parts. (Paleo- is a
tion, you know that the magnetic field has a north pole and a south combination form of the Greek word
pole. These magnetic poles align closely, but not exactly, with the geo- Figure 16 Paleomagnetism palaios meaning “ancient.” The word
graphic poles. Preserved in Lava Flows As the magnetism comes from the Greek root
lava cools, it becomes magnetized
In many ways, Earth’s magnetic field is much like that produced parallel to the magnetic field
words Magnes (lithos), literally meaning
by a simple bar magnet. Invisible lines of force pass through Earth and present at that time. When the a stone of Magnesia, an ancient city in
polarity randomly reverses, a Asia Minor.)
extend from one pole to the other. A compass needle is a small magnet
record of the paleomagnetism is
that is free to move about. The needle aligns with these invisible lines preserved in the sequence of
of force and points toward the magnetic poles. lava flows. Reading Strategy L2
Certain rocks contain iron-rich minerals, such as magnetite. When a. at convergent plate boundaries
heated above a certain temperature, these magnetic minerals lose their Normal b. at all plate boundaries
magnetism. However, when these iron-rich mineral grains cool down, magnetic
0.4 m.y. field
they become magnetized in the direction parallel to the existing ago 2 INSTRUCT
magnetic field. Once the minerals solidify, the magnetism they 0.8 m.y. (normal)
ago
possess stays frozen in this position. So magnetized rocks
behave much like a compass needle because they point 1.2 m.y.
(reversed)
Evidence for Plate
toward the existing magnetic poles. If the rock is moved
ago
(normal) Tectonics
or if the magnetic pole changes position, the rock’s mag- Integrate Biology L2
netism retains its original alignment. Rocks formed
Birds and Magnetism Tell students
millions of years ago thus show the location of the mag-
that birds use Earth’s magnetic field to
netic poles at the time of their formation, as shown in
locate places to stop and eat along their
Figure 16. These rocks possess paleomagnetism. migration route. In addition, the birds
use Earth’s magnetic field to navigate.
Plate Tectonics 265
They read the angle at which magnetic
fields enter the ground and thus
determine their latitude relative to the
magnetic poles. Ask: Why is it so
important for birds to locate food
sources? (The location of these places is
critical because birds must have large
quantities of food to provide energy during
their long migrations.)
Verbal, Logical

Plate Tectonics 265

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Section 9.4 (continued) Polarity of Ocean Crust

Geophysicists learned that
Earth’s magnetic field periodically
reverses polarity. The north mag-
A netic pole becomes the south
magnetic pole, and vice versa. A rock
Testing Minerals solidifying during one of the periods
for Magnetism L1 of reverse polarity will be magnet-
Magma
Purpose Students test various minerals Period of normal magnetism
ized with the polarity opposite that
with a magnet to determine whether of rocks being formed today.
they have magnetic properties. B When rocks show the same
Materials magnet, minerals (include magnetism as the present magnetic
at least one sample of a mineral that field, they are described as having
contains iron or cobalt), compass normal polarity. Rocks that show
Magma
the opposite magnetism are said to
Procedure Have students test the Period of reverse magnetism
have reverse polarity. A relation-
mineral samples with the magnet to see
C ship was discovered between the
if they are attracted by it. Have students
place the compass near each mineral magnetic reversals and the seafloor-
sample to see if the needle moves. spreading hypothesis. Ships towed
If it does, the material is magnetic. instruments called magnetometers
Magma across segments of the ocean floor.
Expected Outcomes Minerals that Period of normal magnetism This research revealed alternating
contain iron or cobalt, such as
strips of high- and low-intensity
lodestone, have magnetic properties. Figure 17 A As new material is magnetism that ran parallel to the ridges. The strips of high-inten-
Meteorites also have magnetic added to the ocean floor at the
oceanic ridges, it is magnetized
sity magnetism are regions where the paleomagnetism of the ocean
properties.
according to Earth’s existing crust is of the normal type. These positively magnetized rocks
Kinesthetic, Visual magnetic field. B This process enhance the existing magnetic field. The low-intensity strips repre-
records each reversal of Earth’s
magnetic field. C Because new sent regions where the ocean crust is polarized in the reverse direction
L1 rock is added in approximately and, therefore, weaken the existing magnetic field. As new basalt is
Use Visuals equal amounts to the trailing added to the ocean floor at the oceanic ridges, it becomes magnetized
Figure 17 Have students study the edges of both plates, strips of
equal size and polarity parallel according to the existing magnetic field, as shown in Figure 17.
figure. Ask: Could the rocks in a strip both sides of the ocean ridges. The discovery of strips of alternating polarity, which lie as
possessing reverse polarity ever possess Applying Concepts Why are
mirror images across the ocean ridges, is among the strongest evi-
normal polarity? (No, once the rocks the magnetized strips about
equal width on either side of dence of seafloor spreading.
solidify, their polarity is permanently set.) the ridge?
How do you think the width of a strip Earthquake Patterns Scientists found a close link
relates to the seafloor spreading rate? between deep-focus earthquakes and ocean trenches. Also, the
(The faster the spreading rate is, the wider absence of deep-focus earthquakes along the oceanic ridge system
the strip will be.) was shown to be consistent with the new theory.
Visual, Logical Compare the distribution of earthquakes shown in Chapter 8 on
page 226 with the map of plate boundaries on pages 256–257. The
close link between plate boundaries and earthquakes is obvious. When
the depths of earthquake foci and their locations within the trench sys-
tems are plotted, a pattern emerges.

266 Chapter 9

Customize for English Language Learners

Explain to students that there are many uses of polar molecules have partial charges. Polar also
the term polar, both in science and in everyday means diametrically opposite. Have students
usage. For example, in magnetism, polarity look up the various meanings of the term polar
refers to the magnetic poles. In chemistry, and use each meaning in a sentence.

266 Chapter 9
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Build Science Skills L2

Volcanic island arc Trench
Interpreting Diagrams Have students
Marginal sea study Figure 18. Ask:
• From the map, identify the direction
Oceanic
crust in which the sinking slab of oceanic
China
lithosphere is moving. (from right to
left)
lithosphere 100 km • Locate Korea on the map. Why do
anic
ne oce you think Korea has relatively few
Partial melting zo n g
iof
f cti
Japan en du earthquakes compared to Japan?
ti-B S ub
d a 200 km
Wa (Korea is located far from ocean
Asthenosphere trenches; Japan is close to a trench.)
Japan tre

300 km
• What pattern does the map show?
Key
(Deeper earthquakes occur farther from
nch

Shallow the trench.) Be sure students can

Figure 18 Distribution of Earthquake Foci Note
Intermediate
that intermediate- and deep-focus earthquakes occur
distinguish the blue dots from the
Deep
only within the sinking slab of oceanic lithosphere. green dots.
• What can geologists learn from this
pattern? (They can use the plotted foci
Look at Figure 18. It shows the distribution of earthquakes near to track the plate’s descent into the
the Japan trench. Here, most shallow-focus earthquakes occur within mantle.)
or adjacent to the trench. Intermediate- and deep-focus earthquakes Visual, Logical
occur toward the mainland.
In the plate tectonics model, deep-ocean trenches are produced
where cool, dense slabs of oceanic lithosphere plunge into the mantle.
Shallow-focus earthquakes are produced as the descending plate inter-
acts with the lithosphere above it. As the slab descends farther into the
mantle, deeper-focus earthquakes are produced. No earthquakes have
been recorded below 700 kilometers. At this depth, the slab has been
heated enough to soften.

Ocean Drilling Some of the most convincing evidence confirm-

ing the plate tectonics theory has come from drilling directly into
ocean-floor sediment. The Deep Sea Drilling Project from 1968 to 1983
used the drilling ship Glomar Challenger to drill hundreds of meters
into the sediments and underlying crust.
When the oldest sediment from each drill site was plotted against
its distance from the ridge crest, it was revealed that the age of the sed-
iment increased with increasing distance from the ridge. The data
on the ages of seafloor sediment confirmed what the seafloor-
spreading hypothesis predicted. The youngest oceanic crust is at the
ridge crest and the oldest oceanic crust is at the continental margins.
The data also reinforced the idea that the ocean basins are geolog-
ically young. No sediment older than 180 million years was found. By
comparison, some continental crust has been dated at 4.0 billion years.

Plate Tectonics 267

Facts and Figures

During its 15 years of operation, the Glomar predecessor, is a major international program.
Challenger drilled 1092 holes and obtained A more technologically advanced drilling ship,
more than 96 km of invaluable core samples. the JOIDES Resolution, now continues the work
The Ocean Drilling Program has succeeded of the Glomar Challenger.
the Deep Sea Drilling Project and, like its
Answer to . . .
Figure 17 Both sides of the ocean
plate are moving away from the ridge
at equal rates, so the magnetized strips
will be about equal in width.

Plate Tectonics 267

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Kauai
Section 9.4 (continued) 3.8–5.6 Oahu Maui
2.2–3.3 Molokai less
1.3–1.8 Hot
than 1.0 spot
Build Reading Literacy L1 Hawaii
Suiko 0.7 to
Refer to p. 530D in Chapter 19, which Emperor Direction of present
65 my Seamount chain plate motion
provides the guidelines for making
Hawaiian chain
inferences. Oceanic
Midway lithosphere
Making Inferences Have students Islands
27 my
read the section about hot spots on this Hawaii
Mantle
page. Ask: What can you infer about a plume
hot spot from the description of how Ages given
in millions of
the islands in a volcanic island arc years
form at different times by the hot
spot? (You can infer that the hot spot is Figure 19 Hot Spot The chain of Hot Spots Mapping of seafloor volcanoes in the Pacific revealed a
islands and seamounts that
relatively stationary with respect to the extends from Hawaii to the chain of volcanic structures extending from the Hawaiian Islands to
mantle, and so moves relative to the plate. Aleutian trench results from the Midway Island and then north to the Aleutian trench, as shown in
If it moved along with the plate, a line of movement of the Pacific plate Figure 19. Dates of volcanoes in this chain showed that the volcanoes
over a stationary hot spot.
islands would not have formed.) Predicting Where will a new increase in age with increasing distance from Hawaii. Suiko Seamount
Verbal, Intrapersonal Hawaiian island be located? is 65 million years old. Midway Island is 27 million years old. The
island of Hawaii formed less than a million years ago and is still
3 ASSESS forming today.
A rising plume of mantle material is located below the island of
Evaluate Hawaii. Melting of this hot rock as it nears the surface creates a vol-
Understanding L2
canic area, or hot spot. As the Pacific plate moves over the hot spot,
To assess students’ knowledge of section successive volcanic mountains have been created. The age of each vol-
content, have them make flashcards for cano indicates the time when it was situated over the hot spot. Kauai
the vocabulary terms and the four lines is the oldest of the large islands in the Hawaiian chain. Its volcanoes are
of evidence supporting the plate extinct. The youthful island of Hawaii has two active volcanoes—
tectonic theory. For each vocabulary Mauna Loa and Kilauea. Hot spot evidence supports the idea that
term, the card should include a the plates move over Earth’s surface.
definition and an example, where
applicable. For each line of evidence, the Section 9.4 Assessment
card should give an explanation of why
it supports the theory and include an
example. Students can use the cards to
Reviewing Concepts 6. Predicting Would earthquakes occur at
quiz one another. depths of over 700 kilometers? Why or
1. List and describe the evidence for the
plate tectonics theory. why not?
Reteach L1
2. Define the term paleomagnetism.
Have students explain in their own 3. What is the age of the oldest ocean crust?
words why data produced by drilling How do the ages of the ocean crust compare
to the age of continental rocks?
into ocean-floor sediment supports the
4. What is a hot spot? Explanatory Paragraph Write a para-
tectonic plate theory. graph explaining why the age pattern of
Critical Thinking the ocean floor supports seafloor spreading.
5. Applying Concepts How do hot spots and
the plate tectonics theory account for the
different ages of the Hawaiian Islands?
The age of the seafloor increases with
increasing distance from the spreading
center at an ocean ridge. The theory of 268 Chapter 9
seafloor spreading states that new ocean
lithosphere is created at ocean ridges,
so the ocean floor should be younger
closer to the ridges and older farther 3. The oldest ocean crust is about 180 million
from the ridge.
Section 9.4 Assessment
years old. Some continental rocks are about
1. paleomagnetism: iron-rich minerals in rocks 3.9 billion years old.
line up with the magnetic field at the time 4. an area where a plume of hot mantle
they cool; earthquake patterns: earthquake material rises up and causes volcanic activity
foci are concentrated at plate boundaries; 5. Hot spots are relatively stationary plumes of
ocean drilling: the age of the ocean litho- hot rock from the mantle. As a plate moves
sphere was found from drilling; hot spots: over a hot spot, the hot material causes vol-
Answer to . . .
the location of hot mantle plumes shows canic activity. The previously formed volca-
Figure 19 A new Hawaiian island plate motion. noes become extinct and increase in age as
will form to the southeast of the island 2. Paleomagnetism is the natural magnetism the distance from the hot spot (and the active
of Hawaii. in rocks, which was acquired from Earth’s volcanic activity) increases.
magnetic field at the time the rock formed. 6. No, below 700 km the plates are no longer
268 Chapter 9 rigid enough.
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Section 9.5
9.5 Mechanisms of Plate Motion
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy 9.13 Compare the mechanisms of
What are the mechanisms ◆ convective flow Identifying Main Ideas Copy the table. As slab-pull and ridge-push as
of plate motion? ◆ slab-pull you read, write the main ideas for each topic. contributing to plate motion.
What causes plate ◆ ridge-push
motion? Topic Main Idea 9.14 Relate the unequal distribution
◆ mantle plume
Slab-pull a. ? of heat in Earth and the mecha-
?
nism of mantle convection to
Ridge-push b.
the movement of tectonic
Mantle convection c. ?
plates.

Reading Focus
Causes of Plate Motion
Scientists generally agree that convection occurring in the Build Vocabulary L2
mantle is the basic driving force for plate movement. During con- Paraphrase Have students explain, in
vection, warm, less dense material rises and cooler, denser material their own words, the meaning of the
sinks. The motion of matter resulting from convection is called con- new vocabulary terms in this section.
vective flow. The slow movements of the plates and mantle are driven Since each term contains an “action-
by the unequal distribution of Earth’s heat. The heat is generated by the type” word (pull, push, plume, convec-
radioactive decay of elements, such as uranium, found within Earth’s tion), students should be able to form
mantle and crust. mental images to help with their
explanations.
Slab-Pull and Ridge-Push Several mechanisms produce forces
that cause plate motion. One mechanism, called slab-pull, occurs Reading Strategy L2
because old oceanic crust, which is relatively cool and dense, sinks into
a. mechanism of plate motion in which
the asthenosphere and “pulls” the trailing lithosphere along. Slab-
the descending slab pulls on the plate
pull is thought to be the primary downward arm of convective flow
b. mechanism of plate motion in which
in the mantle. By contrast, ridge-push results from the elevated posi-
the force of new crust formed at the
tion of the oceanic ridge system. Ridge-push causes oceanic
high ridges pushes on the plate
lithosphere to slide down the sides of the oceanic ridge. The down- c. the major mechanism of plate motion
ward slide is the result of gravity acting on the oceanic lithosphere. as the upward flow of hot, less dense
Ridge-push, although active in some spreading centers, is probably less mantle material and the downward flow
important than slab-pull. of cold, dense material drives plate
tectonics
Mantle Convection Most models suggest that hot plumes of
rock are the upward flowing arms in mantle convection. These rising
mantle plumes sometimes show themselves on Earth’s surface as hot 2 INSTRUCT
spots and volcanoes.
Causes of Plate
Motion
Build Science Skills L2
Plate Tectonics 269
Using Models Challenge students to
use their hands, phone books, or other
objects to model slab-pull and ridge-
push. Have them explain the processes
as they manipulate the model.
Verbal, Kinesthetic

Plate Tectonics 269

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Section 9.5 (continued) A

Volcanic
trail Oceanic ridge B
Volcanic
trail Oceanic ridge
Hot Hot
spot spot
Use Visuals L1 Descending
oceanic plate
antle antle Mantle
Figure 20 Have students study the p er m pe
rm plume
Up Up
figure. Ask: At what type of boundary Rising Lower mantle
plume Lower mantle
does upward convective movement
occur? (divergent) At what type of
boundary does downward convective

660 km
movement occur? (convergent)
Core Core

3 ASSESS
Figure 20 Mantle Convection One recent model is called whole-mantle convection. In this
Evaluate Models A In the whole-mantle
Understanding L2 convection model, cold oceanic
model, slabs of cold oceanic lithosphere descend into the lower mantle.
lithosphere descends into the This process provides the downward arm of convective flow, as shown
To assess students’ knowledge of mantle. Hot mantle plumes in Figure 20A. At the same time, hot mantle plumes originating near
section content, have them write a transport heat toward the surface.
B The deep-layer model suggests the mantle-core boundary move heat toward the surface. Another
short paragraph explaining convection.
that Earth’s heat causes these model is the deep-layer model. You might compare this model to a lava
Paragraphs should include the cause of layers of convection to slowly swell lamp on a low setting. As shown in Figure 20B, the lower mantle is like
convection currents and the movements and shrink in complex patterns.
Some material from the lower the colored fluid in the bottom layer of a lava lamp. Like a lava lamp,
that occur.
layer flows upward as mantle heat from Earth’s interior causes the two layers to slowly swell and
plumes.
L1 shrink in complex patterns without much mixing. A small amount of
Reteach material from the lower layer flows upward as mantle plumes, creating
Demonstrate convection as follows: hot-spot volcanism at the surface.
Heat a beaker of water on a hot plate. There is still much to be learned about the mechanisms that cause
When the water is hot, add an ice cube plates to move. But one thing is clear. The unequal distribution of
to the water near the edge of the heat within Earth causes the thermal convection in the mantle that
beaker. Drop a few drops of food ultimately drives plate motion. Exactly how this convection operates
coloring next to the ice cube. Students is still being debated.
will be able to watch the food coloring
move through the water by convection.
Section 9.5 Assessment

It would provide the missing mechanism Reviewing Concepts 5. Calculating If Africa and Australia are
that causes the continents to move. 1. Describe the mechanisms of plate motion. moving apart at a rate of 4.4 centimeters per
year, approximately how long will it take for
2. What drives the slow movement of the the ocean between the two continents to
plates and the convection in the mantle? increase by 1000 kilometers?
3. What is the main source of heat in Earth’s
interior?

Critical Thinking
4. Relating Cause and Effect How is the Heat Flow Review Section 9.1. How
theory of plate tectonics related to the would the flow of heat generated by
radioactive decay of elements within Earth’s radioactive decay benefit the theory of
interior? continental drift?

270 Chapter 9

Section 9.5 Assessment 2. the unequal distribution of heat within

Earth’s interior drives plate motions
1. slab-pull: force where the descending slab 3. heat generated by radioactive decay of
pulls on the plate; ridge-push: force of gravity elements in Earth’s interior
causing the cold lithosphere to move away 4. If radioactive decay stopped, no additional
from the ridge by sliding down over the heat would be generated within Earth’s
asthenosphere, which gets more elevated interior. This heat drives the mantle convec-
toward the ridge; mantle convection: motion tion that is the driving mechanism for plate
caused by flow of hot, less-dense material tectonics, so plate motion would gradually
upwards and cold, more-dense material stop.
downward 5. approximately 23 million years

270 Chapter 9
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Plate Tectonics
into the Future
Two geologists, Robert Dietz and John Holden, used
present-day plate movements to predict the loca-
shows where they predict Earth’s landmasses will be
50 million years from now if plate movements
Plate Tectonics
tions of landmasses in the future. The map below remain at their present rates. into the Future L2

Future Continent Positions

Answer
North Identify Effects The cities could have
American Eurasian plate a change in climate as they move north.
plate
They may also undergo damage from
African earthquakes associated with the
plate movement.
South Background
American
plate
Australian-Indian
Robert Dietz began his career as a
Madagascar
plate marine geologist. He was an early
plate proponent of continental drift and of
Figure 21
seafloor spreading, which he named.
Location The world may
Much of his early work was conducted
look like this 50 million years
from now.
Antarctic plate in submersibles off the coast of
Identify Effects What could California. John Holden was Dietz’s
happen to Los Angeles and colleague and his illustrator.
San Francisco if this proposed
movement occurs?
Teaching Tip
Have students cut out outlines of the
continents and place them on a piece
of white poster paper in their current
L.A. on the Move Atlantic Ocean Grows locations. As students read each
In North America, the Baja Peninsula and the portion In other parts of the world, Australia will be located paragraph of the feature, they should
of southern California that lies west of the San Andreas across the equator and, along with New Guinea, will
Fault will have slid past the North American plate. If be on a collision course with Asia. Meanwhile, North
move the continents to their predicted
this northward motion takes place, Los Angeles and and South America will begin to separate, while the location. When they finish reading the
San Francisco will pass each other in about 10 million Atlantic and Indian oceans will continue to grow as feature, ask students to write a short
years. In about 60 million years Los Angeles will begin the Pacific Ocean shrinks. paragraph describing how plant and
to descend into the Aleutian trench. animal life would be different on the
These projections into the future, although interest-
ing, must be viewed with caution because many continents in their new positions.
New Sea in Africa assumptions must be correct for these events to For example, tropical vegetation in
Major changes are seen in Africa, where a new sea occur. We can be sure that large changes in the
shapes and positions of continents will occur for mil-
southern California would be replaced
emerges as East Africa is ripped away from the main-
lions of years to come. with plant life that could exist in an
land. In addition, Africa will have moved slowly into
Europe, perhaps creating the next major mountain- Arctic climate.
building stage on Earth. Meanwhile, the Arabian Verbal, Kinesthetic
Peninsula continues to move away from Africa, allow-
ing the Red Sea to widen and close the Persian Gulf.

Plate Tectonics 271

Plate Tectonics 271

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Section 10.1
10.1 The Nature of
Volcanic Eruptions
1 FOCUS

Section Objectives
10.1 Explain the factors that
determine the type of volcanic Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy
eruptions that occur. What determines the type ◆ viscosity Previewing Copy the table. Before you read
10.2 Describe the various types of of volcanic eruption? ◆ vent the section, rewrite the green topic headings
volcanic materials that are What materials are ejected ◆ pyroclastic material as questions. As you read, write the answers to
from volcanoes? the questions.
ejected from volcanoes. ◆ volcano
10.3 List the three main types of What are the three main ◆ crater
The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions
types of volcanoes? ◆ shield volcano
volcanoes. What factors affect a. ?
What other landforms are ◆ cinder cone
10.4 Distinguish how the different associated with volcanic
an eruption?
◆ composite cone
types of volcanic landforms eruptions? ◆ caldera
form.

Reading Focus
V olcanic eruptions are more than spectacular sights. They are win-
dows to Earth’s interior. Because volcanoes eject molten rock that
Build Vocabulary L2
formed at great depth, they provide opportunities to observe the
Word Parts Explain to students that processes that occur deep beneath Earth’s surface.
the prefix pyro- is Latin and Greek for On May 18, 1980, one of the largest volcanic eruptions to occur in
“fire” or “heat.” Clastic means “made
North America changed a scenic volcano into the smoldering wreck
from fragments of preexisting rocks.”
shown in Figure 1. On this date, Mount St. Helens erupted with tremen-
Pyroclastic materials are hot fragments
dous force. The blast blew out the entire north flank of the volcano,
of preexisting rocks that are blown from
leaving a gaping hole. The eruption ejected nearly a cubic kilometer of ash
the vent of a volcano.
and rock debris. The air over Yakima, Washington, 130 kilometers to the
Figure 1 A Mount St. Helens east, was so filled with ash that noon became almost as dark as midnight.
Reading Strategy L2 before the May 18, 1980,
eruption. B After the eruption,
Why do volcanoes like Mount St. Helens erupt explosively, while others
a. viscosity and dissolved gases Spirit Lake filled with debris. like Kilauea in Hawaii are relatively quiet?
b. What are the types of volcanic
materials? lava flows; pyroclastic
material, such as ash; volcanic gases
c. What are the types of volcanoes?
shield volcanoes, cinder cones,
composite cones
d. What are some other volcanic
landforms? calderas, pipes, lava plateaus

2 INSTRUCT
Use Visuals L1
Figure 1 During the eruption of Mount A B
St. Helens, the height of the volcano
was lowered by 400 meters. Ask: What 280 Chapter 10
would have caused this damage?
(Force built up within the volcano and
blew the top off.) Infer where the debris
from this blast went. (Some of the fine
debris particles remained in the air for a
time before settling; some of the material
flowed down the side of the volcano in the
form of mud; some of the material simply
tumbled down the side of the volcano.)
Verbal

280 Chapter 10
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Table 1 Magma Composition Factors Affecting

Tendency to Form
Composition Silica Content Viscosity Gas Content Pyroclastics Volcanic Landform Eruptions
(ejected rock fragments)
Basaltic Least (~50%) Least Least (1–2%) Least Shield Volcanoes
Basalt Plateaus
Cinder Cones

Andesitic Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate Composite Cones Why are some
(~60%) (3–4%) volcanoes explosive? L2
Rhyolitic Most (~70%) Greatest Most (4–6%) Greatest Pyroclastic Flows Objective
Volcanic Domes After completing this activity, students
will be able to explain why trapped
gases cause explosive reactions in
Factors Affecting Eruptions volcanoes.
The primary factors that determine whether a volcano erupts
Skills Focus Observing, Inferring,
violently or quietly include magma composition, magma tempera-
Predicting
ture, and the amount of dissolved gases in the magma. Why are some
volcanoes Prep Time 5 minutes
Viscosity Viscosity is a substance’s resistance to flow. For example,
explosive?
maple syrup is more viscous than water and flows more slowly. Magma Materials 2 bottles of noncarbonated
from an explosive eruption may be thousands of times more viscous Procedure water, 2 bottles of club soda, paper
than magma that is extruded quietly. 1. Obtain two bottles of towels
The effect of temperature on viscosity is easy to see. If you heat noncarbonated water and Class Time 20 minutes
maple syrup, it becomes more fluid and less viscous. In the same way, two bottles of club soda.
2. Open one bottle of the Safety Be sure that students point the
the mobility of lava is strongly affected by temperature. As a lava flow
noncarbonated water and open bottles away from everyone.
cools and begins to harden, its viscosity increases, its mobility one bottle of the club
decreases, and eventually the flow halts. Teaching Tip Have paper towels
soda. Record your
The chemical composition of magmas has a more important effect observations. available for students to use to clean
on the type of eruption. The viscosity of magma is directly related to 3. Gently shake each of the
up after the lab.
its silica content. In general, the more silica in magma, the greater is its remaining unopened Expected Outcome Students will
bottles. CAUTION: Wear observe dissolved gases and fluid
viscosity. Because of their high silica content, rhyolitic lavas are very
safety goggles and point
viscous and don’t flow easily. Basaltic lavas, which contain less silica, the bottles away from
“explode” from the bottle of
tend to be more fluid. everyone. carbonated liquid.
4. Carefully open each Kinesthetic, Logical
Dissolved Gases During explosive eruptions, the gases trapped in bottle over a sink or Analyze and Conclude
magma provide the force to eject molten rock from the vent, an open- outside. Record your 1. Answers may vary but should state
ing to the surface. These gases are mostly water vapor and carbon observations.
that the bottles with non-carbonated
dioxide. As magma moves nearer the surface, the pressure in the upper Analyze and water opened without any escaping
part of the magma is greatly reduced. The reduced pressure allows dis- Conclude gases or fizzing. The bottles of club
solved gases to be released suddenly. 1. Observing What soda, when opened, fizzed with the
Very fluid basaltic magmas allow the expanding gases to bubble happened when the escaping carbon dioxide. After the club
upward and escape relatively easily. Therefore, eruptions of fluid bottles were opened? soda was shaken, the gases escaped
basaltic lavas, such as those that occur in Hawaii, are relatively quiet. 2. Inferring Which bottle more explosively.
At the other extreme, highly viscous magmas slow the upward move- represents lava with the
2. the shaken bottle of club soda
most dissolved gas?
ment of expanding gases. The gases collect in bubbles and pockets that
increase in size until they explosively eject the molten rock from the For Enrichment L3
volcano. The result is a Mount St. Helens. Have students research the violent
eruption of Krakatau in 1883. Have
Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity 281 students prepare a newspaper article
detailing the events surrounding the
eruption of this volcano. The article
should be written as if the volcano had
Customize for English Language Learners erupted recently.

Have students work in pairs to make a chart Students may want to illustrate their facts with
showing the facts about factors affecting drawings to further their understanding of the
eruptions, volcanic material, types of concepts. Students can use this chart as a
volcanoes, and other volcanic landforms. study aid for quizzes and tests.

Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity 281

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Section 10.1 (continued)

Volcanic Material

L2
Students may have the misconception
that earthquakes shaking the region
around the volcano are the only reason
for volcanic eruptions. Earthquakes are
common triggers of volcanic eruptions, A B
but are not the only factors involved.
Explain to students that volcanoes can
Figure 2 Lava Flows A Typical
erupt whenever magma builds up
pahoehoe (ropy) lava flow,
Volcanic Material
enough force to erupt from underground Kilauea Hawaii. B Example of a Lava may appear to be the main material extruded from a volcano, but
to the surface. The factors that determine slow-moving aa flow.
this is not always the case. Just as often, explosive eruptions eject huge
the violence of the eruption are magma Drawing Conclusions Which of
the flows has more viscous lava? quantities of broken rock, lava bombs, fine ash, and dust. All volcanic
composition, magma temperature, and eruptions also emit large amounts of gas.
the amount of dissolved gases the
magma contains. Lava Flows Hot basaltic lavas are usually very fluid because of their
Verbal low silica content. Flow rates of 10 to 300 meters per hour are
common. In contrast, the movement of silica-rich (rhyolitic) lava is
Use Visuals L1
often too slow to be visible. When fluid basaltic lavas harden, they com-
Figure 2 Have students look closely at monly form a relatively smooth skin that wrinkles as the still-molten
these photographs. Ask: How can you subsurface lava continues to move. These are known as pahoehoe
tell the aa flow is slow moving? (It is (pah HOH ee hoh ee) flows and resemble the twisted braids in ropes,
rough and jagged rather than smooth.) as shown in Figure 2. Another common type of basaltic lava called aa
Visual (AH ah) has a surface of rough, jagged blocks with dangerously sharp
edges and spiny projections.

Gases Magmas contain varied amounts of dissolved gases held in

the molten rock by confining pressure, just as carbon dioxide is held in
Observing Viscosity L2 soft drinks. As with soft drinks, as soon as the pressure is reduced, the
Purpose Students will observe fluids gases begin to escape. The gaseous portion of most magmas is only
that have different viscosities. about 1 to 6 percent of the total weight. The percentage may be small,
Materials 2 large beakers, hot plate, but the actual quantity of emitted gas can exceed thousands of tons
water, 2 large test tubes, test-tube each day. Samples taken during a Hawaiian eruption consisted of about
clamp, ice, corn syrup 70 percent water vapor, 15 percent carbon dioxide, 5 percent nitrogen,
5 percent sulfur, and lesser amounts of chlorine, hydrogen, and argon.
Procedure Pour corn syrup into the
Sulfur compounds are easily recognized because they smell like rotten
two large test tubes in advance. Put one
eggs and readily form sulfuric acid, a natural source of air pollution.
test tube into a large beaker filled with
The composition of volcanic gases is important because they have con-
ice. Put the other test tube into a large
tributed greatly to the gases that make up the atmosphere.
beaker half filled with water on a hot
plate. Heat the syrup in a hot-water bath
until it is very hot. Boiling the syrup is
not necessary. Slowly pour the contents
282 Chapter 10
of each test tube into another beaker
one at a time to demonstrate the nature
of fluids with differing viscosities.
Expected Outcome Students will
observe that the cold syrup is very
viscous and flows very slowly—similar
to silica-rich lava. The hot syrup is not
viscous and flows very fast—similar to
silica-poor lava.
Visual, Verbal

282 Chapter 10
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Types of Volcanoes
Pyroclastic Materials When basaltic lava is extruded, dissolved L1
gases propel blobs of lava to great heights. Some of this ejected material Build Reading Literacy
may land near the vent and build a cone-shaped structure. The wind Refer to p. 278D in this chapter, which
will carry smaller particles great distances. Viscous rhyolitic magmas are provides the guidelines for identifying
For: Links on volcanic eruptions main ideas and details.
highly charged with gases. As the gases expand, pulverized rock and lava
Visit: www.SciLinks.org
fragments are blown from the vent. Pyroclastic material is the name Identify Main Idea/Details Have
Web Code: cjn-3101
give to particles produced in volcanic eruptions. The fragments students read Types of Volcanoes on
ejected during eruptions range in size from very fine dust and volcanic pp. 283–286. Ask them to identify the
ash (less than 2 millimeters) to pieces that weigh several tons. main idea of each paragraph. Point out
Particles that range in size from small beads to walnuts (2–64 mil- that the main idea is usually within the
limeters) are called lapilli or more commonly cinders. Particles larger first or second sentence of a paragraph.
than 64 millimeters in diameter are called blocks when they are made Encourage students to include this
of hardened lava and bombs when they are ejected as glowing lava. exercise in the notes they use to study.
Because bombs are semimolten upon ejection, they often take on a Verbal
streamlined shape as they hurtle through the air.
Build Science Skills L2
What is a volcanic bomb? Interpreting Diagrams/
Photographs Have students study
Figure 3. Ask: Why do you think the
term parasitic cone is given to this
Types of Volcanoes feature in the diagram? (This cone does
Volcanic landforms come in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. Each not have its own lava source but gets its
structure has a unique eruptive history. The three main volcanic lava from another conduit, or pipe.)
types are shield volcanoes, cinder cones, and composite cones. Visual, Logical
Anatomy of a Volcano Volcanic activity often begins when a
fissure, or crack, develops in the crust as magma is forced toward the
surface. The gas-rich magma moves up this fissure, through a circular
pipe, ending at a vent, as shown in Figure 3. Repeated eruptions of lava
or pyroclastic material often separated by long inactive periods even-
tually build the mountain called a volcano. Located at the summit of
many volcanoes is a steep-walled depression called a crater.

Figure 3 Anatomy of a
Crater Vent “Typical” Volcano This
Lava Pyroclastic cross section shows a typical
material composite cone.
Interpreting Diagrams How
was the volcano in the diagram
formed?

Conduit Download a worksheet on volcanic

(pipe)
eruptions for students to complete,
and find additional teacher support
from NSTA SciLinks.
Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity 283

Answer to . . .
Figure 2 The lava in the aa lava flow
is more viscous.
Figure 3 The volcano was formed as
layers of pyroclastic material and lava
flows were built up around the vent.
a large streamlined
chunk of pyroclastic
material that is larger than 64 mm
in diameter

Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity 283

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Section 10.1 (continued) The form of a volcano is largely determined by the composition
of the magma. As you will see, fluid lavas tend to produce broad struc-
Integrate Physics L2 tures with gentle slopes. More viscous silica-rich lavas generate cones
with moderate to steep slopes.
Geothermal Energy Hot magma near
the surface of Earth can be beneficial.
Shield Volcanoes Shield volcanoes are produced by the accu-
Geothermal energy takes advantage of
mulation of fluid basaltic lavas. Shield volcanoes have the shape of a
Earth’s internal energy and uses it as an
broad, slightly domed structure that resembles a warrior’s shield, as
energy source. Have students research
shown in Figure 4. Most shield volcanoes have grown up from the
this renewable source of energy. Students
deep-ocean floor to form islands. Examples of shield volcanoes include
should prepare a short report about this
the Hawaiian Islands and Iceland.
natural energy source. The report should
include an illustration showing an Cinder Cones Ejected lava fragments the size of cinders, which
example of how geothermal energy harden in the air, build a cinder cone. These fragments range in size
can be used in a specific application.
from fine ash to bombs but consist mostly of lapilli, or cinders. Cinder
Verbal
cones are usually a product of relatively gas-rich basaltic magma.
L1 Although cinder cones are composed mostly of loose pyroclastic ma-
Use Visuals terial, they sometimes extrude lava.
Figure 4 Have students compare Cinder cones have a very simple shape as shown in Figure 5A. The
the photograph to the drawing. Ask: shape is determined by the steep-sided slope that loose pyroclastic
Why might photographs of shield material maintains as it comes to rest. Cinder cones are usually the
volcanoes make them look not as tall product of a single eruption that sometimes lasts only a few weeks and
as they really are? (Because shield rarely more than a few years. Once the eruption ends, the magma in the
volcanoes are so broad, they often give the pipe connecting the vent to the magma chamber solidifies, and the vol-
impression of being lower than they are.) cano never erupts again. Because of this short life span, cinder cones
How would you describe the viscosity are small, usually between 30 meters and 300 meters and rarely exceed
of the lava at a shield volcano? (low 700 meters in height.
Figure 4 Shield Volcanoes
viscosity) What is the origin of the Shield volcanoes are built mainly
other islands in the diagram? What do of fluid basaltic lava flows. They
contain only a small amount of
you think they would look like under
pyroclastic materials. These broad,
the sea level? (They are shield volcanoes, slightly domed structures are the
or parts of shield volcanoes. Beneath the largest volcanoes on Earth. An
example is Kilauea in Hawaii.
surface, the rocky formations likely flare
outward either as individual shield
volcanoes or as portions of a volcano
shared by one
or more of the other islands.)

Summit caldera
Flank eruption

Central vent
Magma chamber
t
Oceanic crus

284 Chapter 10

Facts and Figures

Parícutin is an active volcano in Mexico. It is The resulting fire, ash, and lava destroyed
one of the youngest volcanoes on Earth. On two villages. In one of the villages, a local
February 20, 1943, Parícutin began erupting church is still standing at the edge of the lava
from a fissure in a cornfield. By the end of the flow. The top of the church and the bell tower
first year, the cone had reached an elevation of are visible, but the lower portions of the
450 m. Volcanic eruptions finally ended in 1952. church are buried in lava.

284 Chapter 10
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Observing an
Pyroclastic material Crater Explosive Eruption L2
Purpose Students will observe the
explosive nature of gases trapped in
an enclosed container.
Materials 2-L soda bottle, rubber
Central vent filled stopper, white vinegar, baking soda,
A with rock fragments B paper towel, rubber band, thin bath
or kitchen towel, scissors
Cinder cones are found by the thousands all around Earth. Some, Figure 5 Cinder Cones
A A typical cinder cone has steep
Procedure Pour 150 mL of vinegar
like the one shown in Figure 5B, near Flagstaff, Arizona, are located in slopes of 30–40 degrees. B This into the empty soda bottle. For safety,
volcanic fields. This field consists of about 600 cones. Others form on photograph shows SP Crater, a fold the towel around the bottle. Secure
the sides of larger volcanoes. Mount Etna, for example, has dozens of cinder cone north of Flagstaff,
Arizona.
the towel at the neck of the bottle with
cinder cones dotting its flanks. Inferring What feature is a rubber band. Cut an 8-cm square
shown in the lower part of the piece of paper towel. Put about 5 mL of
Composite Cones Earth’s most beautiful and potentially dan- photograph?
baking soda in the center of the paper
gerous volcanoes are composite cones, or stratovolcanoes. Most are towel. Fold the paper towel around the
located in a relatively narrow zone that rims the Pacific Ocean, appro- baking soda to make a packet. Drop the
priately called the Ring of Fire. The Ring of Fire includes the large packet into the bottle. Put the stopper
cones of the Andes in South America and the Cascade Range of the into the bottle. Do not put the stopper
western United States and Canada. The Cascade Range includes Mount in too tight. Have everyone stand a safe
St. Helens, Mount Rainier, and Mount Garibaldi. The most active distance away from the bottle.
regions in the Ring of Fire are located along curved belts of volcanic
Expected Outcome Students will
islands next to the deep ocean trenches of the northern and western
observe the explosive forces that are
Pacific. This nearly continuous chain of volcanoes stretches from the created when trapped gases are released.
Aleutian Islands to Japan, the Philippines, and New Zealand. Point out to students that this is similar
A composite cone is a large, nearly symmetrical structure com- to gases trapped inside an active volcano.
posed of layers of both lava and pyroclastic deposits. For the most part, Figure 6 Profiles of Volcanic When enough force is built up, trapped
composite cones are the product of gas-rich magma having an Landforms A Profile of Mauna
Loa, Hawaii, the largest shield gases can blow the top off of the volcano.
andesitic composition. The silica-rich magmas typical of composite volcano in the Hawaiian chain. Gases, magma, and pyroclastic materials
cones generate viscous lavas that can only travel short distances. B Profile of Mount Rainier, then flow from the volcano through the
Composite cones may generate the most explosive eruptions that eject Washington, a large composite
cone. C Profile of Sunset Crater, new opening.
huge quantities of pyroclastic material. Compare the shape and height Arizona, a typical steep-sided Visual
of composite cones with other types of volcanoes in Figure 6. cinder cone.

Sea level

A Mauna Loa, Hawaii, a large shield volcano 0 10 20 km

4 km

B Mount Rainier, Washington, C Sunset Crater, Arizona,

a large composite cone a large cinder cone

Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity 285

Answer to . . .
Figure 5 a lava flow

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Section 10.1 (continued)

Integrate Social Studies L2
Mount Pelée Living in the shadow
of a composite cone can be particularly
dangerous. In 1902, Mount Pelée erupted
in a fiery pyroclastic flow of hot gases
infused with incandescent ash and
larger rock fragments. The most
destructive of pyroclastic flows, a nuée
ardente (burning cloud), destroyed the
port town of St. Pierre on the Caribbean
island of Martinique. The destruction
happened in moments. All of the 28,000
inhabitants of the town were killed with
the exception of one person who was
being held in a dungeon on the outskirts
Figure 7 Composite Cone Fujiyama in Japan and Mount Shasta in California show the clas-
of town. A few people that were on Mount Shasta, California, is one
ships in the harbor also were spared. of the largest composite cones in
sic shape you would expect of a composite cone, with its steep summit
Shortly after this eruption, scientists the Cascade Range. Shastina is and gently sloping flanks, as shown in Figure 7. About 50 such volca-
the smaller cone that formed on noes have erupted in the United States in the past 200 years. On a
arrived on the scene. They discovered the left flank of Mt. Shasta.
masonry walls almost one meter thick global scale, numerous destructive eruptions of composite cones have
knocked over like dominoes. Large trees occurred during the past few thousand years. A few of these have had
were uprooted, and cannons were torn a major influence on human civilization.
from their mounts. Have students use
Dangers from Composite Cones One of the most devas-
the Internet to research this volcanic
tating features associated with composite cones are pyroclastic flows.
eruption and prepare a short report
They consist of hot gases, glowing ash, and larger rock fragments. The
on it. Ask: What name is given to
eruptions that are similar to the one most destructive of these fiery flows are capable of racing down steep
that destroyed St. Pierre? (a peelean- volcanic slopes at speeds of nearly 200 kilometers per hour. Some
type eruption, which is named after Mount pyroclastic flows result when a powerful eruption blasts material out
Pelée) the side of a volcano. Usually they form from the collapse of tall erup-
Verbal tion columns that form over a volcano during an explosive event. Once
gravity overcomes the upward thrust provided by the escaping gases,
the material begins to fall. Massive amounts of hot fragments, ash, and
gases begin to race downhill under the influence of gravity.
Large composite cones may also generate mudflows called lahars.
These destructive mudflows occur when volcanic debris becomes satu-
rated with water and rapidly moves down steep volcanic slopes, often
following stream valleys. Some lahars are triggered when large volumes
of ice and snow melt during an eruption. Others are generated when
heavy rainfall saturates weathered volcanic deposits. Lahars can occur
even when a volcano is not erupting.

What is a lahar?

286 Chapter 10

Facts and Figures

The five deadliest volcanic eruptions known in 1902. There were 28,000 deaths, primarily
are (1) Tambora, Indonesia, which occurred the result of pyroclastic flows. (4) Nevado del
in 1815. There were 92,000 deaths, primarily Ruiz, Colombia, which occurred in 1985.
the result of starvation. (2) Krakatau, Indonesia, There were 25,000 deaths, primarily the result
which occurred in 1883. There were 36,000 of mudflows. (5) Unzen, Japan, which occurred
deaths, primarily the result of a tsunami. in 1792. There were 14,000 deaths, primarily
(3) Mount Pelée, Martinique, which occurred the result of a volcano collapse and a tsunami.

286 Chapter 10
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Other Volcanic
Caldera Formation Landforms
Use Visuals L1
Eruption of Figure 8 Have students study the
Mount Mazama Formation of Crater Lake and Wizard Island diagrams in Figure 8. Tell students that
the word caldera means “a cooking
pot.” Ask: Why is an eruption that
empties or partially empties the
magma chamber an important first
A D step for a caldera to form? (The
Partialy emptied magma chamber must be emptied or
magma chamber
partially emptied to create a void. Then
the volcano collapses into the newly
created void to create a deep depression
in the landscape.) Why is the name
B caldera a good description of this
type of landform? (When the volcano
Collapse of collapses, a large well is created that
Mount Mazama
resembles a cooking pot.)
Verbal, Logical
E
Use Community
C Resources L2
Many U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
offices have educational outreach staff
Other Volcanic Landforms Figure 8 Crater Lake in Oregon
occupies a caldera about and programs. Contact your regional
Calderas A caldera is a large depression in a volcano. Most 10 kilometers in diameter. About office and ask a USGS scientist to speak
7000 years ago, the summit of
calderas form in one of two ways: by the collapse of the top of a com- former Mount Mazama collapsed
to your class about plate tectonics and
posite volcano after an explosive eruption, or from the collapse of the following a violent eruption that volcanic activity.
top of a shield volcano after the magma chamber is drained. Crater partly emptied the magma Interpersonal
chamber. Rainwater then filled
Lake, Oregon, is located in a caldera. This caldera formed about 7000 the caldera. Later eruptions
years ago when a composite cone, Mount Mazama, violently erupted produced the cinder cone called
and collapsed, as shown in Figure 8. Wizard Island.

Necks and Pipes Most volcanoes are fed magma through

conduits, called pipes, connecting a magma chamber to the surface.
Volcanoes are always being weathered and eroded. Cinder cones are
easily eroded because they are made up of loose materials. When the
rock in the pipe is more resistant and remains standing above the sur-
rounding terrain after most of the cone has been eroded, the structure
is called a volcanic neck, as shown in Figure 9A on page 288.
The best-known volcanic pipes are the diamond-bearing pipes of
South Africa. The rocks filling these pipes formed at depths of at least
150 kilometers, where pressure is high enough to form diamonds. The
process of moving unaltered magma through 150 kilometers of solid
rock is unusual, resulting in the rarity of diamonds.

Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity 287

Answer to . . .
a mudflow down the
slope of a volcano

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Section 10.1 (continued)

Use Visuals L1 Lava
fountaining
Basaltic
Figure 9 Have students study Figure 9. lava flows
Ask: Infer why the volcanic neck is still
Fissure
in place while the surrounding terrain
has eroded away. (The rock in the
volcanic neck is more resistant to erosion
than the surrounding terrain.)
Verbal, Logical B
A
3 ASSESS
Figure 9 Other Volcanic
Evaluate Landforms A Ship Rock, New
Lava Plateaus You probably think
Understanding L2 Mexico, is a volcanic neck. Ship of volcanic eruptions as building a
Have students play a quiz game to
Rock consists of igneous rock that mountain from a central vent. But the
crystallized in the pipe of a
review the material in this section. Ask volcano that then was eroded
greatest volume of volcanic material is
each student to write three questions on away. B Lava erupting from a extruded from fissures. Rather than
fissure forms fluid lava flows building a cone, low-viscosity basaltic
three separate sheets of paper. Collect called flood basalts. C These dark-
the questions. Divide the class into two colored basalt flows are near C lava flows from these fissures, covering a
teams. To play the game, alternate Idaho Falls, Idaho. wide area, as shown in Figure 9B. The
giving a member of each team a extensive Columbia Plateau in the north-
question from the collected papers. western United States was formed this way. Here, numerous fissure
Give each team a point for each correct eruptions extruded very fluid basaltic lava, shown in Figure 9C.
response. The team with the most Successive flows, some 50 meters thick, buried the landscape, building
points wins the game. a lava plateau nearly 1.6 kilometers thick.

Reteach L1
Set aside any questions that are Section 10.1 Assessment
answered incorrectly from the quiz
game above. After the game, give each
team the stack of missed questions. Let
Reviewing Concepts 7. Calculating If a pyroclastic flow was
the entire team work together to give traveling 145 kilometers per hour, how long
1. What factors determine the type of
the correct response to the questions. volcanic eruption? would it take to reach a town 2.5 kilometers
from the volcano’s crater?
2. List the materials ejected from volcanoes.
3. Describe the three types of volcanoes.
4. What is a caldera?
Answers will vary, but should accurately
classify the volcano and give a clear Critical Thinking
description of the eruption. Summary Research a volcanic eruption.
5. Comparing and Contrasting Compare the Write a paragraph describing the eruption.
formation of a lava plateau with the formation Make sure to classify what type of volcano
of a cinder cone. erupted.
6. Applying Concepts What type of eruption
produces a viscous magma containing
53 percent silica and a gas content of
2 percent?

288 Chapter 10

Section 10.1 Assessment composed of layers of lava flows and pyroclas-

tic material from more explosive eruptions.
1. The type of volcanic eruption is determined 4. A caldera is a large, collapsed depression
by the magma composition, magma tempera- in a volcano.
ture, and amount of dissolved gases. 5. A lava plateau is formed by repeated erup-
2. The materials ejected from volcanoes tions from a long, narrow fissure that can
include lava, gases, and pyroclastic materials, build up to form a thick deposit of volcanic
such as ash, dust, cinders, volcanic blocks, rock over a large area. A cinder cone is a
and volcanic bombs. small volcanic cone that forms from cinders,
3. Cinder cones are small, steep cones, usually from a single eruption.
composed mainly of loose cinders. Shield 6. The eruption would most likely be explosive.
volcanoes are large, gently sloping volcanoes 7. The pyroclastic flow would reach the town
composed of layers of mainly quiet lava flows. in just over 1 minute (1.03 minutes).
288 Chapter 10 Composite cones are large, steep cones,
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Section 10.2
10.2 Intrusive Igneous Activity
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy 10.5 Classify intrusive igneous
How are intrusive igneous ◆ pluton Comparing and Contrasting After you features.
features classified? ◆ sill read the section, compare the types of
plutons by completing the table. 10.6 Describe the major intrusive
What are the major ◆ laccolith
intrusive igneous features?
igneous features.
◆ dike
What is the origin of ◆ batholith
Types of Plutons Description 10.7 Describe the origin of magma.
magma? ◆ geothermal Sill a. ?
gradient ?
Laccolith b.
◆ decompression Reading Focus
melting Dike c. ?

Batholith d. ?
Build Vocabulary L2
Word Parts List on the board the
following word parts and meanings:
lakkos, “reservoir”; lithos, “stone”;
A lthough volcanic eruptions are among the most violent and spec-
tacular events in nature, most magma cools deep within Earth. The
bathos, “depth.” Have students identify
these word parts in the vocabulary terms.
Discuss the terms’ meanings with
structures that result form the roots of mountain ranges and some of
students.
the most familiar features in the landscape.
Reading Strategy L2
Plutons a. pluton formed parallel with
The structures that result from the cooling and hardening of magma sedimentary rocks, commonly horizontal
at depth are called plutons. Because all plutons form beneath Earth’s b. similar to a sill, but forms a lens-shaped
surface, they can be studied only after uplift and erosion have exposed mass that pushes the overlying strata
them. Plutons occur in a great variety of sizes and shapes. Intrusive upward
igneous bodies, or plutons, are generally classified according to their c. pluton that cuts across the preexisting
shape, size, and relationship to the surrounding rock layers. rocks
d. largest intrusive igneous body with a
Sills and Laccoliths Sills and laccoliths are plutons that surface exposure of over 100 sq km
form when magma is intruded close to the surface. Sills and laccoliths
differ in shape and often differ in composition. A sill forms when
magma is injected along sedimentary bedding surfaces, parallel to the 2 INSTRUCT
bedding planes. Horizontal sills, like the one shown in Figure 10, are
the most common. Plutons
For a sill to form, the overlying sedimentary rock must be lifted to a Figure 10 Sills This dark, Use Visuals L1
horizontal band is a sill of basalt
height equal to the thickness of the sill. Although this is a not an easy task, that intruded into horizontal layers Figure 10 Have students study Figure
at shallow levels it often requires less energy than forcing the magma up of sedimentary rock in Salt River 10. Ask: Why do sills only form at
to the surface. Because of this, sills form only at shallow depths, where Canyon, Arizona.
Inferring How could you shallow depths? (The overlying sedimen-
the pressure exerted by the weight of overlying rock layers is low. As determine if a horizontal igneous tary rock must be lifted to a height equal
shown in Figure 11A on page 290, sills look like buried lava flows. rock layer was a lava flow or a sill? to the height of the sill, so the weight of
the rock cannot be more than the magma
can lift.) Why does the sill form below
Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity 289 the sedimentary rock instead of at the
surface? (because it requires less force to
raise the sedimentary rock than to force
the magma to the surface)
Verbal

Answer to . . .
Figure 10 The upper surface of a
lava flow would not show evidence of
contact with another rock layer above
it, while the upper surface of a sill
shows evidence that it was intruded
into preexisting layers of sedimentary
rocks. The sedimentary rock layers
above the sill could also show evidence
of heating and contact metamorphism.

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Section 10.2 (continued) Types of Igneous Plutons

Laccoliths are similar to sills because they
form when magma is intruded between sedi-
Build Reading Literacy L1 mentary layers close to the surface. However,
Cinder Composite the magma that generates laccoliths is more
Refer to p. 474D in Chapter 17, which A cones cones
provides guidelines for monitoring your viscous. This less-fluid magma collects as a
Fissure lens-shaped mass that pushes the overlying
understanding. eruption
strata upward. Most laccoliths are not much
Monitor Your Understanding Have wider than a few kilometers.
students read the passages Plutons and
Origin of Magma (pp. 289–292). When Compare and contrast
they reach the bottom of p. 289, have Magma sills and laccoliths.
them stop and write down the main chamber
ideas in the passages. Have them ask Implacement of magma
themselves, “Did I have any trouble Dikes Some plutons form when magma is
reading this passage? If so, why?” injected into fractures, cutting across preexist-
Then, have them come up with their Volcanic ing rock layers. Such plutons are called dikes,
B necks
own strategies to improve their as in Figure 11B. These sheetlike structures
Laccolith
understanding. Have students use this have thicknesses ranging from less than a cen-
Sills
strategy as they continue reading. Dike timeter to more than a kilometer. Most dikes,
Interpersonal, Verbal however, are a few meters thick and extend lat-
erally for no more than a few kilometers.
Integrate Social Studies L2 Batholith Some dikes radiate, like spokes on a wheel,
The Henry Mountains These Crystallization of igneous from an eroded volcanic neck. The movement
plutons and erosion of magma probably formed fissures in the vol-
mountains, located in southeastern
Utah, are largely composed of several canic cone from which the magma flowed to
laccoliths believed to be fed by a much form the dikes. Many dikes form when
Batholith
larger magma body nearby. The C magma from a large magma chamber invades
mountain range is named for Joseph fractures in the surrounding rocks.
Henry, an American scientist. Henry was
the first secretary of the Smithsonian Batholiths The largest intrusive igneous
Institution. Have students find the Henry bodies are batholiths. The Idaho batholith,
Batholith
Mountains on a map or an atlas. for example, covers an area of more than
Extensive uplift and 40,000 square kilometers and consists of many
Verbal erosion exposes batholith
individual plutons. Indirect evidence from
Figure 11 A This diagram shows the relationship between gravity and seismic studies indicates that
volcanism and intrusive igneous activity. B This view shows batholiths are also very thick, possibly extend-
the basic intrusive igneous structures, some of which have ing dozens of kilometers into the crust.
been exposed by erosion long after their formation. C After
millions of years of uplift and erosion, a batholith is
exposed at the surface.

290 Chapter 10

Customize for Inclusion Students

Learning Disabled Make concept maps cards with the names of plutons on one side
for each section and cover them with clear and a definition or example on the other.
contact paper. Then, cut the maps into puzzle Students also may have key concept cards
pieces. Provide students with the pieces and with an important word missing. For example,
have them put the puzzle together. After A ________ is a pluton formed when magma
students complete the puzzle, have them is injected along sedimentary bedding
make flashcards with concept connections and surfaces, parallel to the bedding planes. (sill)
added notes. For example, students may have

290 Chapter 10
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Origin of Magma
An intrusive igneous body
must have a surface exposure greater
than 100 square kilometers to be con-
sidered a batholith. Smaller plutons L2
are called stocks. Many stocks appear Some students may have the
to be portions of batholiths that are misconception that all mountains are
not yet fully exposed. Batholiths may volcanoes (either extinct, dormant, or
form the core of mountain ranges, as active). Explain to students that most
shown in Figure 12. In this case, uplift mountains are the result of crustal
and erosion have removed the sur- deformation. Mountain building is
rounding rock, exposing the batholith. discussed in the next chapter. Ask: What
clues could scientists use to determine
Origin of Magma if a mountain is the result of volcanic
The origin of magma has been contro- activity? (Scientists could look for signs of
versial in geology for a long time. Based volcanic activity, such as the presence of
on available scientific evidence, Earth’s igneous rock or plutons.)
crust and mantle are composed primarily of solid, not molten, rock. Figure 12 Batholiths Mount Verbal
Whitney in California makes up
Although the outer core is a fluid, its iron-rich material is very dense just a tiny portion of the Sierra
and stays deep within Earth. What is the source of magma that pro- Nevada batholith, a huge Build Science Skills L2
duces igneous activity? Geologists conclude that magma structure that extends for
approximately 400 kilometers.
Observing Friction
originates when essentially solid rock, located in the crust and upper and Heat Gather two
mantle, partially melts. The most obvious way to generate magma flat rocks. Have
from solid rock is to raise the temperature above the level at which students feel the
the rock begins to melt. temperature of the rocks before the
following activity begins. If an infrared
Role of Heat What source of heat is sufficient to melt rock? thermometer is available, take the
Workers in underground mines know that temperatures get higher as temperature of the rocks. Simulate the
they go deeper. The rate of temperature change averages between 20°C motion of two plates at a subduction
and 30°C per kilometer in the upper crust. This change in temperature zone by rubbing and grinding two flat
with depth is known as the geothermal gradient. Estimates indicate rocks together. After a few minutes, feel
that the temperature at a depth of 100 kilometers ranges between the rocks again or take the temperature
1400°C and 1600°C. At these high temperatures, rocks in the lower crust of the rocks with the infrared thermo-
and upper mantle are near, but not quite at their melting point tem- meter. Students will observe a temp-
peratures. So they are very hot but still essentially solid. erature increase in rocks due to the
There are several ways that enough additional heat can be gener- friction between the two rocks. This is
ated within the crust or upper mantle to produce some magma. First, similar to the activity that occurs at a
at subduction zones, friction generates heat as huge slabs of crust slide subduction zone. However, the rocks at
past each other. Second, crustal rocks are heated as they descend into a subduction zone are much larger and
the mantle during subduction. Third, hotter mantle rocks can rise and are forced together with a great deal of
intrude crustal rocks. All of these processes only form relatively small force, resulting in a great deal of friction
amounts of magma. As you’ll see, the vast bulk of magma forms with- and heat. Friction is not a factor in the
out an additional heat source. melting of magma beneath subduction
zones.
What is a geothermal gradient? Kinesthetic, Logical

Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity 291

Facts and Figures

American geologist Ferdinand Vandiveer was placed in charge of the newly established
Hayden lived from 1829 to 1887. Hayden U.S. Geological and Geographical Survey of Answer to . . .
explored and documented information about the Territories. This department was the
the American West for over 30 years. The precursor of the U.S. Geological Survey, which Both sills and laccoliths
“Hayden surveys” provided scientific is now part of the United States Department are plutons formed by
information on the geology, botany, and of the Interior. magma intrusions close to the surface,
zoology of the American West. In 1867, he but they differ in shape and usually
differ in composition.
the change in tempera-
ture with depth

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Section 10.2 (continued) Role of Pressure If temperature were the only

factor that determined whether or not rock melts,
Integrate Physics L2 Earth would be a molten ball covered with a thin,
Kinetic Theory and Pressure The solid outer shell. This is not the case because pres-
kinetic theory can help students visualize sure also increases with depth. Melting, which causes
the role that pressure plays in the an increase in volume, occurs at higher temperatures
melting of rock. Have students recall at depth because of greater confining pressure. In
that the particles in a solid are closely this way, an increase in confining pressure causes an
packed and are bonded to the particles increase in the rock’s melting temperature. The
surrounding them. When a substance is opposite is also true. Reducing confining pressure
heated or gains thermal energy, the lowers a rock’s melting temperature. When confining
Figure 13 Basaltic Magma at
kinetic energy of the individual particles the Surface Lava extruded along
pressure drops enough, decompression melting is triggered. This
increases. Have students recall that the East Rift Zone, Kilauea, process generates magma beneath Hawaii where plumes of hot rock
Hawaii. melt as they rise toward the surface.
temperature is the average kinetic
Observing Does this lava appear
energy of the individual particles in a to have a high viscosity or a low
substance. A substance melts when the viscosity? Explain. Role of Water Another important factor affecting the melting
particles have enough kinetic energy temperature of rock is its water content. Water causes rock to melt at
to overcome the bonds between the lower temperatures. Because of this, “wet” rock buried at depth has a
particles in a solid. If a substance is much lower melting temperature than does “dry” rock of the same
under pressure, the particles must gain composition and under the same pressure. Laboratory studies have
more thermal energy to overcome the shown that the melting point of basalt can be lowered by up to 100°C
bonds between the particles and the by adding only 0.1 percent water. In addition to a rock’s composition,
force (pressure) holding the particles in its temperature, depth (confining pressure), and water content deter-
place. Therefore, the substance, in this mine if it is a solid or liquid.
case the rock, must absorb more thermal In summary, magma can be formed in three ways. First, heat may
energy to overcome the additional be added when a magma body from a deeper source intrudes and
force. This gives the substance a higher melts crustal rock. Second, a decrease in pressure (without the addition
melting temperature. Have students of heat) can result in decompression melting. Third, water can lower
explain why reducing confining pressure the melting temperature of mantle rock enough to form magma.
lowers a rock’s melting temperature.
(The particles no longer have to overcome
the additional force.) Section 10.2 Assessment
Verbal, Logical

Reviewing Concepts 6. Relating Cause and Effect What effect

3 ASSESS 1. How are intrusive features classified? does a decrease in confining pressure have on
the melting temperature of rocks in the upper
Evaluate 2. List the major intrusive igneous bodies. mantle?
Understanding L2 3. What are the three major ways that
Have students write three review magma forms?
questions from the chapter. Then have 4. What is a pluton?
students work with a partner to ask each
Critical Thinking Convection Currents Recall what you
other their questions. learned about convection currents in
5. Comparing and Contrasting Describe the
difference between a sill and a dike. Chapter 9. Explain how convection cur-
Reteach L1 rents could affect the depth at which
molten rocks are found.
Use Figure 11 to review the different
types of igneous plutons.

292 Chapter 10

Sample answer: Convection currents

within the mantle bring hot mantle
material closer to the surface. 4. the structure that results from the cooling
Section 10.2 Assessment
and hardening of magma at depth
1. Intrusive features are classified by their 5. A sill is a pluton that forms when magma is
shape, size, and relationship to the surround- injected along bedding surfaces and parallel to
ing rock layers. the bedding planes. A dike is a pluton that
2. batholiths, laccoliths, sills, and dikes forms when magma is injected into fractures,
3. Magma forms by (1) heat being added to cutting across preexisting rock layers.
Answer to . . . crustal rocks when hotter, deeper mantle 6. A decrease in confining pressure will
rocks rise into the crust; (2) by a decrease in decrease the melting temperature, causing
Figure 13 It appears to have a low pressure without an increase in temperature; decompression melting to occur.
viscosity because it is flowing relatively (3) by the addition of water, which can lower
easily from a fissure. the melting point enough to form magma.

292 Chapter 10
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Section 10.3
10.3 Plate Tectonics and
Igneous Activity
1 FOCUS
Section Objectives
10.8 Explain the relationship
Key Concepts Vocabulary Reading Strategy between plate tectonics
What is the relationship ◆ intraplate Outlining After you read, make an outline of
and volcanism.
between plate boundaries volcanism the most important ideas in the section. 10.9 Explain where intraplate
and igneous activity? volcanism occurs.
Where does intraplate I. Plate Tectonics and Igneous Activity
volcanism occur? A. Convergent Plate Boundaries
1. ?
2. ? Reading Focus

Build Vocabulary L2
Definitions Have students write a

M ore than 800 active volcanoes have been identified worldwide.

Most of them are located along the margins of the ocean basins, mainly
definition for continental volcanic arc and
intraplate volcanism in their own words.
After students read the section, ask them
within the circum-Pacific belt known as the Ring of Fire. A second to draw a diagram that illustrates the
group of volcanoes is found in the deep-ocean basins, including on definitions.
Hawaii and Iceland. A third group includes volcanic structures that are
irregularly distributed in the interiors of the continents. Until the late Figure 14 Convergent Reading Strategy L2
Boundary Volcano Mount St.
1960s, geologists had no explanation for the distribution of volcanoes. Helens emitting volcanic ash on 1. Ocean-Ocean
With the development of the theory of plate tectonics, the picture July 22, 1980, two months after 2. Ocean-Continent
became clearer. the huge May eruption. Mount St.
Helens is located at a convergent
B. Divergent Boundaries
boundary between the Juan de C. Intraplate Igneous Activity
Convergent Plate Boundaries Fuca plate and the North
American plate.
The basic connection between plate tectonics 2 INSTRUCT
and volcanism is that plate motions provide the
mechanisms by which mantle rocks melt to gen- Convergent Plate
erate magma. At convergent plate boundaries, slabs
of oceanic crust are pushed down into the mantle. Boundaries
As a slab sinks deeper into the mantle, the increase Build Science Skills L2
in temperature and pressure drives water from the Interpreting Diagrams/
oceanic crust. Once the sinking slab reaches a depth Photographs In the caption for
of about 100 to 150 kilometers, the fluids reduce the Figure 14, it states that Mount St.
melting point of hot mantle rock enough for melt- Helens is located on the convergent
ing to begin. The magma formed slowly migrates boundary of the Juan de Fuca plate
upward forming volcanoes such as Mount St. and the North American plate. Have
Helens shown here. As you read about the relation- students find these plates on a map of
ships between plate tectonics and igneous activity, Earth’s plates. Ask: How do the sizes of
refer to Figure 17 on pages 296–297, which sum- the two plates compare? (The Juan de
marizes the relationships. Fuca plate is much smaller than the
North American plate.) Which plate is
Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity 293
subducting? (the Juan de Fuca plate)
Verbal

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Section 10.3 (continued)

Major Volcanoes
Divergent Plate Figure 15 Bezymianny
Pavlof
Shishaldin
Hekla
Laki
Surtsey
Boundaries Location Note the Fujiyama Katmai Mt. St. Helens Vesuvius
(“Valley of Santorini
concentration of volcanoes 10,000 Smokes”)
Mt. Unzen
encircling the Pacific basin, Kilauea Popocatepetl
Pinatubo Canary Is. Etna
Mariana Is.
known as the Ring of Fire. Mt. Mayon Pelée
Mauna Loa Parícutin
Inferring How are the
Observing Plate volcanoes in the middle of the
Galapagos Is. Nevado del Ruiz
Movement L2 Krakatoa Cotopaxi Misti Kilimanjaro
Atlantic Ocean related to a Tambora Tonga Is.
Purpose Students will observe plate boundary?
Easter Is.
convergent plate movements.
South Sandwich Is.
Materials 9 student textbooks,
Deception Is.
2 pieces of poster board, thin cardboard
or 1-cm stack of notebook paper
Procedure Stack eight textbooks in Ocean-Ocean Volcanism at a convergent plate where one oceanic
two equal stacks. Leave about 5 cm slab descends beneath another results in the formation of a chain of
between the textbook stacks. The volcanoes on the ocean floor. Eventually, these volcanic structures grow
remaining textbook will represent a large enough to rise above the surface and are called volcanic island
continental crustal plate. The poster arcs. Several volcanic island arcs border the Pacific basin, including the
board will represent the subducting Aleutians.
oceanic lithosphere. Give the poster
board a slight curve so that it will Ocean-Continent Volcanism associated with convergent plate
subduct downward. Place the textbook boundaries may also develop where slabs of oceanic lithosphere are
on one of the stacks and the poster subducted under continental lithosphere to produce a continental vol-
board on the other stack. Ask: What do canic arc. The mechanisms are basically the same as those at island
you predict will happen when these arcs. The major difference is that continental crust is much thicker and
two plates collide? (The less rigid plate is composed of rocks with a higher silica content than oceanic crust.
will subduct under the rigid plate.) Start As the silica-rich crustal rocks melt, the magma may change compo-
moving the “plates” toward each other. sition as it rises through continental crust. The volcanoes of the Andes
The oceanic lithosphere should subduct Mountains along the western edge of South America are an example of
under the continental plate. Repeat this a continental volcanic arc, as shown in Figure 15.
procedure using two pieces of poster
board. Before moving the plates together, Divergent Plate Boundaries
ask: What do you predict will happen Most magma is produced along the oceanic ridges during seafloor
when these two plates collide? (The spreading. Below the ridge axis where the plates are being pulled apart,
two slabs of crust will form a trench as the solid yet mobile mantle rises upward to fill in the rift where the
For: Links on predicting volcanic
they descend into the mantle.) One piece activity plates have separated. As rock rises, confining pressure decreases. The
of poster board needs to be curved so it Visit: www.SciLinks.org rock undergoes decompression melting, producing large amounts of
will form a trench as it subducts. Web Code: cjn-3103
magma. This newly formed basaltic magma is less dense than the
Expected Outcomes Students will mantle rock from which it was formed, so it buoyantly rises.
observe how the oceanic lithosphere Partial melting of mantle rock at spreading centers produces
subducts under the crustal plate and basaltic magma. Although most spreading centers are located along
how two oceanic plates form a trench. the axis of an oceanic ridge, some are not. The East African Rift in
Visual, Kinesthetic Africa is a site where continental crust is being rifted apart.

294 Chapter 10

Answer
Inferring They occur at divergent
boundaries for continental plates and at Customize for English Language Learners
ocean ridges for oceanic plates.
Select and copy an appropriate paragraph leave blanks for convergent in the second
from one of the sections, such as the last sentence of this paragraph, mantle in the third
paragraph on p. 293. Leave the first and last sentence, and the last use of melting in the
sentences intact, since they are usually the fourth sentence. Have students read the
introductory and concluding sentences. For paragraph and fill in the blanks with the
the sentences in the middle, remove key words appropriate words.
and replace them with a blank. For example,
Download a worksheet on volcanic
activity for students to complete,
and find additional teacher support
from NSTA SciLinks.

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Intraplate Igneous
Intraplate Igneous Activity Activity
Kilauea is Earth’s most active volcano, but it is in the middle of L1
the Pacific plate, thousands of kilometers from a plate bound-
Build Reading Literacy
ary. Intraplate volcanism occurs within a plate, not at a plate Refer to p. 186D in Chapter 7, which
boundary. Another site of intraplate volcanism is Yellowstone provides the guidelines for relating text
National Park. and visuals.
Most intraplate volcanism occurs where a mass of Relate Text and Visuals Have
hotter than normal mantle material called a mantle plume students compare the drawings of the
rises toward the surface. Most mantle plumes appear to form plates and volcanic activity in Figures 15
deep within Earth at the core-mantle boundary. These plumes and 16 to the text explanations in this
of hot mantle rock rise toward the surface in a way similar to the section.
blobs that form within a lava lamp. Once the plume nears the Visual
top of the mantle, decompression melting forms basaltic
magma. The result may be a small volcanic region a few hun- 3 ASSESS
dred kilometers across called a hot spot. More than 40 hot spots
have been identified, and most have lasted for millions of years. Evaluate
Understanding L2
By measuring the heat flow at hot spots, geologists found that
Figure 16 Intraplate Volcano Have students create a ten-question
the mantle beneath some hot spots may be 100–150°C hotter
An eruption of Hawaii’s Kilauea
than normal. volcano. The Hawaiian hot spot
crossword puzzle or word scramble
The volcanic activity on the island of Hawaii, shown in Figure 16, activity is currently centered using the concepts from this section.
beneath Kilauea and is an Have students exchange papers and
is the result of a hot spot. Where a mantle plume has persisted for long example of intraplate volcanic
periods of time, a chain of volcanoes may form as the overlying plate activity.
work the puzzles.
moves over it. Mantle plumes are also thought to cause the vast out-
pourings of lava that create large lava plateaus such as the Columbia Reteach L1
Plateau in the northwestern United States. Use Figure 15 to reteach the concepts in
this section.

Magma can form by decompression

melting if the rock begins to rise and the
Section 10.3 Assessment pressure decreases. This causes the
temperature at which melting occurs to
decrease. If water is added, the
Reviewing Concepts 6. Predicting Would it be more likely for a temperature at which the rock melts
1. How are the locations of volcanoes related
major explosive eruption to occur at an ocean decreases. A body of hotter rock may
ridge or at a convergent ocean-continental rise and trigger melting in the crust.
to plate boundaries?
boundary? Explain your answer.
2. What causes intraplate volcanism?
3. Where is most of the magma produced on
Earth on a yearly basis?
4. What is the Ring of Fire?
Explanatory Paragraph Write a para-
Critical Thinking graph to explain how magma is formed in
5. Comparing and Contrasting What are the the crust without adding heat.
differences between volcanic island arcs and
continental volcanic arcs?

Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity 295

Section 10.3 Assessment 3. Most of the magma produced each year plate beneath a continental plate. The
on Earth is produced at ocean ridges during magma produced is more silica rich than
1. Most volcanoes are located at either diver- seafloor spreading. that formed at a volcanic island arc.
gent or convergent plate boundaries, where 4. The Ring of Fire is a chain of volcanoes 6. An explosive eruption would be more likely
plate motions provide the mechanisms to that are located around the edge of the at a convergent ocean-continental boundary,
form magma. Pacific Basin. because the magma produced is more silica
2. Intraplate volcanism is caused by hot 5. A volcanic island arc is formed when two rich, more viscous, and contains more water.
mantle plumes rising up from the core- oceanic plates converge and form a subduc-
mantle boundary, causing decompression tion zone. The magma produced is of
melting and forming small areas of volcanic basaltic composition. A continental volcanic
activity on the surface. arc is formed by subduction of an ocean

Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity 295

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Three Zones of Volcanism

Convergent plate
volcanism Volcanic Trench
island arc
Answer
Drawing Conclusions Volcanoes Oceanic
Marginal crust
occur on both continental and oceanic sea
Continental
plates in all the zones—convergent plate crust
ere
sph
volcanism, divergent plate volcanism, ic l
itho
Mantle rock a n
and intraplate volcanism. melts oc
e
ng
Water driven u c ti
bd
from plate Su
Asthenosphere

Oceanic Hot spot

crust Hawaii

Decompression
melting

Rising
mantle
plume

Intraplate volcanism
Continental
volcanic arc

Figure 17 Trench
Oceanic
Regions The three crust
zones of volcanism are
Continental
convergent plate volcanism, Subducting crust
oc
divergent plate volcanism, ea
n ic
and intraplate volcanism. lit h
os
ph Mantle rock
Two of these zones are ere
melts
plate boundaries, and the
Water driven Convergent plate
third is the interior area of from plate volcanism
the plates.
Drawing Conclusions In
which zones do volcanoes
occur on both continental
plates and oceanic plates?

296 Chapter 10

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Divergent plate
volcanism

Oceanic
crust

Magma
chamber

Decompression
Asthenosphere melting

Intraplate volcanism

Flood
basalts
Hot spot
Continental
crust

Decompression
melting

Rising
mantle
plume

Rift
valley

Continental
crust

Decompression
melting Divergent
plate volcanism

Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity 297

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How the Earth Works

Effects of Volcanoes
1 FOCUS A volcano is an opening in the Earth’s crust from which lava,
or molten rock, escapes to the surface. The impact of powerful
Objectives volcanic eruptions is both immediate and long-lasting. Burning
rocks are flung out in all directions. Huge clouds of scorching
In this feature, students will
ash and fiery gases billow high into the sky. As a result, the land-
• explain what a volcano is. scape and even the weather can be changed. Soil may become
• describe the immediate effects of a more fertile when enriched with nutrients from volcanic ash.
volcanic eruption. Islands, mountains, and other landforms may be created from
• identify some long-term effects of a the material emitted by volcanoes.
volcanic eruption.
The Giant’s Causeway
in Northern Ireland
DRAMATIC ROCK FORMATIONS
Lava flows can form amazing rock forma-
Reading Focus tions. Columnar rocks are volcanic rocks
that split into columns as the lava cools.
The Devil’s Tower in Wyoming (below) is
Build Vocabulary L2 one example of a columnar rock. Another
example is the Giant’s Causeway (left). This
Classify Terms Draw a four-column rock formation in Northern Ireland is the
result of a lava flow that erupted millions
chart on the board. Label the columns of years ago.
as follows: Volcanic Effect, Definition of
Effect, Immediate or Long-Term Effect, and
Local or Worldwide Effect. Have students The Devil’s Tower
use information on these two pages to in Wyoming

complete the chart.

2 INSTRUCT DUST AND GAS

Explosive volcanoes,
Use Visuals L2 like Mount St. Helens
in Washington (right),
spit clouds of ash and
Ask students to read the captions on this fumes into the sky.
page and the next. Have them make a The debris can com-
pletely cover human
list of places in the United States and in communities.
ERUPTING LAVA Another hazard
other countries where volcanoes are or Red-hot lava is hurled into the air during an eruption of a volcano is that volcanic
have been active. on Stromboli, an island off the coast of southern Italy. The Stromboli gases may be
volcano is one of only a few volcanoes to display continuous eruptive deadly
Visual activity over a period of more than a few years. poisons.

Bellringer L2
Have students list ten effects of a
volcanic eruption. Examples may include
clouds of smoke, lava trails, and a
scorched landscape.
Logical

298 Chapter 10

Facts and Figures

The ancient Roman city of Pompeii was have excavated materials that provide a
encased in lava when Mount Vesuvius erupted detailed picture of life in a busy Roman
in A.D. 79. The volcano destroyed the city, and port town. In addition to houses, bakeries,
most people were buried in ash and lava. Rain restaurants, and factories, scholars have
hardened the ash, forming perfect molds of uncovered inscriptions on buildings, tombs,
people and preserving articles of everyday life. and statues. Even the graffiti on Pompeii’s
Pompeii’s ruins were first discovered in the late walls gives us clues about the values and
sixteenth century. Since 1748, archaeologists concerns of this ancient society.

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AFFECTING THE WORLD’S WEATHER

Powerful eruptions emit gas and dust that can rise high into the atmosphere and
travel around the world. Volcanic material can reduce average temperatures in
3 ASSESS
parts of the world by filtering out some of the sunlight that warms the Earth.
Evaluate
Understanding L2
Have students review the information in
the charts they have created. Ask: What
are some positive effects of volcanoes?
(They create islands, fertilize soil, and
create beautiful rock formations.)

Reteach L1
A satellite image shows the global spread of emissions from the 1991
eruptions of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines.
Have students compare and contrast the
formation and eruptions of Mount St.
Kauai Maui
Oahu Hawaii Helens shown in the photograph with
A STRING OF ISLANDS
The Hawaiian Islands are the tops of Volcanic pipe
the Hawaiian Islands shown in the
volcanic mountains. They have developed diagram.
over millions of years as a plume, or a very
hot spot in the Earth’s mantle, erupted great
amounts of lava. As the Pacific Plate moves Stationary
over the stationary plume, it carries older plume
islands in the chain to the northwest. Today,
active volcanoes are found on the island of
Hawaii and the newly forming island of Loihi. Magma
chamber
Plate moving across plume

A CRATER LAKE
A crater lake is a body of water
that occupies a bowl-shaped
depression around the opening
of an extinct or dormant volcano.
An eruption can hurl the water
out of the crater. The water can
then mix with hot rock and
debris and race downhill in a
deadly mudslide.

A crater lake in Iceland

LIFE RETURNS TO THE LAVA
In time, plant life grows on lava. Lichen and moss often
appear first. Grass and larger plants slowly follow. The upper
surface of the rock is gradually weathered, and the roots of
plants help break down the rock to form soil. After many
generations, the land may become lush and fertile again.
A few lichens find a
home on the lava.

1. Key Terms Define (a) volcano, 4. Natural Hazards What are some of the
(b) lava, (c) columnar rock, (d) plume, ways in which a volcanic eruption can
(e) crater lake. devastate nearby human settlements?
2. Natural Resources How can soil 5. Critical Thinking Sequencing
become more fertile as a result of Study the diagram of the Hawaiian
volcanic eruptions? Islands and the caption that accompa-
3. Environmental Change (a) How can nies it. (a) Which island on the diagram
volcanic activity create new landforms? is probably the oldest? Why do you
(b) How can explosive volcanic erup- think so? (b) What will happen to the Plants take root in the
tions affect the atmosphere and weath- volcanoes on the island of Hawaii as a beginnings of topsoil.
er around the world? result of plate movement?
299

Assessment (b) Gas and dust from an eruption may rise

high into the atmosphere, travel around the
1. (a) an opening in Earth’s crust from which world, and filter out sunlight.
lava escapes to the surface; (b) molten rock; 4. Volcanic debris can completely cover
(c) volcanic rocks that split into columns as human communities, and volcanic gases are
the lava cools; (d) a very hot spot in Earth’s deadly poisons.
mantle; (e) a body of water that occupies a 5. (a) Kauai is the oldest island because of
bowl-shaped depression around the opening the direction in which the plate is moving.
of an extinct or dormant volcano (b) The volcanoes on the island of Hawaii will
2. Soil becomes enriched with nutrients from become extinct as plate movement causes the
volcanic ash. island to move away from the stationary
3. (a) Underwater plumes erupt great amounts plume.
of lava over millions of years, building the
tops of underwater volcanic mountains. Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity 299