İstanbul Nişantaşı University

Physiology Department
Dentistry Faculty

NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
Prof. Dr. Nazan DOLU
 Control Systems
• Nervous system
• Internal secretion system

• Cooperation between organ systems

• Response to indoor and environment variables
– Decrease of blood pressure, hypoxia…
– Burning our hands, running away from the car…

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 Basic Mechanism
1.Accurate reception of senses or information
2.Linking to relevant effector organs to give the right
answer to this news
3.Giving the appropriate answer

Sensory input - Reaching the center - Answer

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 Reflex Arc
• Receptor
• Afferent road
• Integration center
• Efferent road
• Effector organ

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 Nervous system
• Central nervous system (integration center)
– Brain
– Medulla spinalis
• Peripheral nervous system (afferent + efferent path)
– Sensory system (afferent)
– Motor system (efferent)
– Somatic (voluntary)
– Autonomous (involuntary)
• Sympathetic
• parasympathetic

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 Nervous System Cells
• Neurons
– Real nerve cells that generate and transmit the
stimulus
– 10% of all cells
• Neuroglia cells (connective and supportive
tissue)

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 Neuroglia cells
• Divided into two groups
• Microglia: Phagocytes of the brain.
• Makroglia
– Astrocytes: Transition of substances in the blood brain
barrier and removal of neurotransmitters
– Oligodendrocytes: myelin sheath in the CNS
– Schwan cells: myelin sheath in PSS

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 Neuroglia cells

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 Neuroglia cells

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 General features of neuroglia
• They are regenerable cells.
• They cannot generate action potential.
• They are nerve cell isolators. The distance between neuron
and neuroglia is 100-200nm. Extracellular environment of
neurons.
• They are contains potassium.
• They play a role in the formation of (-) potential for neurons.
• They provide rapid intracellular and extracellular ion
conduction through gap junctions.

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 Astrosit

Mikroglia
Oligodentrosit

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 Neuron
• Body - soma - (organelles)
• Extensions
– Axon (away from body)
Single
A few  - 1 m
– Dendrite (towards the body)
A large number of branched structure (10,000)

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 Types of neurons
• Unipolar neuron: One axon
• Bipolar neuron: One axon and one dentrite
(olfactor epithel)
• Pseudounipolar neuron (one extension than
gives branches central and peripheral
branches (some cranial neurones)
• Multipolar neuron: general type of neurons.
One axon and a lot of dentrite. Motor
neurons contains this type neurons.

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 Axon
• Initial segment: The
beginning segment of the
stimulus to
collaterals
• The greater the branch, the
greater the effect
• More branchable
• Axon termination (terminal)
Neurotransmitters in
vesicles
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 Myelin
• Oligodendroglias form and maintain the myelin sheaths surrounding
CNS neuron processes.
– Each oligodendrocyte sheathes multiple axons (up to 40)
• Schwann cells (SCs) are glial cell that surrounds neurons with a
myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous system
– Single cell
– Ranvier nodes
– Saltatoric message

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 Axonic Transport
• Substances made in organelles in the body are transported towards
the terminal
• Rarely moving in the opposite direction
• Special chemical signals
• Growth factors
• Pathogenic substances
– Tetanus toxin
– Poliovirus
– Herpes virus

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 Neuron Types
• Sensory neurons (afferent neuron)
– 20 times more afferent
neurons from efferent neurons
• Motor neurons (efferent neuron)
• Intermediate neurons
(interneurons) - 99%
• Projection neurons
– Organization of perception,
memory and behavior

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 Receptor
• A specialized structure for afferent neuron
termination or
• Another cell in contact with the afferent neuron

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 Afferent Neuron
• Atypical structure
• Body is outside the central
nervous system
• The axon is divided into
two
– An extension enters the
central nervous system
– The other extends to the
receptor
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 Efferent Neuron
• Body and dendrites in
central nervous system
• Axon extends to the
periphery

Interneuron
• Completely in the central nervous
system
• Diversity and number difference is
evident
• Integrator - signal changer
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 Evolution
• 50-70% loss during embryological development
• The division is completed until delivery
• The development is not in the number of neurons, but
in connection
• Peripheral nerves have regeneration ability
– Proximal to distal
• Central nervous system neurons will not repair
– Regeneration in culture medium

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 Neurons
• Neurons are involved in the formation and
transmission of action potentials.
• Histologically according to axon length;
• 1- Long axon: Pyramidal
• 2- Short axon: Granular (Stellate, Star cell), Fusiform,
Horizontal

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 Pyramidal Cells

• They are large, long,

• Large numbers
• Subcortical
transmission between
two hemispheres de
rol alırlar.

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 Neurons

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 Neurons

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Neuron-to-neuron information
transfer
Synapses
 Synapses
• Where neurons transfer information
• Synaptic transmission
• Where one neuron changes the activity of another
• Sometimes between neuron and effector cell (with
muscle, neuromuscular junction)

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 Synapse types
• Axo-dendritic (85-90%)
• Axo-somatic (5-20%)
• Axon-aksonik
• Dendro-dendritic
• Dendro-somatic

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 Electrical synapses

• Very rare
• Gap junction
• Direct transmission of electric current

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 Chemical Synapse
• Extracellular space between pre- and postsynaptic
membranes
• Action potential
• Presynaptic membrane calcium channels
• Neurotransmitter and kotransmitter release
• Receptor activation
– The excitation; transmission of action potential
(Acetylcholine, glutamate, adrenaline)
– Inhibition; interruption of nerve conduction (GABA,
glycine)
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 Receptor Activation

• Neurotransmitter - receptor interaction

Ion channels
Opening
Closing

ONE-WAY MESSAGE

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Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system
Cortex
NERVOUS SYSTEM All nerve cell bodies are
M.oblongata
outside the brain and
Pons medulla spinalis
Reticular It receives and sends
formation information from the
Thalamus muscles, glands, and
Hypothalamus glands.

Epitalamus Its activity is regulated

by two types of nerves
Basal ganglia
1. 12 pairs of Cranial
Cerebellum
nerve
M. Spinalis 2. 31 double spinal
nerve 33
34
Nervous system

35
36
37
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM AND PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

1) Nucleus: Neuron Communities in the Central

Nervous System
2) Ganglion: Neuron Communities in the Peripheral
Nervous System
3) Tractus: Axon Communities in the Central
Nervous System
4) Nerve: Axon Communities in the Peripheral
Nervous System

38
 BRAIN

* 1300-1400 grams.
* It consists of 100 million nerve cells (neurons) and
trillions of “glia” (support cells).

39
Cerebrum
*Largest part of the brain
(divided into two halves =
hemispheres)
*Surface area expanded
with gyrus
*Separated by a longitudinal
fissure
*Corpus Callosum helps
distribute information
across brain hemispheres
40
• Brain hemispheres
connect with each other
in two places
• 1- Corpus Callosum
• 2- Comissura Anterior
• If the corpus callosum is
interrupted, it will affect
certain differential
functions.

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 Brain Lobes
• The brain shell covers two hemispheres.
• Each hemisphere was divided into 4 lobes with
sulcus centralis and parieto-occipital sulcus (silvius
cleft).
• 1-Frontal lobe
• 2-Parietal lobe
• 3-Temporal lobe
• 4-Occipital lobe

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Cerebral cortex lobes, sensory and motor areas
Frontal lobe: Primary
motor area + premotor
area
The voluntary
movements of skeletal
muscles are controlled
(excited or inhibited)
Parietal lobe: General
sensory centers,
learning, memory,
logic centers
Occipital lobe: vision
Temporal lobe: Hearing areas, and evaluation
perception and evaluation of hearing 43
Map of Brodman

44
• According to Brodman there are 3 functional areas
• 1-Motor fields
• 2-Sensoriel fields
• 3-Association areas

45
1,2,3→Somatosensory
cortex
4 → Motor cortex
17,18,19 → Vision
41ve 42 → Hearing
8,9,10,11 →Prefrontal
associative cortex
45 →Broca
region (they understand
conversations, but cannot
speak. Motor conversation
area)
22→ Wernicke
region (they understand
the conversations, but
give the wrong answer)

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Motor and sensory areas of cerebral
cortex

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48
 Cerebral Cortex

Somatosensory field: Somatic senses (contact, pain, heat)

centers. Provides understanding of senses, creates muscle
movements in related body parts = cooperation with motor
centers (basal ganglia, thalamus)
Areas of association: Receives signals from motor and sensory
cortex regions, makes solutions, makes sense (recognition of
faces, face recognition, etc.)
49
 Cerebral Cortex

Prefrontal area: Cooperation with the motor cortex. The shape

and sequence of complex movements are designed. The
position of the body in space is learned from the postural area
and sent to the basal ganglia and thalamus.
Broca's field: Sentence design and engine patterns are created,
collaboration with Wernicke
Parieto-occipito-temporal area: Signals from all sensory areas
are highly interpreted. 50
 Brain metabolism

7.5 times faster than the body's metabolic rate,

even at rest

Energy source is glucose and oxygen

Transport of glucose to neurons is not insulin
dependent (Diffusion!)

51
 Hypothalamus: Important for autonomic functions (“major ganglion”
community of nerve cells) Part of the limbic system

It has the necessary nucleus to maintain homeostasis

1. Control of body temperature
(blood temperature)
Preoptic field
2. Ensuring body water balance
(osmolarity change, pituitary, ADH,
water uptake)
Thirst center: Lateral Hypo.
ADH release: Supraoptic N.
3. Hunger, satiety, appetite, nutrition
reflexes
Ventromedyal N. Eating center
Paraventricular N. Fasting center
4. Control of blood pressure,
cardiovascular (CV) regulation
52
(Lateral, posterior hypothalamus)
 Hypothalamus
5. Control of abdominal pelvic organs (sexual
behavior, reproductive effect)
6. Anger, excitement, fear (behavioral characteristics,
CV regulation)
7.Endocrinological function (Releasing hormones,
ADH (supraoptic Nuc.), Oxytocin (paraventricular
Nuc.)

53
 Limbic system •Control of eating,
drinking, getting angry,
•excited,
Eating, drinking, anger,
afraid, sexual
excitement,
activities fear, control of
sexual activities
•The cortex receives
•The cortex receives
information from the
information
sensory areasfromofthe
thesensory
areas of and
cerebri the cerebrum
sends and
efferent
sends stimuli
efferent related
stimuli to the
to autonomicregarding
hypothalamus and
•Hippocampus; deals with the
endocrine and
autonomic functions
endocrineto
sensorial information and
the hypothalamus.
functions.
memory 54
 Thalamus: intermediate station
OCollection of nuclei

OPart of Diencephalon

OAfferent neurons synapse here,

OItusually receives sensory and

special sensory input and sends
this information to the brain
cortex

OAssociated with perception of mental state and pain

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 Basal ganglions • Nuclei deep in the
cerebrum
• Corpus Striatum &
Substantia nigra
• Posture is important for
planning and coordination
of motor movements
• Inhibits motor activation
(with dopamine)
• Loss of this function
results in muscle tremor
(Parkinson’s)

The timing and coordination of movements are made in

cooperation with the motor fields in the cerebral cortex (resting
tremor) 56
 Cerebellum
Vermis is divided into
two hemispheres and
lobes
Cortex on the outside,
white matter and nuclei
on the inside
Function:
Coordination and integration of motor movements
Ensuring balance, motor learning (cycling),
speaking
57
Hand and extremity
motion

Consecutive voluntary
movements

Balance movements
58
 Balance by the cerebellum
While the cerebellum receives impulses from the
semicircular canals in the inner ear, it also receives
proprioceptive impulses from the muscles, whereby
effector signals are sent to both the cortex and the
medulla spinal to generate balance motor orders.
Coordination of the senses of touch, hearing and vision:
The muscles are coordinated by evaluating the impulses
from the centers of these senses to the cerebellum (the
relationship between ease of vision and movement)
Cerebellum coordinates sequential movements (cycling,
distance measurement ability)
59
Brain stem = Mesencephalon + pons + medulla oblongata

(Bulbus)
60
 PONS •It forms a neural bridge to
the cerebellum, the synapse
point of some cranial nerves
•V.-VI.-VII. and VIII. It carries
the nuclei of the nerves.
•It has to do with eye
movements and balance
•The information control
from both ears is •The paths of auditory
collected here and information from the ear to
the source of the the brain pass through the
sound is determined. pons.
61
 Medulla oblongata
VIII –XII. Contains cell bodies
of nerves
Control of basic functions;
cardiovascular functions,
inhalation ..
Reflex center; coughing,
sneezing, yawning, swallowing,
vomiting ..
Contains reticular Cross-section of motor
activation system fibers
62
 Mid Brain

* III and IV. Cranial nerves

* Pupillary contraction and eye movements
* Auditory and visual reflex control

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Reticular Formation (Reticular activation center)
Vegetative motoric regulation function;
cardiac reflexes with hypothalamus,
control of circulation
Control of body posture and purposeful
movements; movement, maintaining
muscle tone

Cooperation with cortex; function of being conscious, sleeping,

alertness and attention
Transmission of afferent information to limbic system and
formation of emotional effects; pain, important sounds (baby,
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offspring)
Brain
membranes
and ventricles

65
Blood-brain barrier
Endothelial cells of the
brain vessels are tightly
fused with each other
and fully enveloped by
astrocyte extensions

This structure is semipermeable. Some

substances cannot pass freely from the
bloodstream to the brain tissue.
Protects the brain from substances that can
damage brain tissue in the blood
Protects against hormones and
neurotransmitters
Creates a stable environment for the brain
66
 Blood-brain barrier
Permeable: Water, CO2,
O2, alcohol soluble in
lipids and anesthetics,
glucose, sulfadiazine,
erythromycin
Less permeable: Na, Cl,
K, lactic and pyruvic acid
(astrocytes may be
important for ion transfer
from brain tissue to
blood)
• Impermeable: Large organic molecules and large
electrically charged molecules, insoluble in fat,
penicillin, chlorthetracycline
67
 Peripheral Nervous System
• It consists of the neuron and its extensions that they send to all parts of
the body.
• Cranial nerves (originating from the brain) 12 cranials
• Cranial nerves sometimes only sensory
• Spinal nerves (originating from the medulla spinalis) - 31 spinal nerve
pairs
• They are divided into 2 subsections
• Somatic nervous system
• Autonomic nervous system
• Communication between the central nervous system and other parts of
the body

68
26.10.2023 N. Dolu 69
 Medulla spinalis (spinal cord)

Gray matter in the center = nerve cells, dendrites, neuroglias,

blood vessels, nerve axons without myelin
White matter in the periphery = myelinated nerve wires and
neuroglias
The afferent nerves enter the dorsal column as a root, the
axons of the efferent nerves leave the ventral column (axons
of alpha-motor neurons) 70
 Nerve cells:
Medulla spinalis Interneuron: Neurons
(spinal cord) and senzoric neurons that
connect various neurons
to each other in the dorsal
horn.
Motoneuron: Motor
neurons of the
sympathetic system in the
lateral horn, with axons
leading to skeletal
muscles in the ventral
horn.
71
 Medulla spinalis (spinal cord)
Functions
31 double nerves
(motor + senoric)
innervates the
whole body
As a reflex
center

Reflex arch: The sensory and motor fibers of the spinal nerves
form the reflex arch. Reflexive behaviors occur without the
message sent to the brain by the senzoric fibers.
Ex. When an angry iron is touched, we withdraw our hand
immediately, but we perceive the pain when the stimulus
reaches the parietal lobe through the thalamus (in
milliseconds). 72
Medulla spinalis (spinal cord)

73
 Spinal nerves
31 pairs of spinal nerve

74
 31 Pairs
Cervical 8
Thoracic 12
5 in the lumbal zone,
5 in the sacral region,
1 spinal nerve emerges in the coccyx region.
Lumbar Puncture (LP) is performed between the L3-L4
vertebrae as the spinal cord is terminated.

75
76
 Somatic nervous system
• They go to skeletal muscles
• They enable voluntary movements to be made
• They are associated with skeletal muscle activity
and body movement

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 Somatic nervous system
• It consists of peripheral nerves
(afferent, sensory) that send
sensory information to the CNS
and efferent (motor) nerve
fibers that innervate skeletal
muscles.
• Afferents receive impulses from
muscles, joints, tendons and
sensory organs
• The cell body is in either the
brain or the spinal cord and
makes direct contact with the
skeletal muscle.
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 Somatic nervous system
• They contain thick and myelinated axons
• Neurons separated from the medulla spinalis
do not synapse in the periphery.
• Major neurotransmitter is acetylcholine

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Classification of autonomic nervous
system
Sympathetic– “fight or run”
Parasympathetic - “rest or work”
Enteric nervous system:
specialized neural network in
GI system; Regulates the
glands and smooth muscles in
the intestinal wall.

80
 Autonomic Nervous System
• There are two separate neurons and a synapse
between the CNS and the effector organ.
– Body of the first neuron in the CNS
– Synapse between two neurons in autonomic ganglion
outside CNS
• Preganglionic fiber
– Between the CNS and the ganglion
• Postganglionic fiber
– Between the ganglion and the effector organ
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 Autonomic Control

• Hypothalamus

• Brainstem

• Medulla spinalis

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 Sympathetic System
• Thoracolumbal system
– Between T1- L2
• Ganglia close to the
medulla spinalis
• The system usually
works together
– Mass alert; stress

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 Neurotransmitters
• Standard transmitter of
ganglia acetylcholine
• Sympathetic postganglionic
transmitter noradrenaline
• Rarely acetylcholine (nerves
to eccrine sweat glands)
• Small amounts of ATP,
dopamine, neuropeptides
(cotransmitters)

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 Reseptörler
• Adrenergic receptors
– Alpha
• Noradrenaline
– Beta
• Adrenaline (adrenal gland HORMONE)

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• Adrenergic receptors:
• Alpha 1 causes contraction of smooth muscles
• Alpha 2 is in the artery, vasoconstricting, increasing
blood pressure
• Beta 1 is in the coronary vessels, causing
vasodilation.
• Beta 2, in the lungs, causes bronchodilation

89
 Adrenal Medulla

• Sympathetic system section with underdeveloped

postganglionic axons
• 80% adrenaline secretes and releases into the
bloodstream
• An endocrine gland that works under the control of
sympathetic preganglionic fibers

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 Sympathetic Effects
• Increased heart rate and strength of contraction
• Digestive system decreased secretion and motility
• Pupil enlargement (mydriasis)
• Bronchodilation
• Bladder relaxation
• Ejaculation
• Vasoconstriction in arterioles
• Basal metabolism + increased mental activity
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 Parasympathetic Nervous System
• Balances the sympathetic nervous system
• Preganglionic neurons in brainstem nuclei and sacral
spinal cord
• The parasympathetic system slows down the heart,
increases saliva and bowel secretions, bowel
movements.

93
 Parasympathetic Nervous System
• It brings the impulses to the sensory
neurons and the central nervous system,
and the resulting responses take the
motor neurons to the effector organ.
• Central brain and medulla in the spinalis
• Takes its fibers from cranial and sacral
nerves
• The most important nerve fibers are the
10th head pair, the nervus vagus and 2-3.
is the sacral nerve.
• Starts in the brain stem and ends at S2-S4

94
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 Neurotransmitters
• Standard transmitter of ganglia acetylcholine
• Parasympathetic postganglionic transmitter
acetylcholine

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 • Acetylcholine receptors
• Nicotinic
– Autonomous ganglia
– Skeletal muscle neuromuscular junctions
– Some central nervous system neurons
• Muscarinic
– Postganglionic cholinergic neurons
• Smooth muscles
• Heart muscle
• Glandular cells
– Some central nervous system neurons
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– Some autonom ganglia
N. Dolu
(rarely) 101
 Muscarinic receptors are of 3 types
• M1: In the nervous system
• M2: in the heart
• M3: In smooth muscles

102
Parasympathetic and sympathetic system

103
 Cranial nerves
F12 double nerves (afferent &
efferent)
FTrigeminal(V): Face &
Teeth, Chiselling for Chewing
FVestibulocochlear(VIII):
hearing and balance
FVagus (X): significant
parasympathetic nerve (heart
rate, respiration & digestion)
FMotor function: somatic
Parasympathetic: innervates motor (head & neck)
secretory glands, smooth
muscles and heart muscle
104
 12 PAİRS CRANİAL NERVE

1. N. Olfactorius (Olfactory) Cocci

2. N. Opticus (Optical)
3. N. Oculomotorius 4. N. Trochlearis 6. N. Abducens
3, 4 and 6 Moves the eyes.
5. N. Trigeminus (Trigeminal) Chew and feel the anterior part of
the head
7. N. Facialis (Facial) Moves the face, tastes it, saliva
secretions, cries.
8. N. Stato-Acusticus (Acoustic) Hearing, provides balance.
9. N. Glossopharyngeus :takes Taste ,saliva secretions,
swallows 105
10. N. Vagus.takes taste, swallows, removes the palate,
speaks, communicates with the respiratory and
digestive system.
11. N. Accessorius: turns the head
12. N. Hypoglossus Moves the tongue

106