Hello learners. Welcome to the module on Indian languages.

In this chapter, we'll introduce Indian Languages and Literature, the role of Sanskrit,
and the significance of scriptures to current society.

Introduction to Indian Languages

Indian languages are languages spoken in India that are classed as Indo-European
particularly the Indo-Iranian branch, Dravidian, Austroasiatic particularly Munda,
and Sino-Tibetan Tibeto-Burman in particular.

Assamese, Bengali or Bangla, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili,

Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Sindhi, and Urdu are all members of the
Indo-Aryan group of Indo-Iranian languages.
The Dravidian language family includes Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, and Telugu.

The Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family includes Manipuri

or Meitei spoken in Manipur and Bodo spoken in northeastern India. The Munda
language family includes Santali.

Except for the Khasian languages spoken in Meghalaya, northeastern India, and the
Nicobarese languages spoken in the Nicobar Islands in the Andaman Sea, just to the
northwest of the Indonesian island of Sumatra—both of which are classified as part
of the Mon-Khmer subfamily of Austroasiatic—the other Austronesian languages
are spoken in Southeast Asia.
The Indo-Aryan languages, which are spoken by 78.05 percent of Indians, belong to
multiple linguistic families.

Dravidian languages are spoken by 19.64% of Indians, and both groups are
frequently referred to as Indic languages.

The remaining 2.31 percent of the population speaks Austroasiatic, Sino–Tibetan,

and Tai–Kadai languages.
According to the Census of India of 2001, India has 122 major languages and 1599
other languages.

India has 22 major languages with approximately 720 dialects written in 13 distinct
scripts.

The official languages of India are Hindi which has 420 million speakers and
English which is also widely spoken.

The census of 2011 acknowledges 1369 rationalised mother tongues and 1474
names that were handled as 'unclassified' and consigned to the 'other' mother tongue
category out of 19,569 raw linguistic connections.
Introduction to Literature

Literature is a broad term that refers to any collection of written material, but it is also
used to refer to writings that are considered to be art forms, such as prose fiction,
drama, and poetry.

The term has broadened in recent decades to include oral literature, most of which has
been transcribed.
Literature can have a social, psychological, spiritual, or political purpose in addition
to recording, preserving, and transferring knowledge and amusement.

Nonfiction genres such as biography, diaries, memoir, correspondence, and the essay
can all be considered part of literature as an art form.

Nonfictional books, articles, and other printed information on a particular subject are
included in the broad definition of literature.

The name comes from the Latin literatura/litteratura, which means "learning, writing,
grammar," and was originally "writing produced with letters," from litera/littera,
which means "letter."
In spite of this, the term has also been applied to spoken or sung texts.

Print technological advancements have enabled an ever-increasing diffusion and

proliferation of written works, which now includes electronic literature.

Literature helps us to travel through time and learn about life on the planet from those
who came before us.

It can have a deeper understanding of and appreciation for different cultures. It can
help us to learn about history through the ways it is documented, such as manuscripts
and oral history.

Literature serves as an enormous information base.

Great inventors' research papers and literary works by famous scientists frequently tell
anecdotes about their significant discoveries and inferences.

Current scientific and technological developments are chronicled so that the rest of
the world is aware of them.

Several ancient scriptures presenting accounts of human evolution and narratives of

human life in those times have proven to be extremely beneficial to humanity.

As a result, literature has always been a reliable source of information.

Sanskrit
Sanskrit is considered the oldest language in Hinduism, having been used by the
Hindu Celestial Gods for communication and dialogue, and then by the Indo-Aryans.
In Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, Sanskrit is commonly used. The title 'Sanskrit'
comes from the combination of the prefix 'Sam' meaning 'samyak,' which means
'completely,' and 'krit,' which means 'done.'
Thus, the name denotes communicating, reading, listening, and the use of vocabulary
to transcend and communicate an emotion that is totally or entirely done.

Despite being an extremely complicated language with a large vocabulary, it is still

frequently used in the reading of sacred books and hymns today

In Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism, the Sanskrit language has long been
the primary medium of communication.

Sanskrit literature has a long history of use in ancient poetry, drama, science, and
religious and philosophical books.

Let’s now look at the role of Sanskrit.

Many Indian languages have their roots in Sanskrit. Sanskrit is used to write the
Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas, and Dharmasutras.

A wide range of secular and regional literature is also available. We will be able to
better comprehend our civilization and appreciate the diversity and complexity of our
culture by reading about the languages and literature developed in the past.

Our country's most ancient language is Sanskrit. It is one of the Indian Constitution's
twenty-two official languages.

Sanskrit is maybe the only language that has crossed geographical and cultural
boundaries.
There is no portion of India that has not contributed to or been touched by this
language, from north to south and east to west.

Kalidasa's writings have added to the treasury of Sanskrit writings' beauty.

Significance of Scriptures to the Current Society

Scriptures from the Latin Scriptura, which means "writing" are sacred texts that serve
a range of roles in a religious tradition's individual and collective existence.
Scriptures can be utilised to generate a deeper relationship with the divine,
communicate spiritual truths, foster collective identity, and guide individual and
communal spiritual practice.

The study of Scripture has become an intellectual pursuit in modern times.

Sacred texts from different civilizations are increasingly being studied in academic
settings, mostly to improve understanding of other cultures, whether ancient or
modern.

Even for casual readers, the easy accessibility to scriptures from all faith traditions has
aided mutual understanding and appreciation for the importance of all religions.
Spiritual searchers of all faiths can discover guidance throughout the world's
scriptures to help them on their way.
Scripture plays a range of aspects in a religious community's spiritual life.

In a religion, scripture serves three purposes: personal direction and inspiration,

collective
worship and instruction, and bibliomancy using scripture for magical purposes.

For many years, restricted literacy and crude copying methods impeded the general
circulation of religious books, but scripture has always had a personal dimension—at
least for those who have access to it.

With the advancement of literacy and the invention of printing and

telecommunications, many people can now personally encounter the scriptures from
their own faiths.

The Internet, television, and computers have altered the way and frequency with
which information, especially scriptures, is shared.

Most religious books and masterpieces from throughout the world have been archived
electronically on the Internet and are available to read in a variety of languages.

Conclusion

Language is what allows people to express things, thoughts, and attitudes in a

comprehensible manner and to communicate the results to others.

India has always been a country with many different countries and languages. India,
being a civilisation state, has a vast linguistic diversity, with hundreds of languages
spoken even today.

Modern India gives the right representation in the constitution, respecting the opinions
of people of different languages.

With this, we come to the end of our session. In today’s session, we discussed Indian
Languages and Literature, the role of Sanskrit, and the significance of scriptures to
current society.

I hope you would have got a fair understanding of Indian Languages.

Thank you and Happy Learning!

Hello everyone,
Today in this session, we will discuss on the Other Sanskrit literature

Development of Sanskrit literature

The development of Sanskrit grammar began with Panini in 400 BC with his
book Asthadhyayi being the oldest book in Sanskrit grammar.The chaste form of Sanskrit
developed between 300 to 200 BC and was a refined version of Vedic Sanskrit.The first
evidence of the use of Sanskrit can be found in the inscriptions of Rudradaman at
Junagarh in the present Southern Gujarat region. However, The Gupta period when the use
of Sanskrit in poetries can be traced. This is totally a period of creation of pure literature
which is evident in works such as Mahakavyas ( epics ) and Khandakavyas (semi-epics).In
the field of Sanskrit literature, The Gupta period is known as the period of unique creation
because a variety of literary works developed during this reign. Another important aspect of it
is related to the ornate style in literary works. Many of the plays developed during the Gupta
period were also written in Sanskrit. However, it is to be noted that one of the features of
these plays was the use of Sanskrit language by the characters of high varna and the use of
Prakrit language by women and Shudras.

Classical Sanskrit Literature

• Most of the literature in Sanskrit has been divided into the Vedic and Classical
categories.

• The two epics: Mahabharata and Ramayana are also part of the classical category.
Irrespective of their centrality to the Hindu religion, these epics can also be
considered to be the pre-cursors of Sanskrit Kavya ( epic poetry ), nataka ( classical
drama ), and other treatises on medicine, statecraft, grammar, astronomy,
mathematics, etc.

• Most of this Sanskrit literature was bound by the rules of grammar that have been
explained brilliantly in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi, a treatise on the rigid rules which bind
the Sanskrit language.

Ashtadhyayi:
• The only surviving foundational and analytical source of Sanskrit grammar,
Ashtadhyayi (literally, “eight chapters”), was written by Panini and is believed to
have been published in the 4th century BCE.
 • Despite the fact that India has more than 5000 spoken languages, everyone agrees that
Sanskrit is the only sacred language and the source of all known sacred literature. The
standardization of the language, which is still used in various forms now, was done by
Panini.

Sanskrit Drama
• One of the most popular genres of lyric poetry and prose is the popular romantic tales
whose sole purpose was to entertain the public or Lokaranjana.

• These were usually written in the form of stories and yet they gave a unique
perspective on life. These were usually written in the form of elaborate dramas.

• The rules regarding performance, acting, gestures, stage direction, and acting have
been illustrated in the Natyashastra by Bharata.

• Major dramas written during the ancient period are:

• Malavikagnimitra-The love story of the maiden of Queen and Agnimitra the son of
Pushyamitra Shunga.

• Kalidasa-Vikramorvasiya-The love story of Vikram and Urvasi.

• Abhigyana Shakunthalam-The recognition of Shakuntala.

• Sudraka-Mricchakatika (The little clay cart)-The love story of young brahmin

Charudatta with a wealthy courtesan.

• Vishakadatta-Mudrarakshasa-Devi Chandraguptam-Is a political drama and

narrates the ascent of king Chandragupta Maurya to power in India-

• Bhavabhutti-Uttara Ramacharitham (The latter life of Rama)-It was written in

700 AD.

• Bhasa-Swapnavasavadatta (Vasavadatta in dream)-Pancharatra-Urubhanga (story

of Dhuryodhana during and after his fight with Bhima).

• Ratnavalli-About the love story of princess Ratnavalli, daughter of the King of

Ceylon and King Udayana. The mention of the celebration of Holi for the first time
can be found here.
• Harshavardhana-Naganandha -Story of how Prince Jimutavahana gives up his
own body to stop a sacrifice of serpents to the divine Garuda. One unique character in
this drama is an invocation to Lord Budha in the Nandi verse.

• Priyadarsika-Union of Udayana and Priyadarsika, daughter of king Dritavarman.

Sanskrit Poetry
• This genre is also called Kavya or poetry.

• Unlike the drama section where the story is the main focus of the text, poetry
concentrates more on the form, style, figure of speech, etc.

• One of the greatest Sanskrit poets is Kalidasa who wrote Kumarasambhava ( the
birth of Kumar or Kariya, the son of Shiva and Parvati ), and Raghuvamsa ( the
dynasty of the Raghus ).

• He also wrote two smaller epics called Meghaduta ( the cloud messenger )
and Ritusamhara

( medley of seasons ).

• One should not forget to mention the contribution of poets like Harisena who wrote
during the Gupta period.

• He wrote several poems in praise of the valor of Samudra Gupta and it was so well
appreciated that it was inscribed on the Allahabad pillar.

• Another extremely popular Sanskrit poet was Jayadeva who wrote Gita Govinda in
the 12th century. It concentrates on the life and escapades of Lord Krishna. The text
combines elements of devotion to Lord Krishna, his love for Radha, and the beauty of
nature.

• Other major poems are Kiratarjuniya written by Bharavi in 6 th century AD

and Sishupalavadha written by Magha in 7 th century AD.

• Other Major Sanskrit texts

• Several books were written about the sciences and state governance in Sanskrit.

• Dharmasutras:
• Historians argue that between 500 to 200 BC, several major books on law were
written and compiled, which are called the Dharmasutras. These were compiled
alongside the smritis that are known as Dharmashastras.

• These are the basis of the laws governing the subjects of most of the Hindu kingdoms.
These not only elucidate the rules according to which property could be held, sold, or
transferred but also elaborate on the punishments for offenses ranging from fraud to
murder.

• Manusmriti ( laws of Manu ):

• Which defines the role of men and women in society, their interaction at a social
plane, and the code of conduct that they were supposed to follow. The Manusmriti
might have been written and compiled between 200 BC and 200 AD.

• Arthashastra:

• One of the most famous texts about statecraft from the Mauryan period is Kautilya’s
Arthashastra.

• It concentrates on the economic and social conditions of the Mauryan empire.

• The due focus was also given to the military strategy which should be employed by
the State.

• The text mentions that ‘ Kautilya ‘ or ‘ Vishnugupta ‘ wrote it. Historians argue both
these names were an alias for Chanakya who was a learned scholar at the court of
Emperor Chandragupta Maurya.

• While Sanskrit was the preferred language of the courts in the ancient period, it got an
impetus in the Gupta period, which employed many great poets, dramatists, and
scholars of various subjects. In this period Sanskrit became the preferred language of
communication of cultured and educated people.

• Scientific texts in Sanskrit

• Pingala • Chandasastra (Book on mathematics)

• Charak Samhitha (Book on

• Charak
medicine)
 • Sushrutha Samhitha (Book on
• Sushrutha
surgery)

• Madhava Nidana (Book on

• Madhava
Pathology)

• Pancha Sidhantika (Book on

mathematical astronomy)

• Varahamihira • Brihat Samhitha (Book on wide-

ranging subjects like planetary
movements, geology, architecture
etc.)

• Aryabhatiya (Book on astronomy

• Aryabhata
and mathematics)

• Lagadha • Vedanga Jyotisha

Conclusion
• Sanskrit has a long and revered history that is commonly linked to worship and
devotion. It started out as a Vedic language, and it has been modified over time as a
result of different interpretations, precise grammar, and the complexity of its
application.

• Which many people have shied away from because of its indomitable scope and
depth.

• Many ancient books and manuscripts are translated from Sanskrit today despite its
extensive vocabulary and complex grammar and prose because no other language can
offer such a lavish literary grasp of the past while yet acting as a vehicle for faultless
human expression.
 3.2 Indian Philosophy
Hello everyone,
Today in this session, we will discuss on the great Epics of our country, Ramayana and
Mahabaratha

• Our two great epics are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Ramayana of
Valmiki is the original Ramayana. It is called Adikavya and Maharishi Valmiki is
known as Adi Kavi. The Ramayana presents a picture of an ideal society.
• The other epic, the Mahabharata, was written by Ved Vyas. Originally, it was written
in Sanskrit and contained 8800 verses and was called “Jaya” or the collection dealing
with victory.
• These were raised to 24,000 and came to be known as Bharata, named after one of the
earliest Vedic tribes. The final compilation brought the verses to 100,000, which came
to be known as the Mahabharata or the Satasahasri Samhita. It contains narrative,
descriptive and didactic material, relating to conflict between the Kauravas and the
Pandavas.
• The Mahabharata and the Ramayana have several renderings in different Indian
languages. The Mahabharata contains the famous Bhagavad Gita which contains the
essence of divine wisdom and is truly a universal gospel.
• Though it is a very ancient scripture, its fundamental teachings are in use even today.
• These were raised to 24,000 and came to be known as Bharata, named after one of the
earliest Vedic tribes. The final compilation brought the verses to 100,000, which came
to be known as the Mahabharata or the Satasahasri Samhita. It contains narrative,
descriptive and didactic material, relating to conflict between the Kauravas and the
Pandavas.
• The Mahabharata and the Ramayana have several renderings in different Indian
languages. The Mahabharata contains the famous Bhagavad Gita which contains the
essence of divine wisdom and is truly a universal gospel.
• Though it is a very ancient scripture, its fundamental teachings are in use even today.
Let’s see the significance of these epics one after other
• The characteristics of Hinduism, as just set forth, are best reflected in the Bhagavad-
Gita which may, indeed, be regarded as the principal scripture of this new religious
ideology.
• They are also reflected in the character of Krsna, its enunciator, as portrayed in the
great epic, the Mahabharata
• Mahabaratha and its Reference with 4 purusharthas.
The four purusharthas are Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha.
• Mahabaratha, as an epic, Its vastness is aptly matched by the encyclopaedic nature of
its contents and the universality of its appeal.
• The claim is traditionally made, and fully justified, that in matters pertaining to
dharma (religion and ethics), artha (material progress and prosperity), kama
(enjoyment of the pleasures of personal and social life), and moksa (spiritual
emancipation), whatever is found in this epic may be found elsewhere; but what is not
found in it will be impossible to find anywhere else.
• The Mahabharata, which must have assumed its present form in the first centuries
before and after Christ, is traditionally believed to consist of 100,000 stanzas divided
into eighteen parvans.
• The kernel of the Mahabharata story is briefly this:
• The Pandavas, headed by Yudhisthira, and the Kauravas, headed by Duryodhana,
descended from common ancestors.
• Duryodhana becomes jealous and, coveting the crown invites Yudhisthira to a game
of dice.
• As the result of a rash wager, Yudhisthira loses his kingdom to Duryodhana and is
then forced to go into exile, together with his brothers and DraupadJ, the common
consort of the Pandavas, for twelve years, followed by one year during which they
must live incognito.
• But even when the stipulated period is over, Duryodhana refuses to give even a
fraction of his territory to Yudhisthira, the rightful owner.
• A grim battle ensues. The Kauravas are routed and ruined, and the Pandavas regain
their lost kingdom.
• The kernel of the Mahabharata story is briefly this:
• The Pandavas, headed by Yudhisthira, and the Kauravas, headed by Duryodhana,
descended from common ancestors.
• Duryodhana becomes jealous and, coveting the crown invites Yudhisthira to a game
of dice.
• As the result of a rash wager, Yudhisthira loses his kingdom to Duryodhana and is
then forced to go into exile, together with his brothers and DraupadJ, the common
consort of the Pandavas, for twelve years, followed by one year during which they
must live incognito.
• But even when the stipulated period is over, Duryodhana refuses to give even a
fraction of his territory to Yudhisthira, the rightful owner.
• A grim battle ensues. The Kauravas are routed and ruined, and the Pandavas regain
their lost kingdom.
• The kernel of the Mahabharata story is briefly this:
• The Pandavas, headed by Yudhisthira, and the Kauravas, headed by Duryodhana,
descended from common ancestors.
• Duryodhana becomes jealous and, coveting the crown invites Yudhisthira to a game
of dice.
• As the result of a rash wager, Yudhisthira loses his kingdom to Duryodhana and is
then forced to go into exile, together with his brothers and DraupadJ, the common
consort of the Pandavas, for twelve years, followed by one year during which they
must live incognito.
• But even when the stipulated period is over, Duryodhana refuses to give even a
fraction of his territory to Yudhisthira, the rightful owner.
• A grim battle ensues. The Kauravas are routed and ruined, and the Pandavas regain
their lost kingdom.
• In the Bhagvad Gita, Krishna explains to Arjuna his duties as a warrior and prince and
elaborates
on different Yogic and Vedantic philosophies with examples and analogies.
• This makes Gita a concise guide to Hindu philosophy and a parochial, self-contained
guide to life.
• In modern times Swami Vivekananda, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi and
many others used the text to help inspire the Indian independence movement.
• This was mainly because the Bhagvad Gita spoke of positiveness in human actions. It
also spoke of duty towards God and human beings alike forgetting about the results.
• You will appreciate the fact that the Gita has been translated nearly in all the main
langauges of the world
Ramayana
• If the Mahabharata (with the Harivamsa) glorifies the Krsna incarnation, the other
epic, the Ramayana, gives an account of the Rama incarnation.
• This incarnation is traditionally believed to have been earlier than the Krsna
incarnation; composition of the Ramayana, however, which is largely the work of a
single poet named Valmiki, seems to have begun after that of the Mahabharata, but
ended before the Mahabharata assumed its final form
• It has seven kandas-the entire seventh kanda evidently is a later interpolation. It
contains several sections of religious significance, such as the Surya-stava (which is
also called Aditya-hrdaya- stotra) by Agastya and the Rama-stuti by Brahma (both in
the Yuddha-kanda).
• Its principal religious appeal, however, springs from the idealized domestic and social
virtues which its characters embody. Indeed, this appeal has, through the centuries,
proved to be direct and sustained
• Dasaratha, king of Ayodhya, is about to install his eldest son, Rama, on the throne.
• Kaikeyi, Rama’s step-mother, wants her own son Bharata to be crowned king, and
Rama to be sent into exile for fourteen years.
 • The old and infirm king, though reluctant, has to agree.
• Rama goes to live in the forest, accompanied by his consort, Sita, and his brother,
Laksmana.
• The demon-king of Lanka, Ravana, abducts Sita.
• Rama, determined to rescue Sita, wages a dour war against Ravana who is ultimately
vanquished and killed.
• Rama comcs back to Ayodhya and assumes his position as king, with Slta as queen.
The story of the genuine portion of the epic ends here.
• In the last Book, which is suspected by many modern scholars to be spurious, it is
narrated that the people of Ayodhya speak ill of Rama for taking back Sita from
Ravana’s custody and Rama banishes her in deference to public opinion.
• The Ramayana and the Mahabharata represent the ethos of our nation.
• Tradition places the Ramayana earlier than the Mahabharata.
• The Puranas are a very important branch, of the Hindu sacred literature. They enable
us to know the true import of the ethos, philosophy, and religion of the Vedas.
Dear Learners, in this session we learnt about the great epics of our country, in the next
session we will discuss on the literatures of south india
Famous Tamil Literature of South India.

Hello Everyone,
In the last session, we discussed on Introduction to Indian Philosophy and Famous
Sanskrit literatures of India. Today in this session, we will discuss on Famous Tamil
Literature of South India.
• South India, with its rich history and stunning landscapes, has provided the setting for
some of the greatest epics in the ancient world.
• In ancient times the association or academy of the most learned men of the Tamil land
was called ‘Sangam’ (or ‘Cankam’), whose chief function was promotion of
literature. Later Tamil writers mention the existence of three literary academies
(Sangams) at different periods. The last academy is credited with the corpus of
literature now known as ‘Sangam Works
Let’s see the ancient and famous literatures of South India, starting with Tolkappiyam
• Tolkappiyam, the name signifying the ancient book or ‘the preserver of ancient
institutions’, was written by Tolkappiyanar and is the oldest extant Tamil grammar
dating back to 500 B.C.
• It lays down rules for different kinds of poetical compositions drawn from the
examples furnished by the best works available at that time.
• Iyal is elucidated clearly and systematically in Tolkappiyam.
• Containing about 1,610 suttirams (aphorisms), it is in three parts-ezhuttu
(orthography), Sol (etymology), and porul (literary conventions and usages)-each with
nine sections.
• While the first two parts are interesting from both linguistic and philological points of
view, the third, poruladhikdram, is most valuable as it gives a glimpse of the political,
social, and religious life of the people during the period when the author of this
treatise lived.
• The principal works of the third Sangam have come down to us in the shape of
anthologies of poems. The two compilations forming the corpus of the poetry of the
third Sangam are Ettuttogai (eight anthologies) and Pattuppattu (ten idylls),
• The anthologies of the third Sangam consist of poems divided into two broad
categories-aham or interior and puram or exterior. The former concerns all phases of
love between men and women. An allegory of the different stages through which the
soul of man passes from its manifestation in the body to its final unification with the
Supreme Being is seen in aham. The puram covers varieties of distinctive poems,
mostly relating to man’s social behaviour.
• corresponding to five major regions of Tamil Nadu, these poems describe five types
of tracts with their distinctive features. These are: kurinci (mountainous region),
mullai (forest region), marutam (agricultural region), neytal (coastal region), and
 pallai (desert region). True love, which is either karpu (wedded) or kalavu (furtive), is
considered under five aspects, namely, punartal (union), pirital (separation), irutal
(patience in separation), irangal (bewailing), and udal (sulking), and these are made to
correlate with tinai, the fivefold physiographical divisions.
• The delineation of the early Tamil society in these poems is remarkably clear and a
great deal of light is thrown on the civilization of the Tamils.
• Sangam works provide us with valuable information regarding religion, social life,
government, commerce, arts, music, dance, courtship, manners and customs, and the
daily life of the Tamils.
One another notable piece of work by Tiruvalluvar’s '(c. first century B.C.) is
Tirukkural or Kural,
• Tirukkural which is in the form of couplets and deals with the three aims of life-aram
(righteousness), porul (wealth), and inbam or kamam (pleasure).
• It consists of 133 chapters each containing ten couplets. Conveying noble thoughts
couched in concised language, each couplet is a gem by itself. The first part of Kural
(arattuppal) gives the essentials of Yoga philosophy. Besides, it deals with the happy
household life as well as guiding towards the path of renunciation. The thoughts of
Kural in its second part (porutpal) centre on polity and administration, including
citizenship and social relations, in an admirable way. The third part (inbattuppal or
kamattuppal), consisting of couplets in dramatic monologues, treats of the concept of
love.
Post-Sangam period: The Epics
• The five major epics-Silappadikaram, Manimekalai, Jivaka-cintamani, Valaiyapati,
and Kundalakesi-are the outstanding contributions of the post-Sangam period.
• In this session we will explore two of the ‘Five Great Jewels’ of Tamil literature: The
Lay of the Anklet (Cilappatikāram) and The Dancer with the Magic Bowl
(Maṇimēkalai). These epics were composed sometime between the 1st and 8th
centuries CE and present a view of the societies, religions, and cultures of ancient
South India. The central narratives of both epics follow the adventures of female
protagonists: Kaṇṇaki, a devoted wife turned goddess, and Maṇimēkalai, a dancer-
courtesan turned renunciant.
• These two epics are also connected through their female characters, as Maṇimēkalai is
the daughter of Kaṇṇaki’s husband Kōvalaṉ and his mistress Mātavi. In conjunction
with reading these fascinating tales, we will also explore their literary and historical
contexts and their significance within the Jain and Buddhist religious traditions.
• Silappadikaram - contains all the three aspects of Tamil literature, viz. iyal, isai, and
natakam, it has been designated as a muttamizhk-kappiyam. It is, therefore, invaluable
as a source-book of ancient Tamil dance and classical music-both vocal and
instrumental. The author of this work is the ascetic-poet Ilanko Adikal.
• Manimekalai, a direct sequel to Silappadikaram, is also a great source of information
on ancient Tamil society. Written by Cittalai Cattanar, this epic marks a new
 development in Tamil literature by presenting philosophical and religious debates in
mellifluous style.
With this, I hope you had a brief understanding of Sangam Literature, i.e, Tamil Literature
which is the ancient literatures of South India.
Thank you
 Tamil Literature
Tamil literature goes back to the Sangam Era, named after the assembly (sangam) of poets.
Sangam Period
• The period roughly between the 3rd century B.C. and 3rd century A.D. in South India
(the area lying to the south of river Krishna and Tungabhadra) is known as Sangam
Period.
• It has been named after the Sangam academies held during that period that flourished
under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai.
• At the sangams, eminent scholars assembled and functioned as the board of censors
and the choicest literature was rendered in the nature of anthologies.
• These literary works were the earliest specimens of Dravidian literature.
• South India, during the Sangam Age, was ruled by three dynasties-the Cheras,
Cholas and Pandyas.
Three Sangams
According to the Tamil legends, there were three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) held in
the ancient South India popularly called Muchchangam.
• The First Sangam, is believed to be held at Madurai, attended by gods and legendary
sages. No literary work of this Sangam is available.
• The Second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram, only Tolkappiyam survives from this.
• The Third Sangam was also held at Madurai. A few of these Tamil literary works
have survived and are a useful source to reconstruct the history of the Sangam period.
Sangam Literature
The Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku,
and two epics named – Silappathikaram and Manimegalai.
• Tolkappiyam: It was authored by Tolkappiyar and is considered the earliest of Tamil
literary work.
• Though it is a work on Tamil grammar, it also provides insights on the
political and socio-economic conditions of the time.
• It is a unique work on grammar and poetics, in its three parts of nine sections
each, deals with Ezhuttu(letter), Col (word) and Porul (subject matter).
• Almost all levels of the human language from the spoken to the most poetic lie
within the purview of Tolkappiyar’s analysis as he treats in exquisitely poetic
and epigrammatic statements on phonology, morphology, syntax, rhetoric,
prosody and poetics.
• Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies): It consists of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai,
Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppatu.
 • Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls): It consists of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai,
Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu,
Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu,Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam.
• Pathinenkilkanakku: It contains eighteen works about ethics and morals.
• The most important among these works is Tirukkural authored
by Thiruvalluvar, the tamil great poet and philosopher.
• Tamil Epics: The two epics Silappathikaram is written by Elango
Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar.
• They also provide valuable details about the Sangam society and polity.
Medieval Tamil literature
• The medieval period, spanning from the 11th and 13th centuries, was one of harmony
amongst Tamil people. Avvaiyar, a female poet whose name translates to ‘respectable
woman’, created poems during this era that continue to be taught in Tamil schools
today. Avvaiyar is one of the most crucial poets of Tamil history, as her poems appeal
to children. Her well-known poem, Aathichoodi, demonstrates to children how to live
a life full of moral genuineness with the use of the Tamil alphabet.
Vijayanagar and Nayak period
• The Vijayanagar and Nayak period, reigning from approximately 1300 to 1650 C.E.,
was a period in Tamil history where the Tamil country would be affected by an
invasion, and ultimately conquered. As a result, the rise of the Vijayanagar kingdom
and Nayak governance came about. Exemplary works in Tamil literature were still
produced in this era. For example, Thiruppugazh by Arunagirinathar.
Thiruppugazh
• Thiruppugazh, created in the 15th century, is a work of religious songs praising Lord
Murugan. The background behind Arunagirinathar’s reason for
writing Thiruppugazh is quite intriguing. According to Arunagirinathar, Lord
Murugan saved him when he was going to end his life at a temple. Ultimately, this
reformed his life. Consequently, Arunagirinathar decides to make devotional songs to
thank Lord Murugan for saving him.
• This period demonstrated the devotionality to religion prominently, especially with
the use of literature. As seen throughout this article, the Hindu religion is prominently
valued among Tamil people.
The modern era of Tamil literature
• The late 18th to 19th centuries brought the Modern era in Tamil literature. This gave
us the works of Subramanya Bharathi, who was a writer and an important member in
terms of social reform. Bharathi was very influential, both with his literature and
activism.
• Bharathi’s work is often cited as the inspiration for modern Tamil literature. His work
is said to involve both modernist and classical techniques. Additionally, his poems
 show how outspoken he was about social issues, and often display rebellious remarks.
Bharathi covered a variety of topics in his works, from children’s songs to praising
those fighting for India’s independence.
Here is Bharathi’s commentary on the Indian caste system:
There is no caste system.
It is a sin to divide people on caste basis.
The ones who are really of a superior class are the ones
excelling in being just, wise, educated and loving.
The rise of Tamil novels
• The modern era of Tamil literature was accompanied by a rise in novels.
Ramanichandaran would contribute to this rising trend with the composition of
modern romance novels in the 20th century. She is currently the best-selling author in
Tamil literature, with 178 novels written.
• Ramanichandran’s focus on romance novels does not include the idea of caste
systems, which is a common controversy within South Asia because the caste system
is still used to this day.
• One of her famous books, Kanney Kanmaniey, illustrates Madura and her lover,
Sathyan. Madura’s brother loses money while betting on horses, causing her and her
brother to work at Sathyan’s hotel. Sathyan unknowingly believes that Madura
betrayed him and ends up marrying another woman, but his wife ends up dying.
Conflicted with revenge and undying love, Sathyan is confused about how to act
towards Madura. In sum, the story follows Sathyan’s journey of love and figuring out
his feelings towards Madura.
• As a result, these types of stories are very popular among Tamil women because it
allows them to live through these stories.
Cultural and linguistic significance in anthropology
• Tamil, being one of the oldest recorded languages in linguistic history, has a diverse
library of literature. With commentaries on ethics and struggles, to songs depicting the
beauty of nature before the rise of demolition of the environment, Tamil literature
gives us a deep insight into the values of South Asian culture.
• Some of these values are still appraised today. In retrospect, the Tamil people were
seemingly advanced in terms of thought and transcribing it into literature.
• The exploration of this language allows for a better understanding of the Tamil
culture and its customs.
• In addition, there is linguistic significance when looking at the history of Tamil
literature as well. Though most, if not all, literature from the 6th Century BCE does
not remain today, it is still evident that the Tamil people took time to record their
thoughts.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF THIRUKURAL
INTRODUCTION:
• Tirukkural, (Tamil: “Sacred Couplets”) also spelled Tirukural or Thirukkural, also
called Kural, the most celebrated of the Patiren-kirkkanakku (“Eighteen Ethical
Works”) in Tamil literature and a work that has had an immense influence on Tamil
culture and life.
• It is usually attributed to the poet Tiruvalluvar, who lived in India in the sixth
century, though some scholars place it earlier (1st century BC)
• The Tirukkural (Tamil) also known as the Kural, is a traditional Tamil sangam
treatise on the art of living. There are 133 chapters in total, with 1330 couplets or
kurals.
• The Tirukkural has been compared to the great books of the world's major religions
for its practical concerns, poetic insights into daily life, and universal and timeless
approach.

ABOUT TIRUVALLUVAR:
Little is known about Tiruvalluvar, the work's author, except that he was born in
Mylaopore (Chennai, Tamilnadu) and belonged to the weaver community. He is also
known by many other names, including Nayanar, Theivappulavar, and Perunavalar. The
work is frequently referred to as Tamil Marai, a reference to its association with the
Vedas.

HISTORICAL INFORMATION:
 It is believed that Valluvar wrote the work in response to a request from his close
friend and student Elela Singan. When the work was finished, Valluvar took it to
Madurai, as was the custom of reading new compositions in public in front of
critics and scholars.
 The conceited scholars of Madurai insisted on measuring the greatness of the work
by placing it with other works on a plank kept afloat in the tank of the great temple
and seeing if the plank remained afloat. The significance of this is that the
greatness of a work is realised based on the divine qualities of the work rather than
the weight of its manuscript (written on Palm leaves).
 The Sangam Plank is said to have shrunk in size to hold only the Kural
manuscript, throwing out the rest, much to the surprise of the critics.
 Idaikkadar had praised Kural, saying that his greatness was such that Valluvar had
packed the essence of all knowledge from the vast world spanned by seven seas
inside a mustard seed. Anu had substituted the term kadugu (mustard) for
Auvaiyar (meaning an atom).
 It is interesting to note that the concept of Atom had already been established in
the Tamil country two thousand years ago.

THREE DIVISIONS IN THIRUKURALS:

• BOOK I – Aram (அறம் ):Book of Virtue(Dharma), dealing with moral

values of an individual and essentials of yoga philosophy(Chapters 1-38)
• BOOK II- Porul (ப ொருள் ):Book of Polity(Artha), dealing with socio-
economic values polity, society and administration(Chapters 39-108).
BOOK III- INBAM (இன் ம் ): Book of Love (Kama), dealing with
psychological values and love (Chapters 109-133).

STRUCTURE OF THIRUKURAL:
Tirukkural is a collection of 1330 couplets, each of which follows the structure
of "Kural Venba," a grammatical construction consisting of two lines of four
and three words. The piece is divided into 133 Adhikarams, each with ten
couplets.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THIRUKURAL:
 Thirukkural equally emphasizes the vital principles of vegetarianism,
castelessness, and brotherhood. The Thirukkural's lessons are so powerful
that they can be regarded as a source of inspiration for people of all ages.
 The sage Valluvar, who was unanimously elevated to the rank of
Thiruvalluvar, observed both the goodness and the weaknesses of
governance at various levels and encouraged men and women to lead moral
lives based on strong values such as righteousness, justice, truth, love,
honesty, courage, and compassion through various couplets. He described
the lives and characteristics of ordinary citizens, wives, husbands, and kings,
among others.
 Thirukkural has become a research topic in many universities and learning
institutions around the world. It has been translated into over 40 languages,
and its universality has been universally acknowledged and praised.
 Tamil Literature
Tamil literature goes back to the Sangam Era, named after the assembly (sangam) of poets.
Sangam Period
• The period roughly between the 3rd century B.C. and 3rd century A.D. in South India
(the area lying to the south of river Krishna and Tungabhadra) is known as Sangam
Period.
• It has been named after the Sangam academies held during that period that flourished
under the royal patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai.
• At the sangams, eminent scholars assembled and functioned as the board of censors
and the choicest literature was rendered in the nature of anthologies.
• These literary works were the earliest specimens of Dravidian literature.
• South India, during the Sangam Age, was ruled by three dynasties-the Cheras,
Cholas and Pandyas.
Three Sangams
According to the Tamil legends, there were three Sangams (Academy of Tamil poets) held in
the ancient South India popularly called Muchchangam.
• The First Sangam, is believed to be held at Madurai, attended by gods and legendary
sages. No literary work of this Sangam is available.
• The Second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram, only Tolkappiyam survives from this.
• The Third Sangam was also held at Madurai. A few of these Tamil literary works
have survived and are a useful source to reconstruct the history of the Sangam period.
Sangam Literature
The Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku,
and two epics named – Silappathikaram and Manimegalai.
• Tolkappiyam: It was authored by Tolkappiyar and is considered the earliest of Tamil
literary work.
• Though it is a work on Tamil grammar, it also provides insights on the
political and socio-economic conditions of the time.
• It is a unique work on grammar and poetics, in its three parts of nine sections
each, deals with Ezhuttu(letter), Col (word) and Porul (subject matter).
• Almost all levels of the human language from the spoken to the most poetic lie
within the purview of Tolkappiyar’s analysis as he treats in exquisitely poetic
and epigrammatic statements on phonology, morphology, syntax, rhetoric,
prosody and poetics.
• Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies): It consists of eight works – Aingurunooru, Narrinai,
Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppatu.
 • Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls): It consists of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai,
Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu,
Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu,Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam.
• Pathinenkilkanakku: It contains eighteen works about ethics and morals.
• The most important among these works is Tirukkural authored
by Thiruvalluvar, the tamil great poet and philosopher.
• Tamil Epics: The two epics Silappathikaram is written by Elango
Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar.
• They also provide valuable details about the Sangam society and polity.
Medieval Tamil literature
• The medieval period, spanning from the 11th and 13th centuries, was one of harmony
amongst Tamil people. Avvaiyar, a female poet whose name translates to ‘respectable
woman’, created poems during this era that continue to be taught in Tamil schools
today. Avvaiyar is one of the most crucial poets of Tamil history, as her poems appeal
to children. Her well-known poem, Aathichoodi, demonstrates to children how to live
a life full of moral genuineness with the use of the Tamil alphabet.
Vijayanagar and Nayak period
• The Vijayanagar and Nayak period, reigning from approximately 1300 to 1650 C.E.,
was a period in Tamil history where the Tamil country would be affected by an
invasion, and ultimately conquered. As a result, the rise of the Vijayanagar kingdom
and Nayak governance came about. Exemplary works in Tamil literature were still
produced in this era. For example, Thiruppugazh by Arunagirinathar.
Thiruppugazh
• Thiruppugazh, created in the 15th century, is a work of religious songs praising Lord
Murugan. The background behind Arunagirinathar’s reason for
writing Thiruppugazh is quite intriguing. According to Arunagirinathar, Lord
Murugan saved him when he was going to end his life at a temple. Ultimately, this
reformed his life. Consequently, Arunagirinathar decides to make devotional songs to
thank Lord Murugan for saving him.
• This period demonstrated the devotionality to religion prominently, especially with
the use of literature. As seen throughout this article, the Hindu religion is prominently
valued among Tamil people.
The modern era of Tamil literature
• The late 18th to 19th centuries brought the Modern era in Tamil literature. This gave
us the works of Subramanya Bharathi, who was a writer and an important member in
terms of social reform. Bharathi was very influential, both with his literature and
activism.
• Bharathi’s work is often cited as the inspiration for modern Tamil literature. His work
is said to involve both modernist and classical techniques. Additionally, his poems
 show how outspoken he was about social issues, and often display rebellious remarks.
Bharathi covered a variety of topics in his works, from children’s songs to praising
those fighting for India’s independence.
Here is Bharathi’s commentary on the Indian caste system:
There is no caste system.
It is a sin to divide people on caste basis.
The ones who are really of a superior class are the ones
excelling in being just, wise, educated and loving.
The rise of Tamil novels
• The modern era of Tamil literature was accompanied by a rise in novels.
Ramanichandaran would contribute to this rising trend with the composition of
modern romance novels in the 20th century. She is currently the best-selling author in
Tamil literature, with 178 novels written.
• Ramanichandran’s focus on romance novels does not include the idea of caste
systems, which is a common controversy within South Asia because the caste system
is still used to this day.
• One of her famous books, Kanney Kanmaniey, illustrates Madura and her lover,
Sathyan. Madura’s brother loses money while betting on horses, causing her and her
brother to work at Sathyan’s hotel. Sathyan unknowingly believes that Madura
betrayed him and ends up marrying another woman, but his wife ends up dying.
Conflicted with revenge and undying love, Sathyan is confused about how to act
towards Madura. In sum, the story follows Sathyan’s journey of love and figuring out
his feelings towards Madura.
• As a result, these types of stories are very popular among Tamil women because it
allows them to live through these stories.
Cultural and linguistic significance in anthropology
• Tamil, being one of the oldest recorded languages in linguistic history, has a diverse
library of literature. With commentaries on ethics and struggles, to songs depicting the
beauty of nature before the rise of demolition of the environment, Tamil literature
gives us a deep insight into the values of South Asian culture.
• Some of these values are still appraised today. In retrospect, the Tamil people were
seemingly advanced in terms of thought and transcribing it into literature.
• The exploration of this language allows for a better understanding of the Tamil
culture and its customs.
• In addition, there is linguistic significance when looking at the history of Tamil
literature as well. Though most, if not all, literature from the 6th Century BCE does
not remain today, it is still evident that the Tamil people took time to record their
thoughts.
Indian Languages and its Significance in International Context

Indian Literature: Vedas from India

Four Vedas-Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva are from most ancient text available from
India, which have reached throughout the world through mostly English, but through
other languages like German translations as well

Ancient Texts-Philosophical and Creative

Vedas, particularly Rig-Veda is known for its creative and aesthetic poetry as well.
Upanishads and texts of Shaddarshanas-Six Schools of Indian philosophy, including
non believer Samkhya philosophy, Buddhist, Jainism, Atheist Lokayata are more of
theoretical texts. These are all known to the world through translations. Apart from
these philosophical texts, there is a rich heritage of Sanskrit creative literature as well.

Creative Sanskrit Literature

Sanskrit has been language of philosophical and creative literature-both. Apart from
Mahabharta, Ramayana and texts like Panchtantra and Hitopadesh, Sanskrit literature
is known world over for its poetry and drama with Kalidas as most known name.

Shakespeare and Kalidas!aa

It is common refrain among literary critics in India to refer Kalidas as ‘Shakespeare of
India’, though Kalidas lived nearly one thousand years before Shakespeare, that is
why some critics will put it in reverse order as well-’Shakespeare as Kalidas of
England’! Whatever way, but it reflects the concept of ‘World Literature’ and also
Comparative study of literature, which would never have been possible without
translations of the texts.

Shakuntala Translation
Translation of Abhigyan Shakuntalam in English was first done by William Jones in
1789 and after that by Sir Monier Williams in prose form in 1853, later more than 46
translations in twelve European languages appeared and now complete dramas and
poetry collections of Kalidas are available in many English translations. English and
other languages translations of many other Sanskrit classic writers are also available
like that of Bhavbhuti , Kiratarjun etc.

Contribution of Indian Creative Writing to World Literature

Apart from classical Sanskrit literature, medieval period Indian literature is also
known to the world, particularly Indian Bhakti movement poets like Kabir, Guru
Nanak, Akka Mahadevi and many more through their translations. In modern period,
big number of translations were done from Indian languages literatures. India has 22
national languages in 8th schedule of Indian constitution and 24 recognised by
Sahitya Akademi-Academy of Letters for purpose of awarding annual best book
prizes.

Translations of Mirza Ghalib(Mirza Beg Asadullah Khan also known as Mirza Ghalib
was an Urdu and Persian poet of the 19th century Mughal and British era in the Indian
Subcontinent)
Many scholars, even from non literary background have been fascinated by Ghalib’s
philosophical Urdu ghazals. Aijaz Ahmad and many other scholars and translators
have rendered Ghalib’s poetry and prose in English. Mirza Ghalib lived during 1857’s
first war of Independence of India and went through lot of hard times as well, but his
poetry is claimed to be as national heritage by both India and Pakistan, though there
was no Pakistan during Ghalib’s times

Role of Translation in First Noble Prize of Literature to India

Rabindranath Tagore, most eminent Indian writer of Bengali language got Noble prize
for literature in 1913, till now only Indian to receive this award for literature.
Interesting part of this narrative is that Tagore himself translated 103 of his Bengali
poems in English and took them to England.

Geetanjali...
Tagore recited his translations in many gatherings and W.B Yeats, the great English
poet was so impressed that he wrote forward to these poems and the small collection
was published in English.
Tagore received the award for his Bengali poetry, but facilitated by his own English
translation of the poems.
Tagore’s example of his own translation and Noble prize on it, underlines the
significance of Translation as tool of literary communication in the world. Now
almost all the Bengali writings of Tagore are available in English and many Indian
languages translation, some in other world languages translations as well.

Premchand and his novel ‘Godan’

Premchand, a Hindi and Urdu writer published his classic novel-Godan in Hindi and
Urdu both, few months before his death. The novel based on the real life of Indian
peasantry became Indian classic and has been twice translated into English.

Godan (Novel wriiten by Premchand)

Jai Rattan and P. Lal did first English translation of Godan in 1957, which became
quite popular. Later Gordon C Roadarmel did English translation of Godan in 1968,
which is considered better than earlier one.
The novel was selected by UNESCO to be translated into many world languages and
so it has been.Apart from Godan, many other fiction writings of Premchand are now
available in English and other languages. Ghalib,Tagore and Premchand represents
India as the best faces of Indian literature on world literary scene.

Importance of Translation in Indian literary Scenario

As mentioned earlier, India itself is storehouse of huge literature written in various
Indian languages, which reaches other Indian languages through translation among
Indian languages. There are two major source languages of inter Indian literary
translation-Hindi and English. Text of any Indian language is first translated into
either Hindi or English and then through that medium it is translated into many more
Indian languages.
Inter Indian Translations
Generally literature of North, West and East Indian languages like-Punjabi, Urdu,
Marathi, Gujarati, Bengali, Assamese etc. is first translated into Hindi and then from
that medium to many other Indian languages.
Translations from South Indian languages are generally done first in English and then
from that medium, these are translated into other Indian languages. Southern
languages are part of Dravidian group and other three regions languages are from
Indo-Aryan group of languages

Inter Indian Languages Translations

These translations are done sometimes without the help of a medium language like
Hindi or English too, like Tamil to Bengali or Marathi to Assamese etc.
Sahitya Akademi by instituting National Translation Prize among inter Indian
languages translations has encouraged this process as well. This author has also
received National Translation Prize from Sahitya Akademi-Indian Academy of
Letters for Inter-Indian language translation.

Revolutionary poet Pash and his poetry

Pash created a niche for himself as trendsetter poet in the seventies as a radical poet.
As he was against both Khalistani terrorism and state terrorism, he was assassinated
by Khalistani terrorists on 23rd March, his Punjabi poetry in Hindi, which was
published in different volumes, one of which mentioned above-Samay O’Bhai
Samay’(Time O’ Brother Time) ,published in 1993, was awarded National
Translation Prize by Sahitya Akademi in 2002.

Hindi translation of Pash clicked so much that poet became more popular in Hindi
than his own mother tongue Punjabi. Many more translations were done from Hindi
translation of the poet in Marathi, Guajarati, Urdu, Bengali, Malayalam, Telugu etc.
Indian languages and thus designating him as major Indian poet rather than being just
a Punjabi poet. His poetry was compared to Pablo Neruda (got noble prize in
Literature, 1971) by some critics, so bringing him to the scenario of world literature as
English translation of his poetry were also done.