REVIEWER FOR ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 3.

Neurotransmi ers
• secreted by neurons that ac vate an adjacent
Endocrine System
cell, whether it is another neuron, a muscle cell,
• composed of endocrine glands and specialized
or a glandular cell
endocrine cells located throughout the body
• Produced by neurons; secreted into a synap c
• Endocrine glands secrete very small amounts of
cle by presynap c nerve terminals; travels
chemical messengers called hormones
short distances; influences postsynap c cells
• Hormones s mulate a specific response
• secreted into a synap c cle
• derived from the Greek words endo, meaning
• (acetylcholine, epinephrine)
“within,” and krino, “to secrete”
4. Endocrine chemical messengers
Func ons of the Endocrine System
• secreted into the bloodstream by certain glands
1. Metabolism
and cells
2. Control of food intake & diges on
• Secreted into the blood by specialized cells;
3. Tissue development
travels some distance to target ssues; results in
4. Ion regula on
coordinated regula on of cell func on
5. Water balance
• affect cells that are distant from their source
6. Heart rate and BP regula on
(thyroid hormones, growth hormone, insulin)
7. Control of blood glucose & other nutrients
8. Control of reproduc ve func ons
Characteris cs of Endocrine System
9. Uterine contrac ons & milk release
1.Endocrine glands
10. Immune system regula on
• the term endocrine is derived from the Greek
words endo, meaning within, and krino, to
Chemical Messengers
secrete.
• principal means by which coordina on occurs in
• secrete minute amounts of chemical messengers
the body
called hormones into the bloodstream, rather
• allow cells to communicate with each other
than into a duct
2. Exocrine glands
Classes of Chemical Messengers
• Have ducts that carry their secre ons to the
1. Autocrine chemical messengers
outside of the body, or into a hollow organ, such
• s mulates the cell that originally secreted it
as the stomach or intes nes.
• Secreted by cells in a local area; influences the
• saliva, sweat, breast milk, and diges ve enzyme
ac vity of the same cell from which it was
secreted
HORMONES
• e.g. Eicosanoids -(prostaglandins,
• The word hormone is derived from the Greek
thromboxanes, prostacyclins, leukotrienes)
word hormon, which means to set into mo on.
• chemical messengers that are secreted into the
2. Paracrine chemical messengers
blood, travels to a distant target ssue, and binds
• act locally on nearby cells
to specific receptors to produce a coordinated
• secreted by one cell type into the extracellular
set of events in that target ssue.
fluid and affect surrounding cells of a different
• Two chemical categories: lipid-soluble hormones
type.
& water-soluble hormones
• Produced by a wide variety of ssues and
secreted into extracellular fluid; has a localized
Lipid-soluble hormones
effect on other ssues
• Non polar, and include steroid hormones, thyroid
• e.g. somatosta n, histamine, eicosanoids
hormones, and fa y acid deriva ve hormones,
• Somatosta n - inhibits insulin secre on
such as certain eicosanoids.
• Histamine – released during allergic reac ons;
• (LH, FSH, androgens)
s mulates vasodila on in nearby blood vessels.
Water-soluble hormones 1.Humoral s muli
• polar molecules; include protein hormones, • Affected by chemicals circula ng in the blood
pep de hormones, and most amino acid • humoral s mula on is exhibited by hormones
deriva ve hormones. that are sensi ve to circula ng blood levels of
• (Growth hormone, an diure c hormone, certain molecules, such as glucose, calcium or
prolac n) sodium
2.Neural s muli
Transport of Lipid-soluble hormones • cause hormone secre on in direct response to
• lipid-soluble hormones travel in the bloodstream ac on poten als in neurons
a ached to binding proteins • e.g. in response to s muli, such as stress or
• the rate at which lipid-soluble hormones are exercise, the sympathe c division of the
degraded or eliminated from the circula on is autonomic nervous system s mulates the
greatly reduced adrenal gland to secrete epinephrine and
• lifespans range from a few days to as long as norepinephrine
several weeks. • Hormones from the hypothalamus that cause
• These hormones are removed from the circula on the release of other hormones are called
through a process called Conjuga on releasing hormones.
• water-soluble conjuga on molecules are usually 3. Hormonal s muli
sulfate or glucuronic acid • occurs when a hormone is secreted that, in
• Once the hormones are conjugated, the kidneys turn, s mulates the secre on of other
and liver can excrete them into the urine and bile hormones
at a greater rate. e.g. hormones from the anterior pituitary gland
• circulate freely in the blood. • Tropic hormones - hormones from the anterior
• dissolve directly into the blood without a aching pituitary that s mulate hormones from other
to a binding protein endocrine glands
• Proteases degrade protein and pep de hormones
in the circula on Regula on of Hormone Levels in the Blood
• the breakdown products are then excreted in the 2. Two processes regulate the overall blood levels of
urine. hormones: nega ve feedback and posi ve
feedback.
Pa erns of Hormone Secre on
1. Chronic hormone secre on Nega ve feedback
– rela vely constant blood levels of hormone • prevents further hormone secre on once a set
over long periods of me point is achieved
– E.g. Thyroid hormones • self-limi ng system
2. Acute hormone secre on • e.g. thyroid hormones inhibit the secre on of
– changes suddenly and irregularly their releasing hormone from the hypothalamus
– Circula ng levels differ with each s mulus
– E.g. Epinephrine Posi ve feedback
3. Episodic hormone secre on • a self-promo ng system whereby the
– fairly predictable intervals and concentra ons s mula on of hormone secre on increases over
– e.g. steroid reproduc ve hormones me
• self-propaga ng system
• e.g. prolonged estrogen s mula on promotes a
Control of Hormone Secre on release of the anterior pituitary hormone
• Three types of s muli regulate hormone release: responsible for s mula ng ovula on.
humoral, neural, and hormonal.
Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms of Ac on
• Hormones exert their ac ons by binding to Ac on of Nuclear Receptors
proteins called receptors.
• Receptor - a chemical group or molecule on the 1.Nuclear receptors have por ons that allow them to
cell surface or in the cell interior that has an bind to the DNA
affinity for a special chemical group or molecule. • The hormone-receptor complex ac vates genes,
• Receptor site - por on of each receptor molecule which in turn ac vate the DNA to produce mRNA.
where a hormone binds (SPECIFICITY - the shape • The mRNA increases the synthesis of certain
and chemical characteris cs of each receptor site proteins that produce the target cell’s response.
allow only a specific type of hormone to bind to it) 2. Nuclear receptors cannot respond immediately
because it takes me to produce the mRNA and the
How does this work? protein.
1. Hormones are secreted by endocrine glands
directly into bloodstream Membrane-Bound Receptors & Signal Amplifica on
2. Hormones travel to all parts of body 1.Membrane-bound receptors ac vate a cascade of
3. Hormones (key) bind to receptor site (lock) on events once the hormone binds.
target ssue
2. Some membrane-bound receptors are associated
4. Response occurs
with membrane proteins called G proteins. The α
subunit of the G protein can bind to ion channels and
How do hormones cause change?
cause them to open or change the rate of synthesis of
• Alter cell ac vity of target ssues by increasing or
intracellular mediators, such as cAMP.
decreasing cell’s normal processes
• Change permeability of cell membrane by 3. Second-messenger systems act rapidly because they
opening or closing ion channels act on already exis ng enzymes and produce an
• Synthesis of proteins amplifica on effect.
Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis)
• sella turcica of the sphenoid
• Known as the Master gland
• Two parts:
– Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
– Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)

Anterior Pituitary Posterior Pituitary

• (adenohypophysis) • neurohypophysis)
• made up of epithelial • an extension of the
cells derived from the brain & is composed
embryonic oral cavity of nerve cells
• Anatomy • Anatomy
– Pars distalis
– Pars intermedia – 3. Median eminence
lies between pars 4. Infundibulum
distalis & pars 5. Pars nervosa
Classes of Receptors nervosa of
1. Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear posterior pituitary
receptors located inside the nucleus of the gland
target cell. – Pars tuberalis
2. Water-soluble hormones bind to Anterior Pituitary Gland
membrane-bound receptors, which are integral 1.Growth Hormone (Somatotropin)
membrane proteins.
 • s mulates growth of bones, muscles, and organs • Target ssue: seminiferous tubules (testes)
by increasing gene expression • Func on: promotes sperm cell produc on
• Abnormali es: • Without LH & FSH → ovaries and testes
– Too much GH causes gigan sm decrease in size, no longer produce oocytes or
– Too li le GH causes pituitary dwarfism sperm cells, and no longer secrete hormones.
• A releasing hormone s mulates growth 6.Prolac n
hormone secre on, and an inhibi ng hormone • Func ons: helps promote development of the
inhibits its secre on. breast during pregnancy and s mulates the
• Most people’s have a rhythm of GH secre on, produc on of milk following pregnancy
with daily peak levels occurring deep sleep 7. Melanocyte-s mula ng Hormone (MSH)
2.Thyroid-S mula ng Hormone (TSH) • Target ssue: melanocytes in skin
• Target ssue: thyroid gland • Func on: increases melanin produc on
• Func ons: secre on of thyroid hormones (T3 & • MSH structure is similar to that of ACTH, &
T4) oversecre on of either hormone causes the skin
• Abnormali es to darken
– Too much TSH secre on → thyroid gland
enlarges & too much thyroid hormone Posterior Pituitary Gland
secre on
1.An diure c Hormone (ADH) / Vasopressin
– Too li le TSH secre on → thyroid gland
decreases in size & too li le thyroid • Func ons: increases water reabsorp on by
hormone secre on kidney tubules, reduces urine volume
3.Adrenocor cotropic Hormone (ACTH) • Produced by neural cells of the supraop c
• Target ssue: Adrenal cortex nuclei of the hypothalamus
• Func on: secre on of glucocor coid hormones, • Responds to changes in blood osmolality by
like cor sol (hydrocor sone) osmoreceptors
• ACTH molecules bind to melanocytes in the skin • also controlled by blood pressure changes
& increase skin pigmenta on ADH
• Darkening of skin is one symptom of too much • Osmolality of a solu on increases as the
ACTH secre on concentra on of solutes in the solu on
4.Gonadotropins increases
• regulate the growth, development, and func ons • blood osmolality increases – ADH secre on
of the gonads increases – increase water reabsorp on
• Luteinizing Hormone (LH) for females • Diabetes insipidus - the produc on of a
– Target ssue: ovaries large amount of dilute urine; caused by lack of
– Func on: promotes ovula on of oocytes ADH secre on; can lead to dehydra on and
and the secre on of the sex hormones thirst
estrogen & progesterone 2.Oxytocin
• LH for males / Inster al Cell-s mula ng -produced by neural cells of paraventricular nuclei of
Hormone (ICSH) the hypothalamus
– Target ssue: testes • Func ons: increases uterine contrac ons during
– Func on: support for sperm cell labor
produc on and promotes testosterone • facilitate the movement of sperm cells through
synthesis the uterus
5.Follicle-s mula ng Hormone (FSH) • increases milk let down from the breast
for females
• Target ssue: follicles in ovaries
• Func on: promotes follicle matura on and Thyroid Gland
estrogen secre on • One of largest endocrine glands
for males
 • made up of two lobes connected by a narrow band Parathyroid Gland
called the isthmus located on each side of the • located in the posterior wall of the thyroid gland
trachea • CHIEF CELLS - main cells/ main producers of
• FOLLICULAR CELLS - main cells / main producers of hormones
hormones • OXYPHIL CELLS - back-up cells/suppor ng cells
• PARAFOLLICULAR CELLS - suppor ng cells • secretes Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
• requires iodine to synthesize thyroid hormones – Target ssues: bones and kidneys
• secretes Thyroid Hormones – Func ons: causes blood calcium levels to
• Func ons: regulate metabolic rates; essen al for increase ; increases rate of bone
growth & development breakdown by osteoclasts

Thyroid Hormones: Adrenal Glands

T3 – triiodothyronine • Also called SUPRARENAL GLANDS
T4 - thyroxine or tetraiodothyronine • LOCATION: Superior part of each Kidney
Hypothyroidism - Deficiency of thyroid hormones • Adrenal medulla - inner layer
Hyperthyroidism - An elevated rate of thyroid hormone • Adrenal cortex - outer layer
secre on – Cor cal layers (GFR):
• Zona Glomerulosa (outer)
Abnormali es of Thyroid Gland • Zona Fasciculata (middle)
Hypothyroidism Hyperthyroidism • Zona Re cularis (inner)
– Decreased – Increased metabolism
metabolism – Weight loss, increased Adrenal Medulla
– Weight gain, reduced appe te, nervousness • secretes mostly Epinephrine/Adrenaline; and
appe te, fa gue – Higher temp. and some Norepinephrine ( both are referred to as
– Low temp. and pulse pulse fight-or-flight hormones)
– Dry, cold skin – Warm, flushed skin • secre on is in response to s mula on by the
– Myxedema in adults – Graves’ disease (leads
sympathe c nervous system
– Cre nism in infants to goiter)
• Target ssues: heart, blood vessels, liver, fat cells
• Func ons: prepares the body for vigorous
physical ac vity, released as part of fight or flight
response
Cre nism - characterized by mental retarda on, short
stature, and abnormally formed skeletal structures
Adrenal Cortex
Myxedema - the accumula on of fluid and other
• secretes three classes of steroid hormones:
molecules in the subcutaneous ssue
mineralocor coids (zona glomerulosa),
Graves disease
glucocor coids (zona fasciculata), and androgens
• a type of hyperthyroidism that results when the
(zona re cularis)
immune system produces abnormal proteins that
are similar in structure and func on to TSH.
Aldosterone
• o en accompanied by bulging of the eyes, a
– Mineralocor coid
condi on called exophthalmia
– Target ssues: kidneys; to lesser degree, intes ne
Calcitonin
and sweat glands
• secreted by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid
– Func ons: causes Na+ and H2O to be retained in
gland
the body; increases rate of potassium excre on
• secreted if the blood concentra on of Ca2+
becomes too high, and it causes Ca2+ levels to
decrease to their normal range
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)
• Func ons: decreases blood calcium levels;
• Low blood pressure -> release of renin from the
decreases rate of bone breakdown
kidney.
 • Renin acts as an enzyme causes angiotensinogen – a er a meal glucose levels are high and
to be converted to angiotensin I. insulin is secreted
• Angiotensin-conver ng enzyme causes – extra glucose is stored in form of glycogen
angiotensin I to be converted to angiotensin II.
• Angiotensin II causes smooth muscle in blood • Abnormali es
vessels to constrict; acts on the adrenal cortex to Diabetes mellitus
increase aldosterone – Causes: too li le insulin secre on (Type 1
• Both blood vessel constric on and increased DM) and insufficient numbers of insulin
blood volume help raise blood pressure. receptors on target cells or defec ve
receptors not normally responding to
Cor sol insulin (Type 2 DM)
– Glucocor coids – Symptoms: exaggerated appe te, excess
– Func ons: increases fat and protein breakdown; urine, dehydra on, thirst, fa gue
reduces inflammatory and immune responses – Type I: insulin dependent diabetes (regular
– Cor sone – a closely related steroid; o en given insulin injec ons required)
to reduce inflamma on and inflammatory – Type II: adult-onset or
responses that result from allergic reac ons or noninsulin-dependent diabetes
abnormal immune responses (combina on of exercise, diet and body
weight control)
Androgens Glucagon
– Func ons • Func on
• Males: s mulate the development of male – regulates blood glucose levels
sexual characteris cs. – Secreted when blood glucose levels are low
• Females: influence sex drive – Causes glycogen stored in the liver to be
– Abnormality: abnormally high secre on from converted into glucose
adrenal cortex → exaggerated male characteris cs
develop in both males and females. Somatosta n
– inhibits the secre on of insulin and glucagon
Pancreas – inhibits gastric tract ac vity
• LOCATION: SMALL INTESTINE
• Heterocrine gland Testes
– EXOCRINE GLAND - produc on of pancrea c • Male reproduc ve glands in the scrotum
enzymes by acinar cells. • produce sperm cells and secretes testosterone
– ENDOCRINE GLAND - consists of pancrea c • Testosterone
islets (islets of Langerhans) that secrete – Func ons
three hormones: insulin, glucagon, & • Responsible for the growth and
somatosta n development of the male reproduc ve
– Alpha cells – glucagon structures,
– beta cells – insulin • Secondary sexual characteris cs (muscle
– delta cells – somatosta n enlargement, the growth of body hair,
– (GA-BI-DS) voice changes, and the male sexual
Insulin drive)
• released from the beta cells primarily in response • Aids in sperm cell produc on
to the elevated blood glucose levels and increased
parasympathe c s mula on associated with
diges on of a meal
• Func ons: Ovaries
– regulates blood glucose levels • Estrogen and Progesterone
 – two main classes of sex hormones in females,
secreted by the ovaries; affec ng sexual Other Hormones
characteris cs Prostaglandins
– Func ons • some cause relaxa on of smooth muscle, such as
• Aid in uterine and mammary gland dila on of blood vessels.
development and func on, external • others cause contrac on of smooth muscle, such
genitalia structure, secondary sexual as contrac on of the uterus during the delivery of
characteris cs, sexual behavior, menstrual a baby.
cycle • because of their ac on on the uterus, these have
been used medically to ini ate abor on.
Thymus • also play a role in inflamma on, released by
• lies in the upper part of the thoracic cavity damaged ssues and cause blood vessel dila on,
• present at birth un l puberty but degenerates localized swelling, and pain.
through adulthood. Erythropoie n
• matura on site of T- cells • Secreted in response to reduced oxygen levels in
• most important early in life; if an infant is born the kidney.
without a thymus, the immune system does not • acts on bone marrow to increase the produc on
develop normally, and the body is less capable of of red blood cells
figh ng infec ons Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)
• Together with estrogen and progesterone,
Thymosin maintain pregnancy and s mulate breast
• Target ssues: immune system ssues development in pregnant women
• Func ons
– aids the development of white blood cells Effects of Aging on Endocrine System
called T cells. T cells help protect the body 1. Age-related changes include a gradual decrease in
against infec on by foreign organisms.
– promotes immune system development and A. GH in people who do not exercise
func on B. melatonin
C. thyroid hormones (slight decrease)
Pineal Gland D. reproduc ve hormones
• also known as pineal body and epiphysis cerebri E. thymosin
• a small, pinecone-shaped structure located 2. Parathyroid hormones increase if vitamin D and Ca2+
superior and posterior to the thalamus of the brain levels decrease.
3. There is an increase in type 2 diabetes in people with
Melatonin
a familial tendency.
– Func ons
• Inhibits secre on of gonadotropin-releasing
hormone; thereby, inhibi ng the func ons of
the reproduc ve system
• plays an important role in the onset of puberty
in humans
Melatonin
• helps control your sleep and wake cycles
(influenced by the detec on of light and dark by
the re na of the eye)
• peaks during the nigh me hours.
• induces physiological changes that promote
sleep, such as decreased body temperature and
respira on rate).