Structure of atom

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Sakshi Vora
IIT Roorkee

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SAKSHI SAKSHI
Structure Of Atom
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
- The smallest particle of any matter is ATOM.
- Theory got rejected, when subatomic particles were discovered.
- Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed in a chemical
reaction.
- All matter consists of individual particles called atoms.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
- Atoms of the same element are similar in shape & mass but
different from atoms of other elements.
- Atoms can’t be created or destroyed in chem Rxn
- Atoms of same or different element may combine with each
other in fixed, simple whole no. ratios to form compounds
- Atom is the smallest unit that can take part in a chem rxn.
Thomson’s Model
Thomson Model

- Foundation model of the atom

- Atom is spherical
- Total mass of atom is uniformly distributed
- Positive change
- e- s are present to give max. stability.
Thomson Model
Discovery of Electron
Discovery of subatomic particles

Electron -

Discovered by cathode Ray experiment

- Cylindrical hard glass tube fitted with 2 metal electrodes.

- Tube ↔ Discharge Tube.
- Gas is taken at a very low pressure.
- High voltage (10,000 V) is supplied.
- One metal plate + , other -
Discovery of subatomic particles
Properties of Cathode rays
(i) Cathode rays travel in straight line.
(ii) Cathode rays produce mechanical effect, as they can rotate the
wheel placed in their path.
(iii) Cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles known as
Electron.
(iv) Cathode rays travel with high speed.
(v) Cathode rays can cause fluorescence.
Properties of Cathode rays
(vi) cathode rays heat the object on which they fall due to transfer
kinetic energy to the object.
(vii) When cathode rays fall on heavy metals, X - rays are
produced.
(viii) Cathode rays possess ionizing power i.e., they ionize the gas
through which they pass.

The nature of these rays does not depend upon the nature of gas
or the cathode material used in discharge tube.
Discovery of Proton
Discovery of Protons
Goldstein (1886) used perforated cathode in the discharge tube and
repeated cathode rays experiment and observed the formation of anode
rays. These rays were also termed as positive or canal rays.
Properties of anode rays
(i) Anode rays travel in straight line.
(ii) Anode rays are material particles.
(iii) Anode rays are positively charged.

The positive charge is not proton but the IONS FORMED from the gas

Dependent upon the nature of the gas taken in the tube.

Properties of anode rays

Gas ⟶ e- + [Gas]+

cathode canal
ray rays

If the gas used in H2, ⟶ H(g)

the canal ray will be H+(g) or Proton.

Alpha Particles
α - particle
Similar to He2+ (helium nucleus)

Change on α - particle = 2e
mass of α - particle = 2mp + 2mn ⇒ (mp ≈ mn)
= 4mp (also mp ≈ 1 amu)
= 4 amu
Rutherford’s model of atom
Rutherford’s model
Rutherford carried out α-particles scattering experiment by the
bombardment of high speed α-particle on thin foil of gold, emitted from
radium
Observations :
a. Most of the α - particles (nearly 99%) continued with their straight
path.
b. Some of the α - particles passed very close to the centre of the atom
and deflected by small angles.
c. Very few particles thrown back (180o)
Conclusion :
a. Most of the α - particles continued their straight path that means of
the space inside the atom is empty.
b. The centre of an atom has a positively charged body called nucleus
which repel positively charged α - particles and thus explained the
scattering phenomenon.
c. Almost all mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus.
d. The size and volume of the nucleus is very small as compared to the
total size and volume of atom.
Rutherford’s Atomic Model :

- At the centre - Nucleus is present.

- Because of electrostatic att b/w proton (+) and e-(-) , the atom is
stable.
- E-s ⟶ outside the nucleus and revolve around.
- r atom ≈ 105 r nucleus.
- V atom ≈ 1015 V nucleus
Coulomb's Law
Coulomb's Law :
q1 ← r → q2

q2 & q1 both experience repulsive force

|F| = kq1q2 k = 9 x 109 Nm2

r2 C2
Coulomb's Law :
Total energy of particle = KE + PE

motion configuration

- PE due to electrostatic Force

PE = k q1 q2
r

- have to be considered with sign if

PE + ⇒ Repulsive

PE - ⇒ attractive
Waves
Wave :
A wave motion is a means of transferring energy from one point to
another point without any actual transportation of matter between
these points.
Some important terms of wave motion
Some important terms of wave motion

(i) Wave length (λ) :

The distance between two adjacent crest or trough of the wave (or
the distance between two similar neighbouring points) or length of
1 complete wave.

Amplitude (A) :

It is the height of crest or depth of a trough of a wave.

Some important terms of wave motion
Frequency (v) :

Number of waves passed through a fixed pt in 1sec. Number of

oscillations per unit time is called frequency.

C
⇒ C = vλ
λ

sec-1 = Hz

Vα1
λ

c = speed of wave (constant)

Time period (T) :

Time for one complete oscillation of wave is called the period (T).
Time taken by the wave to travel a distance equal to one wavelength.
If C is the speed of wave, then c = λ/T
Wave number (v) :

Number of wavelength per unit length.

v = 1/λ

or number of waves in 1 meter length.

Electromagnetic waves
Electromagnetic Wave :

Light is also a type of wave which is known as electromagnetic wave

i.e. wave consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic field.
There are various types of electromagnetic waves (radiation) which
differs from one another in wavelengths
e.g. Visible light, ultraviolet rays, X-rays, infrared rays, radio waves
etc.
Characteristics of electromagnetic radiations :

a. All electromagnetic waves move or travel with the same speed

equal to that of light.
b. They do not require any medium to propagate.
c. These consist of electric and magnetic field that oscillate in the
direction perpendicular to each other and to the direction in
which the wave propagates
Electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic Spectrum :

Arrangement of various types of electromagnetic radiations in

order of their increasing (or decreasing) wavelengths or frequencies
is known as electromagnetic spectrum.
Planck's Quantum Theory
Planck’s Quantum Theory :

According to this theory atoms or molecules could emit or absorb

energy only in discrete quantities (small packets) and not in any
arbitrary amount. Planck gave the name quantum to the smallest
quantity of energy that can be emitted in the form of E.M. radiation.

Quantum of light is known as PHOTON

Planck’s Quantum Theory :

The energy of Quantum α υ of wave

E = hυ

OR

The energy of a photon is proportional to its frequency and is given

by E = hυ where h = 6.626 x 10-34 Jsec.
A body can emit or absorb energy only in terms of the integral
multiples of quantum, i.e.
E=nhυ, where n= 1, 2, 3, .......
i.e. a body can emit or absorb energy as hυ, 2hυ ...... but it can not emit
or absorb energy in fractional values of hu such as 1.5 hυ, 2.5 hυ.

Total energy absorbed / released by a substance

= nhυ
= nhc
λ

n = no. of Quantum.
Planck’s Quantum Theory :
The energy of a single quantum is really small
Thus
a new unit is used (ev)
1 ev = 1.6 x 10-19 C.V = 1.6 x 10-19J
⇒ 1 ev = 1.6 x 10-19 J
Planck’s Quantum Theory :
E = hc/λ = hv
E(J) h(6.626 x 10-34 Js)
C (3 x 108 m/s)
λ (m)
v = s-1
or

E(ev) = 1240 or 12400

λ(nm) λ(Ao)
Photoelectric Effect
Photoelectric effect :
Emission of electrons from a metal surface when exposed to light
radiations of appropriate wavelength is called photoelectric effect.
The emitted electrons are called photelectrons.
Some Facts of Photoelectric Effect:
(i) There is no time lag between incidence of light and emission of
photoelectrons.

(ii) For emission of photoelectrons, the frequency of incident light

must be equal to or greater than the threshold frequency.

(iii) rate of emission of photoelectrons from a metal surface is

directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.

(iv) The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons depends on the

frequency of incident radiation; but, it is independent of the
intensity of light used.
KE of photo
electrons

υ1 v
Frequency of absorbed photons
KE of
photoelectrons

Intensity of
incident radiation
Photoelectric effect :

Work function or threshold energy may be defined as the minimum

amount of energy required to eject electrons from a metal surface.
According to Einstein,
Maximum kinetic energy of the ejected electrons = absorbed energy -
work function.

Where, v0 and λ0 are threshold frequency and threshold wavelength

respectively.
Stopping potential :

The minimum potential at which the photoelectric current becomes

zero is called stopping potential.
To stop the movement of e-
its max KE = qe x Vo
(KE)max = qV0
Or
(KE) max (KE) max
V0 = q or
e
 [Jan. 12, 2019
(I)]
A. 0.9 eV

B. 3.1 eV

C. 2.1 eV

D. 4.0 eV
A. 4 eV

B. 5.5 eV
[April 15, 2018 (I)]
C. 4.5 eV

D. 5 eV
Spectrum
Spectrum :
When light coming from a source is dispersed by a prism, light of different
wavelength are deviated through different angles and get separated. This
phenomenon is called dispersion and such dispersed light may be
received on a photographic plate or it may be viewed directly by eye. A
collection of dispersed light giving its wavelength composition is called a
spectrum.
Line Spectrum :

- Discontinuous spectrum
- Heat some atomic gas (H(g)], it emits EM waves.
- Trace the EM waves on a photographic film,
- Some lines will be observed.
Bohr’s Atomic Theory
Bohr’s Atomic model :

Applicable only for mono electronic system H, He+, Li2+, Be3+

(i) The atom has a central massive core nucleus where all the protons
and neutrons are present. The size of the nucleus is very small.

(ii) The electron in an atom revolve around the nucleus in certain

discrete orbits. Such orbits are known as stable orbits or non -
radiating or stationary orbits.
Bohr’s Atomic model :

An electron can move only in those permissive orbits in which the

angular momentum (mvr) of the electron is an integral multiple of h/2π
Thus, mvr = n h/2π

Where, m = mass of the electron, r = radius of the electronic orbit, V =

velocity of the electron in its orbit.
Bohr’s Atomic model :

It can have the values n=1,2,3, -------(from the nucleus). Various energy
levels are designed as
K(n=1), L(n=2), M(n=3) ------- etc. Since the electron present in these orbits is
associated with some energy, these orbits are called energy levels.
Bohr’s Atomic model :
The emission or absorption of radiation by the atom takes place when an
electron jumps from one stationary orbit to another.

The radiation is emitted or absorbed as a single quantum (photon) whose

energy is equal to the difference in energy of the electron in the two orbits
involved.

The lowest energy state (n=1) is called the ground state. When an electron
absorbs energy, it gets excited and jumps to an outer orbit. It has to fall
back to a lower orbit with the release of energy.
Acc to Bohr’s model
Bohr’s Atomic model :

According to coulomb’s law, the electrostatic force of attraction (F)

between the moving electron and nucleus is -

Where : K = constant = 1 / 4π∈0 = 9 x 109 Nm2/C2

and the centripetal force F = mv2/r

Bohr’s Atomic model :

Hence mv2 / r = KZe2 / r2

⇒ mv2 = kZe2
r

From the postulate of Bohr,

mvr = nh/2π
Bohr’s Atomic model :

k(ze)(e) = mv2
mvr = nh/2π
r2 r

kze2 = m (n h / 4π m r )
2 2 2 2 2

v = nh /
2πmr r

r = ( h2 / 4π2 k me2 )(n2/z)

⇒ rn = 0.529 n2/z Ao
The difference between the radii of 3rd and 4th orbits of Li2+ is ∆R1.
The difference between the radii of 3rd and 4th orbits of He+ is ΔR2.
Ratio ΔR1 : ΔR2 is :

A. 8:3 [Sep. 0.5, 2020 (I)]

B. 3:8

C. 2:3

D. 3:2
Calculation of velocity of an electron

Velocity of the revolving electron in nth is given by -

mvr = nh/2π v = nh/2πmr

Putting the value of r in above equation

then v = nh x 4π2 mZe2 / 2πmn2h2

v = 2πZe2 / nh

on putting the values of e and h,

v = (2.188 x 106 x z/n) m / sec

Energy of e- in nth orbit :
Energy of e- in nth orbit

KE - Due to movement of e-

KE = 1/2 mv2

Kze2 / r = mv2

KE = kZe2 / 2r
Bohr’s Atomic model :

(ii) electrostatic attraction b/w nucleus and e-

PE = k q1q2 / r

= k(ze)(-e) / r

PE = -kze2 / r
Bohr’s Atomic model :

Thus, TE of e- = KE + PE

= KZe2/2r + (-kze2/r)
= -kZe2/2r

⇒ En = -13.6 (z2/n2) eV/atom

En = -21.8 x 10-19 (z2/n2) J/atom

Bohr’s Atomic model :

KE = - TE or TE = -KE = PE/2

&

PE = 2TE
Bohr’s Atomic model :

For Hydrogen,

En = -13.6 Z2/n2 ev/atom,

En = -13.6 Z2/n2 ev/atom,

E1 = -13.6 ev
E2 = -3.4 ev
E3 = -1.51 ev
E4 = -0.85 ev
Bohr’s Atomic model :

(En) any atom z = (En)H x Z2

A.

B. [Jan. 0.8, 2020 (II)]

C.

D.
A. K

B. H
[April 12, 2019 (II)]
C. Li

D. Na
A. 1.65 A [Main 2017]

B. 4.76 A

C. 0.529 A

D. 2.12 A
A. -54.4

B. -3.4
[Jan. 10, 2019 (II)]
C. -6.04

D. -27.2
[Adv. 2019]
A. (III), (S)
[Adv. 2019]
B. (IV), (Q)

C. (III), (P)

D. (IV), (U)
Absorption & Emission of energy
Absorption and emission of energy :
- e- jumps from lower energy state to excited state by absorption of one
quantum / photon whose energy should be exactly equal to the
different between the two orbits.
- They e- jumps from excited state to lower state by release of one photon
whose energy should be exactly equal to the different of two states.
Absorption and emission of energy :
For electronic transition,
E photon = E higher orbit - E lower orbit

E photon = Eho - Elo

Wavelength of photon
For electronic transition,

1/RH = 912Ao
Ionization of mono electronic species
The minimum energy required to remove the ground state e- out of
the atom.
⇒ nlo = 1 ⟶ nho = ∞

Eph = Eho - Elo

= E∞ - E1 = 0 - E1

⇒ IE = -(E1)
For H, IE = 13.6 eV
Line spectrum of Hydrogen
Line spectrum of Hydrogen
● When mono electronic monoatomic gas H(g) is heated, all gnd
state e-s will get excited to higher state.
● Thus, after some time these e-s will try to come back to ground
state IN EVERY POSSIBLE WAY
● Because of this, so many photons of different λ will be emitted.
Electron transitions for the Hydrogen atom
Electron transitions for the Hydrogen atom
● 1/λ = RH (1/nlo2 - 1/nho2) z2

● For any series ;

1st line (or α line) ⇒ nho ⟶ x + 1
nlo ⟶ x

● 2nd line (B - line) ⟶ nho ⟶ x + 2

nlo ⟶ x

● last line (series limit) ⟶ nho = ∞

nlo ⟶ x
Electron transitions for the Hydrogen atom

● Line of longest λ
⇒ min. energy
nho ⟶ x + 1
nlo ⟶ x

● Line of shortest λ
max energy
nho ⟶ ∞
nlo ⟶ x
Lyman Series
a. It is a first series of spectral series of H.
b. It was found out in ultraviolet region in 1898 by Lyman.
c. It’s value of n1 = 1 and n2 = 2, 3, 4 where ‘n1’ is called excited state
of electron present in a H - atom.
d. If the electron goes to n1 = 1 from n2 = 2 - first Lyman series
If the electron goes to n1 = 1 from n2 = 3 - second lyman series
If the electron goes to n1 = 1 from n2 = 4 - third lyman series - so
on.
Balmer Series :
a. It is the second series of H-spectral series.
b. It was found out in 1892 in visible region by Balmer.
c. Balmer series was found out before all series because it was found
in visible region.
d. It's value of n1 = 2 and n2 = 3, 4, 5 ...........
e. If the electron goes to n1 = 2 from n2 = 3— First Balmer series
If the electron goes to n1 = 2 from n2 = 4-Second Balmer series
If the electron goes to n1 = 2 from n2 = 5 - third Balmer series .... so on
a. The wavelength of marginal line of Balmer
series = n12 / RH = 22 / RH = 4 / RH
a. 1/λ = RH [1/22 - 1/n22] where n2 > 2 always
Paschen Series :
a. It is the third series of H - spectrum.
b. It was found out in infrared region by Paschen.
c. It's value of n = 3 and n2 = 4, 5, 6 .....
d. If the electron goes to n1 = 3 from n2 = 4 - first paschen series
If the electron goes to n1 = 3 from n2 = 5 - second paschen
series.
If the electron of goes to n1 = 3 from n2 = 6 - third paschen
series —------ so on.
a. If wavelength of marginal line of paschen series
= n12 / RH = 32 / RH = 9 / RH.
a. 1/λ = RH [1/32 - 1/n22] where n2 > 3 always.
Brackett Series :
a. If is fourth series of H - spectrum.
b. It was found out in infrared region by Brackett.
c. It’s value of n1 = 4 and n2 = 5, 6, 7 ……..
d. If the electron goes to n1 = 4 from n2 = 5 - first brackett series
If the electron goes to n1 = 4 from n2 = 6 - second brackett series
If the electron goes to n1 = 4 from n2 = 7 - third brackett series —--- so
on.
a. The wavelength of marginal line of brackett
series = n12/RH = 42/RH = 16/RH
a. 1/λ = RH [1/42 - 1/n22] where n2 > 4 always.
Pfund Series :
a. It is fifth series of H-spectrum.
b. It was found out in infrared region by Pfund.
c. It's value of n, = 5 and n2 = 6,7,8……
d. If the electron goes to n1 = 5 from n2 = 6 - first Pfund series
If the electron goes to n1 = 5 from n2 = 7 - second Pfund series
If the electron goes to n1 = 5 from n2 = 8 - third Pfund series —-- so on.
a. The wavelength of marginal line of Pfund series = n12/RH = 52/RH =
25/RH
b. 1/λ = RH [1/52 - 1/n22] where n2 > 5 always.
Total number of unique spectral lines :
(if e-s transit from nho to nlo in every possible manner)
Total unique lines = (nho - nlo)(nho - nlo + 1)/2
The region in the electromagnetic spectrum where the Balmer
series lines appear is :

A. Visible
[Sep. 0.4, 2020 (I)]
B. Microwave

C. Infrared

D. Ultraviolet
The shortest wavelength of H atom in lyman series is λ1. The longest
wavelength in the Balmer series is He+ is :

A.
[Sep. 0.4, 2020 (II)]
B.

C.

D.
A. (I), (III), (IV) [Jan. 0.8, 2020 (I)]

B. (I), (II), (III)

C. (I), (II), (IV)

D. (II), (III), (IV)

A. Lyman and paschen

B. Balmer and brackett

[April 12, 2019 (II)]
C. Brackett and pfund

D. Paschen and pfund

A. 4:1

B. 9:4 [April 9, 2019 (I)]

C. 5:4

D. 27 : 5
A. Paschen, ∞ ⟶ 3
[Jan. 11, 2019
B. Paschen, 5 ⟶ 3 (I)]

C. Balmer, ∞ ⟶ 2

D. Lyman, ∞ ⟶ 1
A. 5A / 9
[April 8,
B. 9A / 5 2017]

C. 36 A / 5

D. 36 A / 7
De Broglie Hypothesis
De Broglie Hypothesis :
● It suggests wave-like nature of particle.
● In 1924, de Broglie proposed that an electron, like light, behaves both as
material particle and as a wave.
● The electrons, protons and even atoms, when in motion, possess wave
properties.
● This proposal gave a new theory, known as wave mechanical theory of
matter.
De Broglie Hypothesis :
De Broglie Hypothesis :

● If a charged particle present at rest is accelerated by v votts,

then,

inc. in KE = q.v
⇒ (KE)particle = o + qv
= qv
⇒ λ = h / √2m q.v
De Broglie Hypothesis :

● for the e- at rest, accelerated by v volt.

KE = q x v

λ = 6.6 x 10-34
√2 x 9.1 x 10-31 x 1.6 x 10-19 x v

λ = 1227 / √v Ao = q x v

λ = h / √2me.v

λ = √150 / v Ao ⇒ only s only for e-

● De - Broglie suggested that the e- present in Bohr orbit moves
similar to standing wave which keeps on oscillatory
continuously wrt its orbit

● Also, the e- can be present in those orbits only for which the
circumference is equal to a Natural No. multiple of the De -
Broglie wavelength.
A. 2πa0

B. 4πa0 [Jan. 09, 2020 (I)]

C. 6πa0

D. 8πa0
If the de Broglie wavelength of the electron in nth Bohr orbit in a
hydrogenic atom is equal to 1.5 πao (a0 is Bohr radius), then the
value of n/z is :

A. 0.40
[Jan. 12, 2019 (I)]
B. 1.50

C. 1.0

D. 0.75
The de-Broglie’s wavelength of electron present in first Bohr orbit
of ‘H’ atom is :

A. 4 x 0.529 A

B. 2π x 0.529 A [Jan. 15, 2018 (II)]

C. 0.529 / 2π A

D. 0.529 A
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle :
● For A moving Microscopic particle, it is impossible to determine
exact value of both position & momentum.
While treating e- as a wave it is not possible to ascertain
simultaneously the exact position and velocity of the e- more
precisely at a given instant.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle :

Δx = error in position (m)

Δp = error in momentum (kg m/s)

Δx . Δp ≥ h/4π

⇒ (Δx)min (Δp)min = h/4π

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle :
Error in speed (Δv) = ?
Error in speed (Δv) = ? ⇒ Δx.Δp ≥ h/4π
p = mv Δx. mΔv ≥ h/4π
dp = mdv
now integrate ⇒ Δx.Δv ≥ h/4πm
dp = m dv
Δp = mΔv ⇒ Δx.Δv ≥ h/4πm

m = mass of particle (kg)

Error in KE

Δ(KE) = ? ⇒ Δx.Δp ≥ h/4π

KE = 1/2 mv2 Δx. Δ(KE)/v ≥ h/4π
d(KE) = 1/2m x 2v dv
d(KE) = mvdv Δx.Δ(KE) ≥ hv/4π
Δ(KE) = m.v(Δv)
= v.Δp
 [Jan. 09, 2020 (I)]
A. 3/4 λ

B. 1/2 λ

C. 2/3 λ

D. 4/9 λ
Electronic Configuration
 Electronic Configuration
Electronic configuration
● Arrangement of e-s in an atom
Aufbau’s Principle
 Electronic Configuration
Rules to write e. conf
1. Aufbau’s Rule
for mono electronic system,
energy is dependent on value of n only
1s < 2s = 2p < 3s = 3p = 3d < 4s = 4p = 4d = 4f

(since there are no electronic repulsions)

 Electronic Configuration
Rules to write e.conf
1. Aufbau’s Rule
For multi electronic system, energy is dependent on value of n + l

- Subshell having small (n+l) has lesser energy

- If for 2 subshell, n+l is some subshell with smaller n is of less energy,
⇒ 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d <
 Electronic Configuration
Electronic configuration
 Electronic Configuration
Electronic configuration
 Electronic Configuration
Electronic configuration
Hund’s Rule of maximum multiplicity
 Electronic Configuration
Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity
● The subshell are first filled with the e-s of same spin and then the
pairing occurs.
● Maximum multiplicity conf is the most stable.
 Electronic Configuration
Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity
2 | ∑s | +1
Where ∑s = sum of spin quantum No.
The quantum number of four electrons are given below :

I. n = 4, l = 2, m1 = -2, ms = -½
II. n = 3, l = 2, m1 = 1, ms = + 1/2
[April 8, 2019 (I)]
III.n = 4, l = 1, m1 = 0, ms = +1/2
IV. n = 3, l = 1, m1 = 1, ms = -1/2

The correct order of their increasing energies will be :

A. IV < III < II < I

B. I < II < III < IV

C. IV < II < III < I

D. I < III < II < IV

Exchange Energy
 Electronic Configuration
Exchange energy
In a subshell with degenerate orbitals, the e-s having same spin can
exchange their pos,
⇒ energy is released ⇒ exchange energy.

Since energy is release ⇒stability

 Electronic Configuration
Exchange Energy
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
 Electronic Configuration
Pauli’s exclusion principle
No two e-s in an atom can have same value of all the 4 q.no
Or
In an orbital , e-s must be present with opp.spin
 Electronic Configuration
Electronic Configuration
 Electronic Configuration
Electronic Configuration
 Electronic Configuration
Electronic configuration
 Electronic Configuration
Electronic Configuration
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 4p 3d 5s 5p 4d 6s 6p 5d 4f - -
 Electronic Configuration
Electronic Configuration

Sc Ti V G Mn Fe Co Ni Cu

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

4S23s1 4S23d2 4s23d3 4S23d5 4S23d6 4S23d7 4S23d8

 Electronic Configuration
d - block exceptions
Mo Tc Cu Cr Ru Rh Pd Ag Au Pt Rg Nb
 Electronic Configuration
d - block exceptions
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

Sc Ti V G Mn Fe Co Ni Cu

y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag

Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au
 Electronic Configuration
d - block exceptions
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

Sc Ti V G Mn Fe Co Ni Cu

y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag

Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au
 Electronic Configuration
d - block exceptions
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

Sc Ti V G Mn Fe Co Ni Cu

y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag

Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au
 Electronic Configuration
Symmetrical configuration
(half filled) (p3/ d5 / f7)
(fully filled) (p6 / d10 / f14)
 Electronic Configuration
Electronic Configuration
4f exceptions

La Ce Gd
Local Cement Good

5f exceptions

Ac Th Pa U Np Cm
 Electronic Configuration
Configuration of Ions
Cu ⟶ ls2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
Cu+ ⟶ ls2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10

While writing ions, always write acc. to inc. shell. Not n+l rule

Zn ⟶ ls2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1

Zn2+ ⟶ ls2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10
Magnetic Moment
Magnetic Moment:
μ = √n(n + 2) B.M

Measure of paramagnetic Nature

n=1 μ = 1.73 BM

n=2 μ = 2. BM

n=3 μ = 3. BM
The isoelectronic set of ions is

A. N3-, O2-, F- and Na+

B. N3-, Li+, Mg2+ and O2-

[April 10, 2019
(I)]
C. F-, Li+, Na+ and Mg2+

D. Li+, Na+, O2- and F-

In the sixth period, the orbitals that are filled are :

A. 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p

B. 6s, 5d, 5f, 6p

[Sep. 05, 2020 (I)]
C. 6s, 5f, 6d, 6p

D. 6s, 6p, 6d, 6f

Wave Mechanical model

- Proposed by Heisenberg and schrodinger.

- Exact pos. of e- can’t be determined inside the atom also
- Only the probability of finding the e- can be determined.
Wave Mechanical model

- The movement of e- in an atom is ≈ to a 3D standing wave

- e- is a 3D wave in the electronic field of nucleus.
- Since e- is a wave, it should have a wave function also
Wave Mechanical model

- Schrodinger derived on equation which describes wave motion

of an e-.

- Schrodinger equation

- x, y, z - cartesian coordinates ψ = wave fn. of e-

m ⟶ mass of e-
E ⟶ total energy of e-
V ⟶ pot. Energy of e-
Schrodinger equation for H-atom
- When the equation is solved for a bound e-, the wave fn is
obtained as a fn. Of x, y & z
- Ψ = f (x,y,z)
- Instead of cartesian coordinates, polar coordinates are used.
(r, ө, ф)
Schrodinger equation for H-atom
- Consider a pt P in 3D at a dis r from O
- r makes ө from z axis
Schrodinger equation for H-atom
- Projection of r on z axis = rcos ө
- Projection of r on xy plane = r sin ө
Schrodinger equation for H-atom
- Projection of r on xy plane makes an angle Ø from x axis.
- Projection of (rsin ө) on x - axis = r sin ө cos Ø
- Projection of (r sin ө) on y - axis = r sin ө sin Ø
Schrodinger equation for H-atom
Thus,

Z = rcos Ө
X = rsin Ө cos ф
Y = rsin Ө sin ф
Schrodinger equation for H-atom

- When the eq. Is solved in polar coordinates,

Ψ = f(r, Ө, Ф)
Ψ = f(r). f(Ө, Ф)
Ψ = R(r). f(Ө, Ф)

R(r) ⟶ radical wave fn.

f(Ө, Ф) ⟶ angular wave fn.
Significance of wave function
- Probability amplitude of e-
- i.e, ψ is the amplitude fn. Expressed in terms of x,y,e or r,ө, Ф
- ψ can be +/ - / 0
- No physical significance.
Significance of ψ 2
- It is probability density.
- Tells the probability of finding e- per unit vol.
- ψ2 = prob or e- / vol
Significance of ψ 2

- For a given volume (dv) inside the atom

- prob = Ψ2. dv
Significance of ψ 2

R(r) ⟶ radical probability amplitude.

R2(r) ⟶ radial probability density ⇒ prob per unit vol. At a certain
Distance from nucleus in all
directions.
⇒ prob. Density on a spherical
surface.
Significance of ψ 2

f(Ө, Φ) ⟶ angular probability amplitude

f2(Ө, Φ) ⟶ angular probability density ⇒ prob. Per unit vol. In a
certain direction from
nucleus at all distances.
Wave mechanical model of atom

- Every s-orbital in non - directional (spherical) thus its wave fn

has no angular part.
Ψ(s) = R(r) only
Wave mechanical model of atom
Since p,d,f orbitals are directional, their Ψ includes both radial and
angular part.
Wave mechanical model of atom

- The region of the space where prob. To find e- is zero ⟶ node.

- Probability = 0
ψ2. dv = 0
⇒ ψ2 = 0
R(r). f(Ө, Ф) = 0
Radial nodes

R(r). f(Ө, Ф) = 0
- Radical modes ⇒ R(r) = 0
- Radical nodes are spherical surfaces where prob to find e- is o.
Angular nodes
- The region of space where prob (angular) of finding e- is 0
f(ө, Ф) = 0.
- The angular nodes are 2D planes
Types of nodes
Calculation of nodes
- For a given orbital
Radical nodes = n-l-1
Angular nodes = l
Total nodes = n - 1
Quantum numbers
Quantum numbers are to specify and display the complete
information about size, shape and orientation of the orbital. These
are principle, azimuthal and magnetic quantum number, which
follows directly from solution of schrodinger wave equation.

- Spin qNo. is derived theoretically.

- e- is charged species, when it rotates, mag. Field is generated.
- To cancel it out, there has to be a 2nd e- with opp spin.
- Thus 1 orbital has max of 2e- with opp. spin.
Principal quantum number (n):
- It was proposed by Bohr and denoted by 'n'.

- It determines the average distance between electron and

nucleus,

- It determines the energy of the electron in an orbit where

electron is present.

- It gives the information of orbit K, L, M, N, …

- The value of energy increases with the increasing value of n.

- It represents the major energy shell from which the electron

belongs.
Azimuthal quantum number or
angular quantum number (l):
- It was proposed by Sommerfeld and denoted by'l.

- It determines the number of subshells or sublevels to which the

electron belongs.

- The value of l is integral values upto (n-1), starting from zero

where 'n' is the number

- It tells about the shape of subshells.

- It represent the orbital angular momentum, which is equal to

h/2π √l(l+1).
- Distance of subshell from nucleus in a shell s < p < d < f
- s closest to nucleus.
- Energy of subshell in a shell s < p < d < f
Magnetic quantum number (m) :
- It was proposed by Linde and denoted by ‘m'.

- It gives the number of permitted orientation of subshells.

- The value of m varies from - l to + l through zero.

- For a given value of the total value of 'm' is equal to (2l + 1).

- For a given value of 'n' the total value of 'm' is equal to n2.
Magnetic quantum number (m) :
n=1 l=0 m=0
1 s

n=2 l=0 m=0

l=1 m = -1, 0, 1

n=3 l=0 m=0

l=1 m = -1, 0, 1

l=2 m = -2, 0, 1, 2
The number of subshells associated with n = 4 and m = -2 quantum
numbers is :

A. 8

B. 2
[Sep. 02, 2020 (II)]
C. 16

D. 4
The number of orbitals associated with quantum numbers
n = 5, ms = + 1/2 is :

A. 11

B. 25
[Jan. 07, 2020 (I)]
C. 50

D. 15
Consider the hypothetical situation where the azimuthal quantum
number, l, takes values 0, 1, 2, …. n + 1, where n is the principal
number. Then, the element with atomic number :

A. 9 is the first alkali metal

[Sep. 03, 2020 (II)]
B. 13 has a half - filled valence subshell

C. 8 is the first noble gas

D. 6 has a 2p - valence subshell

d orbitals :
d orbitals :
Along the axis

dx2y2
dy2-z2
These 2 combine to form dz2
dx2-z2

d2z2 - x2 - y2
(more e - density one z axis
∴ dz2
Spin quantum number (s) -
It was proposed by goldschmidt & uhlenbeck and denoted by the
symbol of ‘s’

The value of ‘s’ is + ½ or -½ , which is signified as the spin or rotation

or direction of electron on it’s axis during the movement.
Spin quantum number (s) -

The spin maybe clockwise or anticlockwise.

It represents the value of spin angular momentum is equal

to h/2π √s(s+1).

Maximum spin of an atom = 1/2x number of unpaired electron.

Final conclusion:

- Number of subshell in a shell = n

- Number of orbitals in a shell = n2
- Number of e-s in a shell = 2n2

shell Subshell orbitals e-

K (n=1) 1 1 2

L (n=2) 2 4 8

M (n=3) 3 9 18

N(n=4) 4 16 32
Final conclusion:

- Number of orbitals in a subshell = 2l + 1

- Number of e-s in a subshell = 2(2l + 1)
- Number of orbital in a shell = n2
The correct statement about probability density (except at infinite
distance from nucleus) is :

A. It can be zero for 1s orbital

B. It can be negative for 2p orbital

[Sep. 05, 2020 (II)]
C. It can be zero for 3p orbital

D. It can never be zero for 2s orbital

Rules for R(r) v/s r graph -

- at origin, nucleus is present

- for s orbitals, the curve starts from a max value
- for p, d, f orbitals the curve starts from origin
- the pt. Where the curve cuts x - axis represents radial nodes.
Rules for R(r) v/s r graph -

- after each node, sign of ψ changes.

- as r inc, heights of successive peaks dec.
- at the end, curve will be parallel to x - axis.
Rules for R2(r) v/s r -

- The curve will always be +ve with same position of radial

nodes.
Radial probability distribution function -

- Its a function which gives distribution of

Radial Probability.

- The probability of finding e- at a particular distance from the

nucleus in all directions.
Rules for 4πr2R2(r) dr v/s r graph or P(r)
v/s r graph -

- Nucleus is present at origin

- For every orbital, the curve starts from origin
- ∵ if r = o P(r) = o
- All curves are in 1st quadrant only [for all orbitals]
- Each touch on x-axis is a radial node.
- as r ↑, height of successive peaks increases.
- No. of radial nodes = no. of touches with x axis
- No. of peaKs = touches + 1
- As r ↑, height of successive peaks inc
The electrons are more likely to be found :

[April 12, 2019 (I)]

A. in the region a and c

B. in the region a and b

C. only in the region a

D. Only in the region c

The graph between |ψ|2 and r (radial distance) is shown below. This
represents :

[April 10, 2019

(I)]

A. 3s orbital

B. 2s orbital

C. 1s orbital

D. 2p orbital
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