TOPIC : BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

AIM :
1. To predict the behavior of any electrical and magnetic circuits.
2. To Formulate and solve complex AC, DC circuits.
3. Realize the requirement of transformers in transmission and distribution
of electric power and other applications.
4. To study the working principles of electrical machines and power
converters.
5. To introduce the components of low voltage electrical
installations
OBJECTIVES :
1. Impart a basic knowledge of electrical quantities such as current,
voltage, power, energy and frequency to understand the impact of
technology in a global and societal context.
2. Provide working knowledge for the analysis of basic DC and AC
circuits used in electrical and electronic devices.
3. Highlight the importance of transformers in transmission and
distribution of electric power
4. Explain the working principle, construction, applications of DC
machines, AC machines.
5. Explain the working principle and operation of power converters,
switch gears and batteries.

PRE TEST-MCQ TYPE :

1. Current flows in a circuit when

A. A switch is opened
B. A switch is closed
C. The switch is either open or closed
D. There is no voltage

2. Free electrons make current possible

A. True
B. False

3. A voltmeter is connected across the current path.

A. True
B. False

4. Free electrons make current possible.

A. True
B. False

5. The unit of electrical charge is the

A. Volt
B. Ampere
C. Joule
D. Coulomb
6. Which of the following is not a type of energy source

A. Generator
B. Rheostat
C. Solar cell
D. Battery

7. An ammeter is an electrical instrument used to measure

A. Current
B. Voltage
C. Resistance
D. None of the above

THEORY BEHIND :

SYLLABUS
MODULE I DC CIRCUITS

Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C), voltage and current sources, Kirchoff current and voltage laws, analysis of simple
circuits with dc excitation.Superposition, Thevenin and Norton Theorems.Time-domain analysis of first-order RL and RC
circuits.

MODULE II AC CIRCUITS

Representation of sinusoidal waveforms, peak and rms values, phasor representation, real power, reactive power, apparent
power, power factor. Analysis of single-phase ac circuits consisting of R, L, C, RL, RC, RLC combinations (series and
parallel), resonance. Three-phase balanced circuits, voltage and current relations in star and delta connections.

MODULE III TRANSFORMERS

Magnetic materials, BH characteristics, ideal and practical transformer, equivalent circuit, losses in transformers, regulation
and efficiency.Auto-transformer and three-phase transformer connections.

MODULE IV ELECTRICAL MACHINES

Generation of rotating magnetic fields, Construction and working of a three-phase induction motor, Significance of torque-
slip characteristic. Loss components and efficiency, starting and speed control of induction motor. Single-phase induction
motor. Construction, working, torque-speed characteristic and speed control of separately excited dc motor. Construction and
working of synchronous generators.

MODULE V POWER CONVERTERS AND ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

DC-DC buck and boost converters, duty ratio control. Single-phase and three-phase voltage source inverters; sinusoidal
modulation. Components of LT Switchgear: Switch Fuse Unit (SFU), MCB, ELCB, MCCB, Types of Wires and Cables,
Earthing. Types of Batteries, Important Characteristics for Batteries. Elementary calculations for energy consumption, power
factor improvement and battery backup.
 COURSE MATERIAL

UNIT-I

DC CIRCUITS

 Ohms Law: At constant temperature potential difference across the conductor is directly
proportional to current flowing through the conductor is called ohms law.

V∝I

V=IR
where the constant of proportionality Ris called the resistance or electrical resistance,
measured in ohms (Ω). Graphically, the V − I relationship for a resistor according to Ohm‟s

law is depicted in Figure

Figure V − I relationship for a resistor according to Ohm‟s law.

At any given point in the above graph, the ratio of voltage to current is always
constant

 Basic circuit components:

 Circuit Element Voltage Current

V
Resistor V = IR I=
R
¸ t
di i= 1 dt
Inductor v= L v
dt L0
¸ t dv
Capacitor v= 1 idt + v(0) C i=C , i = 0 for DC
0 dt

V − I relationships for a resistor, inductor and capacitor.

 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Kirchhoff‟s Voltage Law states that the algebraic sum of voltages around each loop at any instant of
time is zero
Σ voltage drops = Σ voltage rises

 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

Kirchhoff‟s Current Law states that The algebraic sum of currents a node at any instant

is zero. Σ currents in = Σ currents out

 Basic Definitions:

 Current: the directed flow of electrons (charge) called current. It is denoted by I. units are
Amps

 Electrical potential: charged body capacity to do work is known as its electrical potential.

 Potential difference: difference in potentials of two charged bodies is called Potential

difference

 Power: the rate at which an electrical work done in electrical work is called power. It is denoted
by P. units are Watt

 Electrical work: Electrical work is said to be done when there is transfer of charge. It is
denoted by W. units are joules.

 Energy: capacity to do work is called energy.

 Electrical Network: A combination of various electric elements (Resistor, Inductor,

Capacitor, Voltage source, Current source) connected in any manner what so ever is called an
electrical network

 Classification of element:

We may classify circuit elements in two categories, passive and active elements.

(R) Passive Element: The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and then either
converts it into heat (R) or stored it in an electric (C) or magnetic (L) field is called passive
element.
  Active Element: The elements that supply energy to the circuit is called active element.
Examples of active elements include voltage and current sources, generators

 Bilateral Element: Conduction of current in both directions in an element (example: Resistance;

Inductance; Capacitance) with same magnitude is termed as bilateral element

 Unilateral Element: Conduction of current in one direction is termed as unilateral (example:

Diode, Transistor) element

 Linear Circuit: Roughly speaking, a linear circuit is one whose parameters do not change with
voltage or current. More specifically, a linear system is one that satisfies (i) homogeneity
property (ii) additive property

 Non-Linear Circuit: Roughly speaking, a non-linear system is that whose parameters change
with voltage or current. More specifically, non-linear circuit does not obey the homogeneity and
additive properties.

 DC Sources
In general, there are two main types of DC sources
1. Independent (Voltage and Current) Sources
2. Dependent (Voltage and Current) Sources

An independent source produces its own voltage and current through some chemical reaction
and does not depend on any other voltage or current variable in the circuit. The output of a
dependent source, on the other hand, is subject to a certain parameter (voltage or current)
change in a circuit element. Herein, the discussion shall be confined to independent sources
only.
 DC Voltage Source
This can be further subcategorised into ideal and non-ideal sources.
 The Ideal Voltage Source An ideal voltage source, shown in Figure has a terminal
voltage which is independent of the variations in load. In other words, for an ideal
voltage source, the sup- ply current alters with changes in load but the terminal
voltage, VL always remains constant. This characteristic is depicted in Figure .

(a) An ideal voltage source (b) V − I characteristics of an ideal voltage source

Figure: Schematic and characteristics of an ideal voltage source

 Practical Voltage Source For a practical source, the terminal voltage falls off with an
increase in load current. This can be shown graphically in Figure. This behavior can be
 modeled by assigning an internal resistance, Rs, in series with the source as shown in
Figure

Where RL represents the load resistance. The characteristic equation of the practical

voltage source can be written as

V L = V s − Rs I

For an ideal source, Rs = 0 and therefore VL = Vs.

 Resistive Circuits

 Series Resistors

 Parallel Resistors
  Series Inductors

 Parallel Inductors

 Series Capacitors

 Parallel Capacitors

 Superposition Theorem
Superposition theorem is extremely useful for analysing electric circuits that contains two or more
active sources. In such cases, the theorem considers each source separately to evaluate the current
through or voltage across a component. The resultant is given by the algebraic sum of all currents or
voltages caused by each source acting independently. Superposition theorem can be formally stated
as follows

“The current through or voltage across any element in a linear circuit containing
several sources is the algebraic sum of the currents or voltages due to each source
acting alone, all other sources being removed at that time.”

Linearity is a necessary condition for the theorem to apply. Fortunately, the v, i relationship for R, and C

are all linear.The sources can be removed using the following methodology

1. Ideal voltage sources are short-circuited

2. Ideal current sources are open-circuited
In general, practical sources are replaced by their internal resistances.
 Thevenin’s Theorem

The venin’s theorem provides a useful tool when solving complex and large electric circuits by reduc-
ing them to a single voltage source in series with a resistor. It is particularly advantageous where a
single resistor or load in a circuit is subject to change.

Formally, the Th´evenin‟s theorem can be stated as

“Any two-terminal linear electric circuit consisting of resistors and sources, can be re-
placed by an equivalent circuit containing a single voltage source in series with a
resistor connected across the load.”

In the circuit diagrams shown in Figure, the current IL through the load resistance RL is the same.
Hence the circuits are equivalent as far as the load resistor RL is concerned.

Figure : Illustration of Thévenin‟s theorem.

The following steps outline the procedure to simplify an electric circuit using Th´evenin‟s theorem
where VT H and RT H are the Th´evenin‟s voltage and The´evenin‟s resistance respectively.

1. Remove the load resistance RL.

2. VT H is the open circuit (OC) voltage across the load terminalsand
3. RT H is the resistance across the load terminals with all sources replaced by their internal
 resistances. Alternatively, measure the OC voltage across, and the short circuit (SC) current
through the load terminals. Then
VT H = Voc and RT= Voc/ Isc

 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

As discussed in the section on Th´evenin‟s theorem, any DC network of sources and resistances can
be replaced by a single voltage source in series with a resistance connected across the load (see
Figure). The maximum power transfer theorem states that the power delivered to the load is
maximum when the load resistance, RL is equal to the internal (source) resistance, Rs of the DC
power supply. In other words, it can be said that the load resistance must match the Thevenin’s
resistance for maximum power transfer to take place i.e.,

(Rs = RT H ) = RL

When this occurs, the voltage across the load resistance will be Vs and the power delivered to the load
is given by 2
The above equation is plotted in Figure which clearly demonstrates maximum power delivered when
Rs = RL. Under this condition, the maximum power will be

Pmax = Vs
2

4Rs

P
max

R=R
 UNIT-II

AC CIRCUITS

 Principle of AC voltage: Consider a rectangular coil of N turns placed in a uniform

magnetic field as shown in the figure. The coil is rotating in the anticlockwise direction at
an uniform angular velocity of ω rad/sec

When the coil is in the vertical position, the flux linking the coil is zero because the
plane of the coil is parallel to the direction of the magnetic field. Hence at this
position, the emf induced in the coil is zero. When the coil moves by some angle in
the anticlockwise direction, there is a rate of change of flux linking the coil and hence
an emf is induced in the coil. When the coil reaches the horizontal position, the flux
linking the coil is maximum, and hence the emf indu
induced
ced is also maximum. When the
coil further moves in the anticlockwise direction, the emf induced in the coil reduces.
Next when the coil comes to the vertical position, the emf induced becomes zero.
After that the same cycle repeats and the emf is induced in the opposite direction.
When the coil completes one complete revolution, one cycle of AC voltage is
generated. The generation of sinusoidal AC

Voltage can also be explained using mathematical equations. Consider a rectangular

coil of N turns placed in a uniform magnetic field in the position shown in the figure.
The maximum flux linking the coil is in the downward direction as shown in the
 figure. This flux can be divided into two components, one component acting along the
plane of the coil Φmaxsinωt and another component acting perpendicular to the plane of
the coil Φmaxcosωt.
ω rad/sec

The component of flux acting along the plane of the coil does not induce any flux in the coil. Only the
component acting perpendicular to the plane of the coil ie Φmaxcosωt induces an emf in the coil.

Angular Frequency (ω)

Angular frequency is defined as the number of radians covered in one second(ie

the angle covered by the rotating coil). The unit of angular frequency is rad/sec.

 Advantages of AC system over DC system

1. AC voltages can be efficiently stepped up/down using transformer

2. AC motors are cheaper and simpler in construction than DC motors
3. Switchgear for AC system is simpler than DC system
 Definition of Alternating Quantity

+Em

0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π ωt

-EM

An alternating quantity changes continuously in magnitude and alternates in direction at

regular intervals of time. Important terms associated with an alternating quantity are
defined below.
 Amplitude

It is the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity. Also called as

maximum or peak value
 Time Period (T)
It is the Time Taken in seconds to complete one cycle of an
alternating quantity Instantaneous Value

It is the value of the quantity at any

instant
 Frequency (f)

It is the number of cycles that occur in one second. The unit for frequency is Hz
or cycles/sec. The relationship between frequency and time period can be
derived as follows.
Time taken to complete f cycles = 1
second Time taken to complete 1 cycle =
1/f second
T = 1/f
 Average Value
The arithmetic average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one cycle is
called its average value Average value = Area under one cycle
Base

For Symmetrical waveforms, the average value calculated over one cycle becomes
equal to zero because the positive area cancels the negative area. Hence for symmetrical
waveforms, the average value is calculated for half cycle.
Average value = Area under one half cycle
Base
 RMS or Effective Value

The effective or RMS value of an alternating quantity is that steady current (dc) which
when flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the same amount of
heat produced by the alternating current flowing through the same resistance for the
same time.

 Form Factor

The ratio of RMS value to the average value of an alternating quantity is known as Form
Factor

 Peak Factor or Crest Factor

The ratio of maximum value to the RMS value of an alternating quantity is known as

the peak factor

 Phasor Representation

An alternating quantity can be represented using

(i) Waveform
(ii) Equations
(iii) Phasor
A sinusoidal alternating quantity can be represented by a rotating line called a Phasor.
A phasor is a line of definite length rotating in anticlockwise direction at a constant
angular velocity

The waveform and equation representation of an alternating current is as shown.

This sinusoidal quantity can also be represented using phasors.

+Im

π 2π ωt

-Im i  Im sin t

Draw a line OP of length equal to Im. This line OP rotates in the anticlockwise
direction with a uniform angular velocity ω rad/sec and follows the circular trajectory
shown in figure. At any instant, the projection of OP on the y
y-axis
axis is given by
OM=OPsinθ = Imsinωt. Hence the line OP is the phasor representation of the
sinusoidal current
Phase

Phase is defined as the fractional part of time period or cycle through which the
quantity has advanced from the selected zero position of reference
Phase of +Em is π/2 rad or
T/4 sec Phase of -Em is 3π/2
rad or 3T/4 sec

Phase Difference

When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have different zero points
they are said to have a phase difference. The angle between the zero points is the
angle of phase difference.

In Phase

Two waveforms are said to be in phase, when the phase difference between them is
zero. That is the zero points of both the waveforms are same. The waveform, phasor
and equation representation of two sinusoidal quantities which are in phase is as
shown. The figure shows that the voltage and current are in phase.
 Lagging

In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is after the zero point
of the voltage waveform. Hence the current is lagging behind the voltage. The
waveform, phasor and equation representation is as shown.

Leading

In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is before the zero point of
 the voltage waveform. Hence the current is leading the voltage. The waveform, phasor
and equation representation is as shown.

 AC circuit with a pure resistance

Consider an AC circuit with a pure resistance R as shown in the figure. The alternating
voltage v is
given by

v=Vm sint ---------- (1)

The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is given as VR which is the same
as v.
Using ohms law, we can write the following relations

(2)
iI
m
sin t ----------
Where
Im= Vm
R
From equation (1) and (2) we conclude that in a pure resistive circuit, the voltage and current are in
phase. Hence the voltage and current waveforms and phasors can be drawn as below.

 AC circuit with a pure inductance

Consider an AC circuit with a pure inductance L as shown in the figure. The alternating
voltage v is
given by

v Vm sint ---------- (1)

The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the inductor is given as VL
which is the same as v.

i  I m sin(t   / 2) ----------------------- (2)

 From equation (1) and (2) we observe that in a pure inductive circuit, the current lags behind the
voltage by 90⁰.Hence voltageand current waveforms and phasors can be drawn as below.
⁰.Hence the voltage

The inductive reactance XL is given as

L 2fL

 AC circuit with a pure capacitance

Consider an AC circuit with a pure capacitance C as shown in the figure. The alternating voltage v
is
given by
V=Vm Sin t ----------
----------(1)
The current flowing in the circuit.

i  Im sin(t   / 2) ------------------------ (2)

From equation (1) and (2) we observe that in a pure capacitive circuit, the current leads the
voltage by 90⁰.
⁰. Hence the voltage and current waveforms and phasors can be drawn as
below.
 Capacitive reactance

The capacitive reactance XC is given as

1 1
XL  
2fC
C
Vm

Im 

XC
It is equivalent to resistance in a resistive circuit. The unit is ohms (Ω)

R-L Series circuit

 Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R and an inductance L connected in series as shown
in the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by

The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is VR and that across the
inductor is VL.

VR=IR is in phase with I

VL=IXL leads current by 90 degrees

With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown.

The current I is taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I and the
voltage VL leads the current by 90⁰. The resultant voltage V can be drawn as shown in the
figure. From the phasor diagram we observe that the voltage leads the current by an angle
Φ or in other words the current lags behind the voltage by an angle Φ.

The waveform and equations for an RL series circuit can be drawn as below.

V  Vm sin t

I  Im sin(t  )
 From the phasor diagram, the expressions for the resultant voltage V and the angle Φ can be derived as
follows.

Where impedance

Z= R2  X 2 L

The impedance in an AC circuit is similar to a resistance in a DC circuit. The unit for

impedance is ohms (Ω).

 Impedance Triangle

We can derive a triangle called the impedance triangle from the phasor diagram of an
RL series circuit as shown

The impedance triangle is right angled triangle with R and X L as two sides and
impedance as thehypotenuse. The angle between the base and hypotenuse is Φ.
 Power

In an AC circuit, the various powers can be classified as

1. Real or Active power

2. Reactive power
3. Apparent power
Real or active power in an AC circuit is the power that does useful work in the cicuit.
Reactive power flows in an AC circuit but does not do any useful work. Apparent power is the
total power in an AC circuit.

From the phasor diagram of an RL series circuit, the current can be divided into two
components. One component along the voltage IcosΦ, that is called as the active component
of current and another component perpendicular to the voltage IsinΦ that is called as the
reactive component of current.

 Real Power

The power due to the active component of current is called as the active power or real power.
It isdenoted by P.

P = V x ICosΦ = I2R

Real power is the power that does useful power. It is the power that is consumed by the
resistance. The unit for real power in Watt(W).

 Reactive Power
The power due to the reactive component of current is called as the reactive power. It is denoted
by Q.

Q = V x ISinΦ = I2XL
Reactive power does not do any useful work. It is the circulating power in th L and C
components. The unit for reactive power is Volt Amperes Reactive (VAR).

 Apparent Power

The apparent power is the total power in the circuit. It is denoted by S.

S = V x I = I2Z

The unit for apparent power is Volt Amperes (VA).

 Power Triangle

From the impedance triangle, another triangle called the power triangle can be derived as
shown.

The power triangle is right angled triangle with P and Q as two sides and S as the hypotenuse. The angle
between the base and hypotenuse is Φ. The power triangle enables us to calculate the following things.

The power triangle is right angled triangle with P and Q as two sides and S as the hypotenuse. The angle
between the base and hypotenuse is Φ. The power triangle enables us to calculate the following things.
 The power Factor in an AC circuit can be calculated by any one of the following methods

❖ Cosine of angle between V and I

❖ Resistance/Impedance R/Z
❖ Real Power/Apparent Power P/S

 R-C Series circuit

can be derived as follows.

Where impedance Z  R2  X 2C

 Average power

P VI cos

Hence the power in an RC series circuit is consumed only in the resistance. The
capacitance does not consume any power.

 Impedance Triangle

We can derive a triangle called the impedance triangle from the phasor diagram of an RC
series circuit as shown
  Phasor algebra for RC series circuit

 R-L-C Series circuit

Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R, an inductance L and a capacitance C
connected in series as shown in the figure. The alternating voltage v is given by

v  Vm sint

The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is VR, the voltage across
the inductor is VL and that across the capacitor is VC.

VR=IR is in phase with I

VL=IXL leads the current by 90 degrees

VC=IXC lags behind the current by 90
degrees

With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown. The current I is
taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I, the voltage VL leads the
current by 90⁰ and the voltage VC lags behind the current by 90⁰. There are two cases that
can occur VL>VC and VL<VC depending on the values of XL and XC. And hence there are
two possible phasor diagrams. The phasor VL-VC or VC-VL is drawn and then the resultant
voltage V is drawn.

VL>VC VL<VC
 From the phasor diagram we observe that when VL>VC , the voltage leads the current by
an angle Φ or in other words the current lags behind the voltage by an angle Φ. When
VL<VC ,the voltage lags behind the current by an angle Φ or in other words the current
leads the voltage by an angle Φ.

From the phasor diagram, the expressions for the resultant voltage V and the angle Φ

can be derived as follows.

Where impedance Z 
R 2  ( X L X C )2

From the expression for phase angle, we can derive the following three cases

Case (i): When XL>XC

The phase angle Ф is positive and the circuit is inductive. The circuit behaves like a series RL
circuit.

Case (ii): When XL<XC

The phase angle Ф is negative and the circuit is capacitive. The circuit behaves like a
series RC circuit.

Case (iii): When XL=XC

The phase angle Ф = 0 and the circuit is purely resistive. The circuit behaves like a pure
resistive circuit.

The voltage and the current can be represented by the following equations. The angle Φ
is positive or negative depending on the circuit elements.

V  Vm sin t

I  Im sin(t  )
  Average power

P  VI cos

R
P  (IZ )  I 

P  I 2R

Hence the power in an RLC series circuit is consumed only in the resistance. The
inductance and the capacitance do not consume any power.

 Phasor algebra for RLC series circuit

 Delta – Star Conversion

 Star -Delta Conversion
 UNIT-III
Transformers
 INTRODUCTION

Transformer is a static device which transfers electrical energy from one electrical
circuit to another electrical circuit without change in frequency through magnetic medium.
The winding which receives energy is called primary winding and the winding which
delivers energy to the load is called secondary winding.

Based on the voltage levels transformers are classified into two types

i. Step down transformer ii. Step up transformer.

 CONSTRUCTION
 CORE-TYPE AND SHELL-TYPE CONSTRUCTION

Depending upon the manner in which the primary and secondary windings are placed on the
core, and the shape of the core, there are two types of transformers, called (a) core type, and (b)
shell type. In core type transformers, the windings are placed in the form of concentric
cylindrical coils placed around the vertical limbs of the core. The low-voltage (LV) as well as
the high-voltage (HV) winding are made in two halves, and placed on the two limbs of core. The
LV winding is placed next to the core for economy in insulation cost. Figure a shows the cross-
section of the arrangement. In the shell type transformer, the primary and secondary windings
are wound over the central limb of a three-limb core as shown in Figure
b. The HV and LV windings are split into a number of sections, and the sections are interleaved
or sandwiched i.e. the sections of the HV and LV windings are placed alternately.

H.V. winding
Core

Limb LV

or leg Gaps
HV

LV
HV
 L.V. Winding

(a) core type (b) Shell Type

 CORE

The core is built-up of thin steel laminations insulated from each other.
This helps in reducing the eddy current losses in the core, and also helps in
construction of the transformer. The steel used for core is of high silicon
content, sometimes heat treated to produce a high permeability and low
hysteresis loss. The material commonly used for core is CRGO (Cold Rolled
Grain Oriented) steel.

Conductor material used for windings is mostly copper. However,

for small distribution transformer aluminium is also sometimes used. The
conductors, core and whole windings are insulated using various insulating
materials depending upon the voltage.

 INSULATING OIL

In oil-immersed transformer, the iron core together with windings is

immersed in insulating oil. The insulating oil provides better insulation,
protects insulation from moisture and transfers the heat produced in core
and windings to the atmosphere. The transformer oil should posses the
following quantities:

(a) High dielectric strength,

(b) Low viscosity and high purity,

(c) High flash point, and

(d) Free from sludge.

 Transformer oil is generally a mineral oil obtained by fractional distillation of crude
oil.

 TANK AND CONSERVATOR

The transformer tank contains core wound with windings and the
insulating oil. In large transformers small expansion tank is also connected
with main tank is known as conservator. Conservator provides space when
insulating oil expands due to heating. The transformer tank is provided with
tubes on the outside, to permits circulation of oil, which aides in cooling.
Some additional devices like breather and Buchholz relay are connected
with main tank.

Buchholz relay is placed between main tank and conservator. It protect

the transformer under extreme heating of transformer winding. Breather
protects the insulating oil from moisture when the cool transformer sucks air
inside. The silica gel filled breather absorbs moisture when air enters the
tank. Some other necessary parts are connected with main tank like,
Bushings, Cable Boxes, Temperature gauge, Oil gauge, Tapings, etc.

 WORKING PRINCIPLE

In its simplest form a single-phase transformer consists

of two windings, wound on an iron core one of the windings is connected to
an ac source of supply f. The source supplies a current to this winding
(called primary winding) which in turn produces a flux in the iron core. This
flux is alternating in nature If the supplied voltage has a frequency f, the flux
in the core also alternates at a frequency f. the alternating flux linking with
the second winding, induces a voltage E2 in the second winding (according
to faraday‟s law). [Note that this alternating flux linking with primary
winding will also induce a voltage in the primary winding, denoted as E1.
Applied voltage V1 is very nearly equal to E1]. If the number of turns in the
primary and secondary windings is N1 and N2 respectively, we shall see later
in this unit that E1/N1 = E2/N2. The load is connected across the secondary
winding, between the terminals a1, a2. Thus, the load can be supplied at a
voltage higher or lower than the supply voltage depending upon the ratio
N1/N2.
 IDEAL TRANSFORMER

Under certain conditions, the transformer can be treated as an ideal

transformer. The assumptions necessary to treat it as an ideal
transformer are :
(a) Primary and secondary windings have zero resistance. This means that
ohmic loss (I2 R
loss), and resistive voltage drops in windings are zero.

(b) There is no leakage flux, i.e. the entire flux is mutual flux that
links both the primary and secondary windings.

(c) Permeability of the core is infinite this means that the

magnetizing current needed for establishing the flux is zero.

(d) Core loss (hysteresis as well as eddy current losses) are zero.
 IDEAL TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD

 IDEAL TRANSFORMER ON LOAD

V1/V2=N1/N2=I1/I2

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF REAL TRANSFORMER

REGULATION OF TRANSFORMER
 Voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the drop in the
magnitude of load voltage (or secondary terminal voltage) when load
current changes from zero to full load value. This is expressed as a
fraction of secondary rated voltage
(%) Regulation = (Secondary terminal voltage at no load − Secondary
terminal voltage at any load)/ secondary rated voltage.

Percentage voltage regulation =(V-E0)*100/V

 LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY OF TRANSFORMER

A transformer does‟t contains any rotating part so it is free from friction and windage
losses.
In transformer the losses occur in iron parts as well as in copper coils. In
iron core the losses are sum of hysteresis and eddy current losses. The
hysteresis losses are

Ph α f Bxmax and eddy

current loss is equal to Pe α

f2 Bmax. Where “f” is

frequency “Bmax” is

maximum flux density.

 IRON LOSSES OR CORE LOSSES

To minimize hysteresis loss in transformer, we use Cold Rolled

Grain Oriented (CRGO) silicon steel to build up the iron core.
 EDDY CURRENT LOSS

When the primary winding variable flux links with iron core then it
induces some EMF on the surface of core. The magnitude of EMF is
different at various points in core. So, there is current between different
points in Iron Core having unequal potential.

These currents are known at eddy currents. I2 R loss in iron core is known as
eddy current loss. These losses depend on thickness of core. To minimize
 the eddy current losses we use the Iron Core which is made of laminated
sheet stampings. The thickness of stamping is around 0.5 mm.

 COPPER LOSSES

In a transformer the primary and secondary winding currents increase with

increases in load. Due to these currents there is some I2 R losses. These are known as
copper losses or ohmic losses. The total I2 R loss in both

windings at rated or full load current

1 is 2equal
R to I 2 R1 = I 2
2 .

EFFICIENCY OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Efficiency (η)= output power/input power
=(input power –total losses)/input power

Alternatively

η= output power/(output power + total losses)

In a transformer, if Pi is the iron loss, and Pc is the copper loss at full load (when the
load current is equal to the rated current of the transformer, the total losses in the
transformer are Pi + Pc. In any transformer, copper losses are variable and iron losses
are fixed.
When the load on transformer is x times full load then
2*
η= x V2 I2 cos φ/( x V2 I2 cos φ+Pi+x Pc)

or
2*
η
= x KVA cos φ/( x KVA
i
cos φ+P
c
+x P )

 OPEN CIRCUIT TEST

Practically we can determine the iron losses by performing the open circuit test
and also the core loss components of equivalent circuit.We perform open circuit test in
low voltage winding in transformer keeping the high voltage winding open. The circuit
is connected as shown in Figure. The instruments are connected on the LV side. The
advantage of performing the test from LV side is that the test can be performed at rated
voltage.When we apply rated voltage then watt meter shows iron losses [There is some
copper loss but this is negligible when compared to iron loss]. The ammeter shows no
load current I0 which is very small [2-5 % of rated current]. Thus, the drops in R1 and
Xl1 can be neglected.
 We have W0 = iron loss
I0 = no load current
W
0
Then cos φ =
V I
i 0
So I e = I 0 cos φ

And I m = I 0 sin φ .
R0= Vi/Ie
X0= Vi/Im

 SHORT CIRCUIT TEST

From short circuit test we can determine copper losses and also the winding components of
equivalent circuit. It‟s an indirect method to find out the copper losses. To perform this test, we
apply a reduced voltage to the primary winding through instruments keeping LV winding short
circuited. The connections are shown in Figure. We need to apply only 5-10% of rated voltage to
primary to circulated rated current in the primary and secondary winding. The applied voltage is
adjusted so that the ammeter shows rated current of the winding. Under this condition, the watt-
meter reading shows the copper losses of the transformer. Because of low value of applied
voltage, iron losses, are very small and can be neglected
 Connection diagram for short circuit test

Equivalent circuit under shot circuit

At a rated current watt meter shows full load copper loss. We have
Wsc= copper loss
Isc = full load current
Vsc =supply voltage
Req =Wsc/Isc2
Z
eq= Vsc/Isc
Xeq = ⱱ(Zeq2- Req2)

and equivalent impedance

So we calculate equivalent reactance. These Req and Xeq are equivalent

resistance and reactance of both windings referred in HV side. These
are known as equivalent circuit resistance and reactance.
 UNIT-IV
ELECTRICAL MACHINES
 Three Phase Induction Motor
The most common type of AC motor being used throughout the work today is the
"Induction Motor". Applications of three-phase induction motors of size varying
from half a kilowatt to thousands of kilowatts are numerous. They are found
everywhere from a small workshop to a large manufacturing industry.

The advantages of three-phase AC induction motor are listed below:

• Simple design

• Rugged construction

• Reliable operation

• Low initial cost

• Easy operation and simple maintenance

• Simple control gear for starting and speed control

• High efficiency.

Induction motor is originated in the year 1891 with crude construction (The
induction machine principle was invented by NIKOLA TESLA in 1888.). Then an
improved construction with distributed stator windings and a cage rotor was built.

The slip ring rotor was developed after a decade or so. Since then a lot of
improvement has taken place on the design of these two types of induction motors.
Lot of research work has been carried out to improve its power factor and to
achieve suitable methods of speed control.

 Types and Construction of Three Phase Induction Motor

Three phase induction motors are constructed into two major types:

1. Squirrel cage Induction Motors

2. Slip ring Induction Motors

 Squirrel cage Induction Motors

(a) Stator Construction

The induction motor stator resembles the stator of a revolving field, three phase
alternator. The stator or the stationary part consists of three phase winding held in
place in the slots of a laminated steel core which is enclosed and supported by a
cast iron or a steel frame as shown in Fig: 3.1(a).

The phase windings are placed 120 electrical degrees apart and may be connected
in either star or delta externally, for which six leads are brought out to a terminal
box mounted on the frame of the motor. When the stator is energized from a three
phase voltage it will produce a rotating magnetic field in the stator core.

Fig: 3.1

(b) Rotor Construction

The rotor of the squirrel cage motor shown in Fig: 3.1(b) contains no windings.
Instead it is a cylindrical core constructed of steel laminations with conductor bars
mounted parallel to the shaft and embedded near the surface of the rotor core.

These conductor bars are short circuited by an end rings at both end of the rotor
core. In large machines, these conductor bars and the end rings are made up of
copper with the bars brazed or welded to the end rings shown in Fig: 3.1(b).In
small machines the conductor bars and end rings are sometimes made of aluminium
with the bars and rings cast in as part of the rotor core. Actually the entire
construction (bars and end-rings) resembles a squirrel cage, from which the name
is derived.

The rotor or rotating part is not connected electrically to the power supply but has
voltage induced in it by transformer action from the stator. For this reason, the
stator is sometimes called the primary and the rotor is referred to as the secondary
of the motor since the motor operates on the principle of induction and as the
construction of the rotor with the bars and end rings resembles a squirrel cage, the
squirrel cage induction motor is used.

The rotor bars are not insulated from the rotor core because they are made of
metals having less resistance than the core. The induced current will flow mainly in
them. Also the rotor bars are usually not quite parallel to the rotor shaft but are
mounted in a slightly skewed position. This feature tends to produce a more
uniform rotor field and torque. Also it helps to reduce some of the internal magnetic
noise when the motor is running.

(c) End Shields

The function of the two end shields is to support the rotor shaft. They are fitted
with bearings and attached to the stator frame with the help of studs or bolts
attention.

 Slip ring Induction Motors

(a) Stator Construction

The construction of the slip ring induction motor is exactly similar to the
construction of squirrel cage induction motor. There is no difference between
squirrel cage and slip ring motors.

(b) Rotor Construction

The rotor of the slip ring induction motor is also cylindrical or constructed of lamination.

Squirrel cage motors have a rotor with short circuited bars whereas slip ring motors
have wound rotors having "three windings" each connected in star.The winding is
made of copper wire. The terminals of the rotor windings of the slip ring motors
are brought out through slip rings which are in contact with stationary brushes as
shown in Fig: 3.2.

Fig: 3.2
 THE ADVANTAGES OF THE SLIPRING MOTOR ARE

• It has susceptibility to speed control by regulating rotor resistance.

• High starting torque of 200 to 250% of full load value.

• Low starting current of the order of 250 to 350% of the full load current.

Hence slip ring motors are used where one or more of the above requirements are to be
met.

 Comparison of Squirrel Cage and Slip Ring Motor

Sl.No. Property Squirrel cage motor Slip ring motor

1. Rotor Bars are used in rotor. Winding wire is to be

Construction Squirrel cage motor is used.
very simple, rugged and
long lasting. No slip Wound rotor required
rings and brushes attention.
Slip ring and brushes
are needed also need
frequent maintenance.

2. Starting Can be started by Rotor resistance starter

D.O.L., star-delta, auto is required.
transformer starters

3. Starting Low Very high

torque
4. Starting High Low
Current
5. Speed variation Not easy, but could be Easy to vary speed.
varied in large steps by
pole changing or Speed change is possible
through smaller by inserting rotor
incremental steps resistance using
through thyristors or by thyristors or by using
frequency variation. frequency variation
injecting emf in the rotor
circuit cascading.

6. Maintenance Almost ZERO Requires frequent

maintenance maintenance
7. Cost Low High
  Principle of Operation

The operation of a 3-phase induction motor is based upon the application of

Faraday Law and the Lorentz force on a conductor. The behaviour can readily be
understood by means of the following example.

Consider a series of conductors of length l, whose extremities are short-circuited by

two bars A and B (Fig.3.3 a). A permanent magnet placed above this conducting
ladder, moves rapidly to the right at a speed v, so that its magnetic field B sweeps
across the conductors. The following sequence of events then takes place:

1. A voltage E = Blv is induced in each conductor while it is being cut by the

flux (Faraday law).
2. The induced voltage immediately produces a current I, which flows down
the conductor underneath the pole face, through the end-bars, and back
through the other conductors.
3. Because the current carrying conductor lies in the magnetic field of the
permanent magnet, it experiences a mechanical force (Lorentz force).

The force always acts in a direction to drag the conductor along with the magnetic field. If the
conducting ladder is free to move, it will accelerate toward the right. However, as it picks up
speed, the conductors will be cut less rapidly by the moving magnet, with the result that the
induced voltage E and the current I will diminish. Consequently, the force acting on the
conductors wilt also decreases. If the ladder were to move at the same speed as the magnetic
field, the induced voltage E, the current I, and the force dragging the ladder along would all
become zero

Fig: 3.3
 In an induction motor the ladder is closed upon itself to form a squirrel-cage
(Fig.3.3b) and the moving magnet is replaced by a rotating field. The field is
produced by the 3-phase currents that flow in the stator windings.

 Rotating Magnetic Field and Induced Voltages

Consider a simple stator having 6 salient poles, each of which carries a coil having
5 turns (Fig.3.4). Coils that are diametrically opposite are connected in series by
means of three jumpers

that respectively connect terminals a-a, b-b, and c-c. This creates three identical
sets of windings AN, BN, CN, which are mechanically spaced at 120 degrees to
each other. The two coils in each winding produce magneto motive forces that act
in the same direction.

The three sets of windings are connected in wye, thus forming a common neutral N.
Owing to the perfectly symmetrical arrangement, the line to neutral impedances are
identical. In other words, as regards terminals A, B, C, the windings constitute a
balanced 3-phase system.

For a two-pole machine, rotating in the air gap, the magnetic field (i.e., flux
density) being sinusoidally distributed with the peak along the centre of the
magnetic poles. The result is illustrated in Fig.3.5. The rotating field will induce
voltages in the phase coils aa', bb', and cc'. Expressions for the induced voltages
can be obtained by using Faraday laws of induction.

Fig: 3.4 Elementary stator having terminals A, B, C connected to a 3-phase source (not
shown).
Currents flowing from line to neutral are considered to be positive.
 Fig: 3.5 Air gap flux density distribution

Let us consider that the phase coils are full-pitch coils of N turns (the coil sides of each
phase are 180 electrical degrees apart as shown in Fig.3.5). It is obvious that as the
rotating field moves (or the magnetic poles rotate) the flux linkage of a coil will vary.
The flux linkage for coil aa' will be maximum.
Hence,

Where f is the frequency in hertz. Above equation has the same form as that for the
induced voltage in transformers. However, ØP represents the flux per pole of the
machine.

The above equation also shows the rms voltage per phase. The N is the total number
of series turns per phase with the turns forming a concentrated full-pitch winding.
In an actual AC machine each phase winding is distributed in a number of slots for
better use of the iron and copper and to improve the waveform. For such a
distributed winding, the EMF induced in various coils placed in different slots are
not in time phase, and therefore the phasor sum of the EMF is less than their
numerical sum when they are connected in series for the phase winding. A
reduction factor KW, called the winding factor, must therefore be applied. For most
three-phase machine windings KW is about 0.85 to 0.95.

Therefore, for a distributed phase winding, the rms voltage per phase is
Erms = 4.44fNphφpKW

Where Nph is the number of turns in series per phase.

  Alternate Analysis for Rotating Magnetic Field

When a 3-phase winding is energized from a 3-phase supply, a rotating magnetic

field is produced. This field is such that its poles do no remain in a fixed position
on the stator but go on shifting their positions around the stator. For this reason, it
is called a rotating Held. It can be shown that magnitude of this rotating field is
constant and is equal to 1.5 m where m is the maximum flux due to any phase.

To see how rotating field is produced, consider a 2-pole, 3-phase winding as shown
in Fig. 3.6 (i). The three phases X, Y and Z are energized from a 3-phase source
and currents in these phases are indicated as Ix, Iy and Iz [See Fig. 3.6 (ii)].
Referring to Fig. 3.6 (ii), the fluxes produced by these currents are given by:

Here m is the maximum flux due to any phase. Above figure shows the phasor
diagram of the three fluxes. We shall now prove that this 3-phase supply produces
a rotating field of constant magnitude equal to 1.5 m.

At instant 1 [See Fig. 3.6 (ii) and Fig. 3.6 (iii)], the current in phase X is zero and
currents in phases Y and Z are equal and opposite. The currents are flowing outward
in the top conductors and inward

in the bottom conductors. This establishes a resultant flux towards right. The magnitude of the
resultant flux is constant and is equal to 1.5 m as proved under:
So,

At instant 2 [Fig: 3.7 (ii)], the current is maximum (negative) in y phase Y and 0.5 maximum
(positive) in phases X and Y. The magnitude of resultant flux is 1.5 m as proved under:

At instant 2, t = 30°. Therefore, the three fluxes are given by;

Fig: 3.6
At instant 3[Fig: 3.7 (iii)], current in phase Z is zero and the currents in phases X and Y are equal
and opposite (currents in phases X and Y arc 0.866  max. value). The magnitude of resultant flux
is 1.5 m as proved under:

Fig: 3.7
At instant 4 [Fig: 3.7 (iv)], the current in phase X is maximum (positive) and the currents in phases
V and Z are equal and negative (currents in phases V and Z are 0.5  max. value). This establishes
a resultant flux downward as shown under:

It follows from the above discussion that a 3-phase supply produces a rotating field
of constant value (= 1.5 m, where m is the maximum flux due to any phase).

 Speed of rotating magnetic field

The speed at which the rotating magnetic field revolves is called the synchronous
speed (Ns). Referring to Fig. 3.6 (ii), the time instant 4 represents the completion
of one-quarter cycle of alternating current Ix from the time instant 1. During this
one quarter cycle, the field has rotated through 90°. At a time instant represented
by 13 [Fig. 3.6 (ii)] or one complete cycle of current Ix from the origin, the field
has completed one revolution. Therefore, for a 2-pole stator winding, the field
makes one revolution in one cycle of current. In a 4-pole stator winding, it can be
shown that the rotating field makes one revolution in two cycles of current. In
general, fur P poles, the rotating field makes one revolution in P/2 cycles of current.
The speed of the rotating magnetic field is the same as the speed of the alternator that is supplying
power to the motor if the two have the same number of poles. Hence the magnetic flux is said to
rotate at synchronous speed.
 Slip

We have seen above that rotor rapidly accelerates in the direction of rotating field. In practice, the
rotor can never reach the speed of stator flux. If it did, there would be no relative speed between
the stator field and rotor conductors, no induced rotor currents and, therefore, no torque to drive
the rotor. The friction and windage would immediately cause the rotor to slow down. Hence, the
rotor speed (N) is always less than the suitor field speed (Ns). This difference in speed depends
upon load on the motor. The difference between the synchronous speed Ns of the rotating stator
field and the actual rotor speed N is called slip. It is usually expressed as a percentage of
synchronous speed i.e.

 Induction Motor Torque

  Torque Equations

The gross torque Tg developed by an induction motor is given by;

 Condition for Maximum Starting Torque

It can be proved that starting torque will be maximum when rotor resistance/phase is equal to
standstill rotor reactance/phase
 Hence starting torque will be maximum when:

Rotor resistance/phase = Standstill rotor reactance/phase

Under the condition of maximum starting torque, 2 = 45° and rotor power factor is 0.707
lagging.

Fig. 3.14 shows the variation of starting torque with rotor resistance. As the rotor resistance is
increased from a relatively low value, the starting torque increases until it becomes maximum
when R2 = X2. If the rotor resistance is increased beyond this optimum value, the starting torque
will decrease.
 Starting of Three Phase Induction Motor
The induction motor is fundamentally a transformer in which the stator is the
primary and the rotor is short-circuited secondary. At starting, the voltage induced in the
induction motor rotor is maximum (s = 1). Since the rotor impedance is low, the rotor current is
excessively large. This large rotor current is reflected in the stator because of transformer action.
This results in high starting current (4 to 10 times the full-load current) in the stator at low power
factor and consequently the value of starting torque is low. Because of the short duration, this
value of large current does not harm the motor if the motor accelerates normally.

However, this large starting current will produce large line-voltage drop. This will adversely affect
the operation of other electrical equipment connected to the same lines. Therefore, it is desirable
and necessary to reduce the magnitude of stator current at starting and several methods are
available for this purpose.

 Methods of Starting Three Phase Induction Motors

The method to be employed in starting a given induction motor depends upon the size
of the motor and the type of the motor. The common methods used to start induction
motors are:
(i) Direct-on-line starting
(ii) Stator resistance starting
(iii) Autotransformer starting
(iv) Star-delta starting
(v) Rotor resistance starting

Methods (i) to (iv) are applicable to both squirrel-cage and slip ring motors. However, method (v)
is applicable only to slip ring motors. In practice, any one of the first four methods is used for
starting squirrel cage motors, depending upon, the size of the motor. But slip ring motors are
invariably started by rotor resistance starting.
Except direct-on-line starting, all other methods of starting squirrel-cage motors employ reduced
voltage across motor terminals at starting.

 Direct-on-line starting

This method of starting in just what the name implies—the motor is started by connecting it
directly to 3-phase supply. The impedance of the motor at standstill is relatively low and when it
is directly connected to the supply system, the starting current will be high (4 to 10 times the full-
load current) and at a low power factor. Consequently, this method of starting is suitable for
relatively small (up to 7.5 kW) machines.
Note that starting current is as large as five times the full-load current but starting torque is just
equal to the full-load torque. Therefore, starting current is very high and the starting torque is
comparatively low. If this large starting current flows for a long time, it may overheat the motor
and damage the insulation.
 Stator resistance starting

In this method, external resistances are connected in series with each phase of stator winding
during starting. This causes voltage drop across the resistances so that voltage available across
motor terminals is reduced and hence the starting current. The starting resistances are gradually
cut out in steps (two or more steps) from the stator circuit as the motor picks up speed. When the
motor attains rated speed, the resistances are completely cut out and full line voltage is applied to
the rotor see Fig: 3.23.
This method suffers from two drawbacks. First, the reduced voltage applied to the motor during
the starting period lowers the starting torque and hence increases the accelerating time. Secondly,
a lot of power is wasted in the starting resistances.
 3.12 Speed control of Three Phase Induction Motors
The induction machine, when operating from mains is essentially a constant speed
machine. Many industrial drives, typically for fan or pump applications, have typically constant
speed requirements and hence the induction machine is ideally suited for these. However, the
induction machine, especially the squirrel cage type, is quite rugged and has a simple
construction. Therefore it is good candidate for variable speed applications if it can be achieved.

 Speed control by changing applied voltage

From the torque equation of the induction machine we can see that the torque depends on the
square of the applied voltage. The variation of speed torque curves with respect to the applied
voltage is shown in Fig: 3.28. These curves show that the slip at maximum torque 𝑆𝑆� remains
same, while the value of stall torque comes down with decrease in applied voltage. The speed
range for stable operation remains the same.

Further, we also note that the starting torque is also lower at lower voltages. Thus, even if a given
voltage level is sufficient for achieving the running torque, the machine may not start. This
method of trying to control the speed is best suited for loads that require very little starting torque,
but their torque requirement may increase with speed.

Fig: 3.28 also shows a load torque characteristic — one that is typical of a fan type of load. In a
fan (blower) type of load, the variation of torque with speed is such that 𝑇𝑇 ∝ 𝜔𝜔2.
Here one can see that it may be possible to run the motor to lower speeds within the range n s to
(1 − ˆs) ns. Further, since the load torque at zero speed is zero, the machine can start even at
reduced voltages. This will not be possible with constant torque type of loads.
 Fig: 3.28
One may note that if the applied voltage is reduced, the voltage across the magnetising branch
also comes down. This in turn means that the magnetizing current and hence flux level are
reduced. Reduction in the flux level in the machine impairs torque production which is primarily
the explanation for Fig: 3.28. If, however, the machine is running under lightly loaded
conditions, then operating under rated flux levels is not required. Under such conditions,

reduction in magnetizing current improves the power factor of operation. Some amount of energy
saving may also be achieved.

Voltage control may be achieved by adding series resistors (a lossy, inefficient proposition), or a
series inductor / autotransformer (a bulky solution) or a more modern solution using
semiconductor devices. A typical solid state circuit used for this purpose is the AC voltage
controller or AC chopper.

 Rotor resistance control

The expression for the torque of the induction machine is dependent on the rotor resistance.
Further the maximum value is independent of the rotor resistance. The slip at maximum torque is
dependent on the rotor resistance. Therefore, we may expect that if the rotor resistance is
changed, the maximum torque point shifts to higher slip values, while retaining a constant torque.
Fig: 3.29 shows a family of torque-speed characteristic obtained by changing the rotor resistance.
Note that while the maximum torque and synchronous speed remain constant, the slip at which
maximum torque occurs increases with increase in rotor resistance, and so does the starting
torque. Whether the load is of constant torque type or fan-type, it is evident that the speed control
range is more with this method. Further, rotor resistance control could also be used as a means of
generating high starting torque.

For all its advantages, the scheme has two serious drawbacks. Firstly, in order to vary the rotor
resistance, it is necessary to connect external variable resistors (winding resistance itself cannot
be changed). This, therefore necessitates a slip-ring machine, since only in that case rotor
terminals are available outside. For cage rotor machines, there are no rotor terminals. Secondly,
the method is not very efficient since the additional resistance and operation at high slips entails
dissipation.

The resistors connected to the slip-ring brushes should have good power dissipation capability.
Water based rheostats may be used for this. A ‘solid-state’ alternative to a rheostat is a chopper
controlled resistance where the duty ratio control of the chopper presents a variable resistance
load to the rotor of the induction machine.
 Single Phase Induction Motors

Single phase Induction motors perform a great variety of useful services at home, office,
farm, factory and in business establishments. Single phase motors are generally manufactured in
fractional HP ratings below 1 HP for economic reasons. Hence, those motors are generally
referred to as fractional horsepower motors with a rating of less than 1 HP. Most single phase
motors fall into this category. Single phase Induction motors are also manufactured in the range of
1.5, 2, 3 and up to 10 HP as a special requirement

4.1 Theory of Operation

A single phase induction motor is similar in construction to that of a polyphase

induction motor with difference that its stator has only one winding. If such a
stator is supplied with single phase alternating current, the field produced by it
changes in magnitude and direction sinusoidally. Thus the magnetic field
produced in the air gap is alternating one but not rotating as a result these kind of
motors are not self starting. Fig: 4.2 (a) shows the torque-speed characteristic of
single-phase induction motor.
Such an alternating filed is equivalent to two fields of equal magnitude rotating in opposite
directions at equal speed as explained below:

 Double Revolving Field Theory of Single Phase Induction Motor

Consider two magnetic fields represented by quantities OA and OB of equal

magnitude revolving in opposite directions as shown in fig: 4.1.

The resultant of the two fields of equal magnitude rotating in opposite directions is alternating.
Therefore an alternating current can be considered as having two components which are of equal
in magnitude and rotating in opposite directions.

From the above, it is clear that when a single phase alternating current is supplied to the stator of
a single phase motor, the field produced will be of alternating in nature which can be divided into
two components of equal magnitude one revolving in clockwise and other in counter clockwise
direction.

If a stationary squirrel cage rotor is kept in such a field equal forces in opposite direction will act
and the rotor will simply vibrate and there will be no rotation.

But if the rotor is given a small jerk in any direction in this condition, it will go on revolving and
will develop torque in that particular direction. It is clear from the above that a single phase
induction motor when having only one winding is not a self-starting. To make it a self-starting
anyone of the following can be adopted.

(i) Split phase starting.

(ii) Repulsion starting.
(iii) Shaded pole starting.
 Methods of Starting

It is clear from previous discussion that a single phase induction motor when having
only one winding and it is not self-starting. To make it a self-starting anyone of the
following can be adopted.

(1) Split phase starting.

(2) Repulsion starting.

(3) Shaded pole starting.

4.1.2 PRINCIPLE OF SPLIT PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The basic principle of operation of a split phase induction motor is similar to that of a
polyphase induction motor. The main difference is that the single phase motor does not
produce a rotating magnetic field but produces only a pulsating filed.

Hence, to produce the rotating magnetic field for self-starting, phase splitting is to be
done to make the motor to work as a two phase motor for starting.

4.3.1 Working of Split Phase Motor

In split phase motor two windings named as main winding and starting winding are
provided. At the time of starting, both the main and starting windings should be
connected across the supply to produce the rotating magnetic field.

The rotor is of a squirrel cage type and the revolving magnetic field sweeps part the
stationary rotor, inducing emf in the rotor. As the rotor bars are short-circuited, a
current flows through them producing a magnetic field.

This magnetic field opposes the revolving magnetic field and will combine with the
main filed to produce a revolving filed. By this action, the rotor starts revolving in the
same direction of the rotating magnetic field as in the case of a squirrel cage induction
motor.

Hence, once the rotor starts rotating, the starting winding can be disconnected from the
supply by some mechanical means as the rotor and stator fields from a revolving
magnetic field. There are several types of split phase motors.
  TYPES OF SPLIT-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

1. Resistance-start, induction-run motors

2. Capacitor-start, induction-run motors

3. Capacitor-start, capacitor-run motors

4. Shaded pole motors.

1. RESISTANCE-START, INDUCTION-RUN MOTORS

As the starting torque of this type of motor is relatively small and its starting current is
high, these motors are most commonly used for rating up to 0.5 HP where the load
could be started easily. The essential parts are shown in Fig: 4.7.

 Main winding or running winding.

 Auxiliary winding or starting winding

 Squirrel cage type rotor.

 Centrifugal switch.

 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

The starting winding is designed to have a higher resistance and lower reactance than
the main winding. This is achieved by using small conductors in the auxiliary winding
than in the main winding. The main winding will have higher inductance when
surrounded by more iron, which could be made possible by placing it deeper into the
stator slots, it is obvious that the current would split as shown in Fig: 4.7(b).

Fig: 4.7
The starting current "I" start will lag the main supply voltage "V" line by 15 degree and the main
winding current. "I" main lags the main voltage by about 80 degree. Therefore, these currents
will differ in time phase and their magnetic fields will combine to produce a rotating magnetic
field.

When the motor has come upto about 75 to 80% of synchronous speed, the starting winding is
opened by a centrifugal switch and the motor will continue to operate as a single phase motor.

 APPLICATIONS

These motors are used for driving fans, grinders, washing machines.

2. CAPACITOR-START, INDUCTION-RUN MOTOR

A drive which requires a large starting torque may be fitted with a capacitor-start,
induction- run motor as it has excellence starting torque as compared to the resistance-
start, induction-run motor.

 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

Fig: 4.9(a) shows the schematic diagram of a capacitor-start, induction-run motor. As

shown, the main winding is directly connected across the main supply whereas the
starting winding is connected across the main supply through a capacitor and
centrifugal switch.

Both these windings are placed in a stator slot at 90 degree electrical apart, and a
squirrel cage type rotor is used.

As shown in Fig: 4.9(b), at the time of starting the current in the main winding lags the
supply voltages by 90 degrees, depending upon its inductance and resistance. On the
other hand, the current in the starting winding due to its capacitor will lead the applied
voltage, by say 20 degrees.

Hence, the phase difference between the main and starting winding becomes near to 90
degrees. This in turn makes the line current to be more or less in phase with its applied
voltage, making the power factor to be high, thereby creating an excellent starting
torque.

However, after attaining 75% of the rated speed, the centrifugal switch operates
opening the starting winding and the motor then operates as an induction motor, with
only the main winding connected to the supply.
 Fig: 4.9

As shown in Fig: 4.9(b), the displacement of current in the main and starting winding is about
80/90 degrees, and the power factor angle between the applied voltage and line current is very
small. This results in producing a high power factor and an excellent starting torque, several
times higher than the normal running torque as shown in Fig: 4.10.

 APPLICATIONS

Due to the excellent starting torque and easy direction-reversal characteristics,

 Used in belted fans,

 Used in blowers dryers,
 Used in washing machines,
 Used in pumps and compressors.

3. CAPACITOR-START, CAPACITOR-RUN MOTORS

As discussed earlier, one capacitor-start, induction-run motors have excellent starting torque, say
about 300% of the full load torque and their power factor during starting in high.

However, their running torque is not good, and their power factor, while running is low. They
also have lesser efficiency and cannot take overloads.

 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

The aforementioned problems are eliminated by the use of a two valve capacitor motor in which
one large capacitor of electrolytic (short duty) type is used for starting whereas a smaller

capacitor of oil filled (continuous duty) type is used for running, by connecting them with the
starting winding as shown in Fig:4.11. A general view of such a two valve capacitor motor is
shown in Fig: 4.11.
 Fig: 4.11

This motor also works in the same way as a capacitor-start, induction-run motor, with exception,
that the capacitor C1 is always in the circuit, altering the running performance to a great extent.

The starting capacitor which is of short duty rating will be disconnected from the starting
winding with the help of a centrifugal switch, when the starting speed attains about 75% of the
rated speed.

This motor has the following advantages:

• The starting torque is 300% of the full load torque

• The starting current is low, say 2 to 3 times of the running current.

• Starting and running power factor are good.

• Highly efficient running.

• Extremely noiseless operation.

• Can be loaded upto 125% of the full load capacity.

 APPLICATIONS

• Used for compressors, refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc.

• Higher starting torque.

• High efficiency, higher power factor and overloading.

 • Costlier than the capacitor-start — Induction run motors of the same
capacity.

 REPULSION STARTING
This type of starting need a wound rotor with brush and commutator arrangement like a
dc armature Fig 4.13(a). The starting operation is based on the principle of repulsion
and hence the name.

 CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING

Repulsion starting, though complicated in construction and higher in cost, are still used
in certain industries due to their excellent starting torque, low starting current, ability to
withstand long spell of starting currents to drive heavy loads and their easy method of
reversal of direction.Now there is a condition that the rotor north pole will be repelled
by the main north pole and the rotor south pole is repelled by the main south pole, so
that a torque could be developed in the rotor. Now due to the repulsion action between
the stator and the rotor poles, the rotor will start rotating in a clockwise direction. As the
motor torque is due to repulsion action, this starting method is named as repulsion
starting.

Fig: 4.13

To change the direction of rotation of this motor, the brush axis needs to be shifted from the right
side as shown in Fig:4.13(b) to the left side of the main axis in a counter clockwise direction as
shown in Fig:4.13(b).
 Fig: 4.14

A shaded pole made of laminated sheets has a slot cut across the lamination at about one third
the distance from the edge of the pole.Around the smaller portion of the pole, a short-circuited
copper ring is placed which is called the shading coil, and this part of the pole is known as the
shaded part of the pole. The remaining part of the pole is called the unshaded part which is clearly
shown in Fig: 4.14(b).

Around the poles, exciting coils are placed to which an AC supply is connected. When AC
supply is effected to the exciting coil, the magnetic axis shifts from the unshaded part of the pole
to the shaded part as will be explained in details in the next paragraph. This shifting of axis is
equivalent to the physical movement of the pole.This magnetic axis, which is moving, cuts the
rotor conductors and hence, a rotational torque is developed in the rotor.

By this torque the rotor starts rotating in the direction of the shifting of the magnetic axis that is
from the unshaded part to the shaded part.
 UNIT-IV
POWER CONVERTERS AND ELECTRICAL
INSTALLATIONS
DC-DC CONVERTER:

A dc‐to‐dc converter, also known as dc chopper, is a static device which is used to obtain
a variable dc voltage from a constant dc voltage source. Choppers are widely used in trolley cars,
battery operated vehicles, traction motor control, control of large number of dc motors, etc…..
They are also used as dc voltage regulators. Choppers are of two types: (1) Step‐down choppers,
and (2) Step‐up choppers. In step‐down choppers, the output voltage will be less than the input
voltage, whereas in step‐up choppers output voltage will be more than the input voltage.

PRINCIPLE OF STEP‐DOWN CHOPPER:

Figure 9.1 shows a step‐down chopper with resistive load. The thyristor in the circuit
acts as a switch. When thyristor is ON, supply voltage appears across the load and when thyristor
is OFF, the voltage across the load will be zero. The output voltage waveform is as shown in Fig.
9.2
METHODS OF CONTROL:

The output dc voltage can be varied by the following methods.

 Pulse width modulation control or constant frequency operation.

 Variable frequency control.

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

 tON is varied keeping chopping frequency ‘f’ & chopping period ‘T’ constant.

 Output voltage is varied by varying the ON time tON

ANALYSIS OF A STEP‐DOWN CHOPPER WITH RLOAD

Referring to Fig.9.2, the average output voltage can be found as

  STEP‐DOWN CHOPPER WITH R‐L LOAD

Consider a class-A chopper circuit with R-L load as shown in Fig.9.4.This is a step down
chopper with one quadrant operation. If we use the simplified linear analysis by considering that
T<< τ, where (T = ton + toff ) . In this case the current is continuous as shown in Fig.9.5
Referring to Fig.9.5:

 The current variation is almost linear and the current waveform becomes triangular.

 During the ON period , the equation govern the circuit is

  Batteries – Types & working

Batteries are the most common power source for basic handheld devices to large scale industrial
applications. A battery can be defined as; it is a combination of one or more electrochemical
cells that are capable of converting stored chemical energy into electrical energy.

 Working of Battery:

A battery is a device, which consists of a various voltaic cells. Each voltaic cell consists of two
half cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte holding anions and cat ions. One half-
cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which anions move, i.e. the anode or negative
electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cat ions move, i.e.
the cathode or positive electrode.

In the redox reaction that powers the battery, reduction occurs to cations at the cathode, while
oxidation occurs to anions at the anode. The electrodes do not touch one another but are
electrically connected by the electrolyte. Mostly the half cells have different electrolytes. All
things considered every half-cell is enclosed in a container and a separator that is porous to ions
but not the bulk of the electrolytes prevent mixing.
Each half cell has an electromotive force (Emf), determined by its capacity to drive electric
current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference
between the emf of its half-cells. In this way, if the electrodes have emf and in other words, the
net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.

 How to maintain the Battery?

To maintain the battery in good condition, battery equalization is necessary. Due to aging, all the
cells do not charge similarly and some cells accept charge extremely fast while others charge
gradually. Equalization can be done by marginally over charging the battery to allow the weaker
cells also to charge completely. The terminal voltage of a completely charged battery is12V,
automobile battery shows 13.8V in its terminals while a 12 volt tubular battery will show 14.8V.
Automobile battery should be firmly fixed in the vehicle to avoid shake. Inverter battery should
be placed on a wooden plank if possible.

 Types of Batteries
1) Primary Batteries:

As the name indicates these batteries are meant for single usage. Once these batteries are used
they cannot be recharged as the devices are not easily reversible and active materials may not
return to their original forms. Battery manufacturers recommend against recharge of primary
cells.

Some of the examples for the disposable batteries are the normal AA, AAA batteries which we
use in wall clocks, television remote etc. Other name for these batteries is disposable batteries.
2) Secondary Batteries:

Secondary batteries are also called as rechargeable batteries. These batteries can be used and
recharges simultaneously. They are usually assembled with active materials with active in the
discharged state. Rechargeable batteries are recharged by applying electric current, which
reverses the chemical reactions that occur during discharge. Chargers are devices which supply
the required current.

Some examples for these rechargeable batteries are the batteries used in mobile phones, MP3
players etc. Devices such as hearing aids and wristwatches use miniature cells and in places such
as telephone exchanges or computer data centre’s, larger batteries are used.

Lead Acid Battery:

Lead Acid batteries are widely used in automobiles, inverters, backup power systems etc. Unlike tubular
and maintenance free batteries, Lead Acid batteries require proper care and maintenance to prolong its
life. The Lead Acid battery consists of a series of plates kept immersed in sulphuric acid solution. The
plates have grids on which the active material is attached. The plates are

divided into positive and negative plates. The positive plates hold pure lead as the active material
while lead oxide is attached on the negative plates.

A completely charged battery can discharge its current when connected to a load. During the
process of discharge, the sulphuric acid combines with the active materials on the positive and
negative plates resulting in the formation of Lead sulphate. Water is the single most important
step in maintaining a Lead Acid battery. The frequency of water depends on usage, charge
method and operating temperature. During process, the hydrogen atoms from the sulphuric acid
react with oxygen to form water.

This results in the release of electrons from the positive plates which will be accepted by the
negative plates. This leads to the formation of an electric potential across the battery. The
electrolyte in the Lead Acid battery is a mixture of Sulphuric acid and water which has a specific
gravity. Specific gravity is the weight of the acid-water mixture compared to equal volume of
water. The specific gravity of pure ions free water is 1.

The lead-acid batteries provide the best value for power and energy per kilowatt-hour; have the
longest life cycle and a large environmental advantage in that they are recycled at an
extraordinarily high rate. No other chemistry can touch the infrastructure that exists for
collecting, transporting and recycling lead-acid batteries.

Nickel Cadmium (Nicd) Battery:

The Nickel Cadmium batteries have the advantage of being recharged many times and possess a
relatively constant potential during discharge and have more electrical and physical withstanding
capacity. This battery uses nickel oxide for cathode, a cadmium compound for anode and
potassium hydroxide solution as its electrolyte.

When the battery is charged, the chemical composition of the cathode is transformed and the
nickel hydroxide changes to NIOOH. In the anode, formation of Cadmium ions take place from
Cadmium Hydroxide. When battery is discharged, the cadmium reacts with NiOOH to form back
nickel hydroxide and Cadmium Hydroxide.

Cd + 2H2O + 2NiOOH —> 2Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2

  Low Tension Switches – SFU, MCB, MCCB, ELCB & RCCB

Switch Fuse units Switch Fuse units, or main switches as they are generally called are
suitable for diverse applications, in motor control centers, in switchboards and as main switches in
various equipments and machines.

L&T provides state of the art FN range of main switches that are safe to use, rate high on
asthetics, and provide energy saving fuses.

The main functions of switchgear are:

1. Electrical protection;
2. Electrical isolation of sections of an installation;
3. Local or remote switching.

Electrical protection against Isolation Control

1. Overload currents short- 1. Isolation clearly indicated by an 1. Functional switching

circuit currents insulation authorized fail-proof mechanical 2. Emergency switching
failure indicator 3. Emergency stopping
2. A gap or interposed insulating 4. Switching off for
barrier between the open mechanical
contacts, clearly visible. maintenance
These functions are summarized below in table H2-1.

Electrical protection at low voltage is (apart from fuses) normally incorporated in circuit
breakers, in the form of thermal-magnetic devices and/or residual-current-operated tripping
devices (less-commonly, residual-voltage-operated devices – acceptable to, but not
recommended by IEC).

In addition to those functions shown in table H2-1, other functions, namely:

 Over-voltage protection;
 Under-voltage protection is provided by specific devices (lightning and various other
types of voltage-surge arrester; relays associated with: contactors, remotely- controlled
circuit breakers, and with combined circuit breaker/isolators… and so on).

Difference between MCB, MCCB, ELCB, RCCB and Its Characteristics

Electrical circuit breaker is a one kind of switching device which can be activated automatically
as well as manually to control and protect an electrical power system respectively. As the current
power system deals with vast currents, the special notice should be given throughout designing
of circuit breaker to secure break of arc produced during the process of the circuit breaker. This
was the fundamental definition of circuit breakers. These have been divided into a various types
based on special categories they have been subdivided into.

1. MCB - Miniature Circuit Breaker

MCB is an electromechanical device which guards an electrical circuit from an over current, that
may effect from short circuit, overload or imperfect design. This is a better option to a Fuse since
it doesn’t require alternate once an overload is identified. An MCB can be simply rearranged and
thus gives a better operational protection and greater handiness without incurring huge operating
cost. The operating principle of MCB is simple.

An MCB function by interrupting the stability of electrical flow through the circuit once an
error is detected. In simple conditions this circuit breaker is a switch which routinely turns off
when the current flows through it and passes the maximum acceptable limit. Generally, these are
designed to guard against over current and ov
overheating.

MCB is substituting the rewirable switch

switch-fuse
fuse units for low power domestic and industrial
applications in a very quick manner. In wiring system, the MCB is a blend of all three functions
such as protection of short circuit
circuit, overload and switching.
g. Protection of overload by using a
bimetallic strip & short circuit protection by used solenoid.

These are obtainable in different pole versions like single, double, triple pole & four poles with
neutral poles if necessary. The normal current rating is ranges from 0.5
0.5-63
63 A with a symmetrical
short circuit breaking capacity of 33-10 KA, at a voltage level of 230 or 440V.
Characteristics of MCB

The characteristics of an MCB mainly include the following

 Rated current is not more than 100 amperes

 Normally, trip characteristics are not adjustable
 Thermal/thermal magnetic operation

2. MCCB-Molded
Molded Case Circuit Breaker

The MCCB is used to control electric energy in distribution n/k and is having short circuit and
overload protection. This circuit Breaker is an electromechanical device which guards a circuit
from short circuit and over current. They offer short circuit and over current protection for
circuits ranges from 63 Amps-3000
3000 Amps. The primary functions of MCCB is to give a means to
manually open a circuit, automatically open a circuit under short circuit or overload
conditions. In an electrical circuit, the over current may result faulty design
The MCCB is an option to a fuse since it doesn’t need an alternate once an overload is noticed.
Unlike a fuse, this circuit breaker can be simply reset after a mistake and offers enhanced
operator safety and ease without acquiring operating cost. Generally, these circuits have thermal
current for over current and the magnetic element for short circuit release to work faster.

Characteristics of MCCB

The characteristics of an MCCB mainly include the following

 The range of rated current us up to 1000 amperes

 Trip current may be adjusted
 Thermal/thermal magnetic operation

3. ELCB - Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker

The ELCB is used to protect the circuit from the electrical leakage. When someone gets an
electric shock, then this circuit breaker cuts off the power at the time of 0.1 secs for protecting
the personal safety and avoiding the gear from the circuit against short circuit and overload.

ELCB is a security device used in electrical system with high Earth impedance to avoid shock. It
notices small stray voltages on the metal fields of electrical gear, and interrupt the circuit if an
unsafe voltage is detected. The main principle of Earth leakage protectors is to stop injury to
humans and nature due to electric shock.

This circuit breaker is a specialized kind of latching relay that has structures incoming mains
power connected through its switching contacts so that this circuit breaker disconnects the power
supply in an unsafe condition.

The ELCB notices fault currents from live to the ground wire inside the installation it guards. If
enough voltage emerges across the sense coil in the circuit breaker, it will turn off the supply,
and stay off until reset by hand. A voltage-sensing earth leakage circuit breaker doesn’t detect
fault currents from exist to any other ground body.
Characteristics of ELCB

The characteristics of an ELCB mainly include the following

 This circuit breaker connects the phase, earth wire and neutral
 The working of this circuit breaker depends on current leakage

4. RCCB (Residual Current Circuit Breaker)

A RCCB is essential current sensing equipment used to guard a low voltage circuit from the
fault. It comprises of a switch device used to turn off the circuit when a fault occurs in the
circuit. RCCB is aimed at guarding a person from the electric
electrical
al shocks. Fires and electrocution
are caused due to the wrong wiring or any earth faults. This type of circuit breaker is used in
situations where there is a sudden shock or fault happening in the circuit.

For instance, a person suddenly enters in contact with an open live wire in an electrical circuit. In
that situation, in the absence of this circuit breaker, a ground fault may occur and an individual is
at the hazardous situation of receiving a shock. But, if the similar circuit is defended with the
circuit breaker, it will tour the circuit in a second therefore, avoiding a person from the electric
shock. Therefore, this circuit breaker is good to install in an electrical circuit.
Characteristics of RCCB

The characteristics of an RCCB mainly include the following

 Both wires phase and neutral are connected through RCCB

 Whenever there is any ground fault occurs, then it trips the circuit
 The amount of current supplies through the line should go back through neutral
 These are a very effective type of shock protection
APPLICATIONS :
 Applications of Kirchhoff’s Laws
 They can be used to analyze any electrical circuit.
 Computation of current and voltage of complex circuits.
 Applications of Thevenin’s theorem
 In our day-to-day life, whenever we overload a voltage source e.g. domestic supply or a
battery, we observe a dip in voltage. This is basically an application of thevenins
theorem, in the most observable form.
 Any practical voltage source can be represented by an ideal voltage source in series with
a resistance (or impedance). When a current is drawn from the source, some voltage drop
takes place across the series impedance, and therefore, terminal voltage falls.

 Applications of Norton’s theorem

One very useful application of Norton's theorem is in solving the problem of parallel
generators having unequal emf’s and unequal internal impedances. All generators
(voltage generators) are converted into current generators by applying Norton's theorem.
Then, these current generators can be combined easily to form one single current
generator with only one impedance connected across it. Now, the current generator is
converted back into voltage generator, using thevenins theorem. Thus, finally we get one
single voltage generator with a single series impedance.

 Applications of Superposition theorem

Superposition theorem provides easy solution when a circuit is energized by a variety of
sources. Consider a circuit energized by two AC sources having different frequencies or
two sources having different voltage or current waveforms. Or a circuit energized by a
voltage source and a current source. Such problems can be solved using superposition
theorem i.e. considering one source at a time and then adding the responses to find out
currents and voltages in various parts of the circuit.

MCQ POST TEST :

1. A voltage across a series resistor circuit is proportional to?

a) The amount of time the circuit was on for

b) The value of the resistance itself
c) The value of the other resistances in the circuit
d) The power in the circuit

2. Many resistors connected in series will?

a) Divide the voltage proportionally among all the resistors

b) Divide the current proportionally
c) Increase the source voltage in proportion to the values of the resistors
d) Reduce the power to zero
3. What is the voltage measured across a series short?

a) Infinite
b) Zero
c) The value of the source voltage
d) Null

4. What happens to the current in the series circuit if the resistance is doubled?

a) It becomes half its original value

b) It becomes double its original value
c) It becomes zero
d) It becomes infinity

5. Batteries are generally connected in______

a) Series
b) Parallel
c) Either series or parallel
d) Neither series nor parallel

6. The value of a given waveform at any instant time is termed as

a) Waveform
b) Instantaneous value
c) Cycle
d) Period

7. The maximum instantaneous value measured from zero value is known as?

a) Peak value
b) Peak to peak value
c) Cycle
d) Period

8.The maximum variation between the maximum positive and the maximum negative value is
known as?

a) Peak value
b) Peak to peak value
c) Cycle
d) Period
9. RMS stands for

a) Root Mean Square

b) Root Mean Sum
c) Root Maximum sum
d) Root Minimum Sum

10. What is the effective value of current?

a) RMS current
b) Average current
c) Instantaneous current
d) Total current

11. The function of transformer is to

a) Convert AC to DC
b) Convert DC to AC
c) Step down or up the DC voltages and currents
d) Step down or up the AC voltages and currents

12. Transformers windings are generally made of

a) Steel
b) Iron
c) Copper
d) Steel iron alloy

13. An induction motor can be said analogous to

a) transformer
b) Synchronous motor
c) Universal motor
d) Stepper motor

14.The external resistance can be inserted in rotor circuit of

a) Wound rotor induction motor

b) Slip ring induction motor
c) Wound rotor as slip ring induction motor
d) Neither of motors

15. A step - down choppers can be used in

a) Electric traction
b) Electric vehicles
c) Machine tools
d) All of these

16. Choppers is a
a) AC - DC converters
b) AC - AC converters
c) DC - AC converters
d) DC - DC converters

17. A chopper may be thought as a

a) Inverter with DC input
b) DC equivalent of an AC transformer
c) Diode rectifier
d) DC equivalent of an induction motor

18. The fault clearing time of a circuit breaker is usually

a) few minutes
b) few seconds
c) one second
d) few cycles of supply voltage

19. A circuit breaker is

a) power factor correcting device
b) a device to neutralize the effect of transients
c) a waveform correcting device
d) a current interrupting device

20. If energy is taken from the AC side of the inverter and sends it back into the DC side, then it
is known as

a) Motoring mode operation

b) Braking mode operation
c) Regenerative mode operation
d) None of these
CONCLUSION :

After the successful completion of the course, students will be able to

 Understand and analyze basic electric and magnetic circuits

 Explain the basic electrical quantities and laws.

 Understand the working principles of electrical machines and power

converters.

 Explain the construction, types and applications of electrical machines.

 Study the working principles of power converters

 Introduce the components of low voltage electrical installations and its

applications.

REFERENCES :

1. D. P. Kothari and I. J. Nagrath, “Basic Electrical Engineering”, Tata McGraw Hill, 2010.
2. D. C. Kulshreshtha, “Basic Electrical Engineering”, McGraw Hill, 1st Edition July 2017.
3. L. S. Bobrow, “Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering”, Oxford University Press, 2011.
4. E. Hughes, “Electrical and Electronics Technology”, Pearson, 10th Edition 2010.
5. V. D. Toro, “Electrical Engineering Fundamentals”, Prentice Hall India, 2nd Edition 1989.

ASSIGNMENTS :

1. For both networks shown below, find the voltage across and the current through each element
in the network. Be sure to make the polarity of the voltages and currents clear. Also, find the
power generated or dissipated by each network element, and show that energy is conserved in
total over the network.
2. Find the equivalent resistance of the following networks as viewed from their ports.

3. Determine the power consumed by the 5Ω resistor in the network shown below.

4. Determine the Thevenin equivalent of the following circuit. Note that it contains a dependent voltage
source, and that the parameter α has units of Ohms.

5. Find the Thevenin and Norton equivalents of the following networks, and graph their i−v rela ons as
viewed from their ports. (Hint: use superposition for Network B.)