Lesson 4 - Analysis of Flue Gas

Monday, 7 August 2023 9:44 am

I. Introduction to Flue Gas

Flue gas is the gas exiting to the atmosphere via a flue, which is a pipe or channel for conveying exhaust gases, as from a fireplace, oven, furnace, boiler
or steam generator. It often refers to the exhaust gas of combustion at power plants. Technology is available to remove pollutants from flue gas at power
plants.

Combustion of fossil fuels is a common source of flue gas. They are usually combusted with ambient air, with the largest part of the flue gas from most
fossil-fuel combustion being nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor.

The increase in all kinds of combustion is contaminating the environment with ever-greater concentrations of pollutants.

Smog formation, acid rain and the growing numbers of allergies are direct consequences of this development. The solution to environmentally sound
energy production must therefore involve reducing pollutant emissions.

Pollutants in flue gas can only effectively be reduced if existing plants operate as efficiently as possible or noxious boilers are shut down.

Flue gas analysis offers a means of determining pollutant concentrations and adjusting heating installations for maximum efficiency.

II. Units of Measurement

The presence of pollutants in flue gas can be detected from the concentration of the gas components. The following units are generally used: ppm
(parts per million)

Like "percent (%)", ppm describes a proportion. Percent means "x number of parts in every hundred parts", while ppm means "x number of parts in a
million parts". For example, if a gas cylinder contains 250 ppm carbon monoxide (CO), then if one million gas particles are taken from that cylinder, 250
of them will be carbon monoxide particles. The other 999,750 particles are nitrogen dioxide (N2) and oxygen particles (O2).

The unit ppm is independent of pressure and temperature, and is used for low concentrations. If larger concentrations are present, these are expressed
as percentages (%). The conversion is as follows:

10 000 ppm = 1 %
1 000 ppm = 0.1 %
100 ppm = 0.01 %
10 ppm = 0.001 %
1 ppm = 0.0001 %

An oxygen concentration of 21% volume would be equivalent to a concentration of 210,000 ppm O2.

III. Orsat Apparatus

An Orsat gas analyser/ Orsat Apparatus is a piece of laboratory equipment used to analyse a gas sample (typically fossil fuel flue gas) for its oxygen,
carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide content. Although largely replaced by instrumental techniques, the Orsat remains a reliable method of
measurement and is relatively simple to use.

The apparatus was invented by Louis Orsat who reported it in the Annales des Mines in 1875. There was an earlier report by Thomas Egleston in 1873.

IV. Components of Flue Gas

Gaseous products of combustion are analyzed using gas analyzer known as the Orsat apparatus. The combustion products contains CO2, S02, N2, O2,
CO, and water vapor.

1. Nitrogen (N2)

Nitrogen (N2) is the main component (79 vol.%) of the air we breathe. This colorless, odorless, tasteless gas plays no part in combustion. It is drawn into
the boiler as ballast, heated and sent to the stack.

Typical values in flue gas: Oil/gas burners: 78 % - 80 %

2. Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Carbon dioxide is a colorless, odorless gas with a slightly sour taste. Under the influence of sunlight and the green leaf color, chlorophyll, plants convert
carbon dioxide (CO2) into oxygen (O2).

Human and animal respiration converts the oxygen (O2) back into carbon dioxide (CO2).

This creates an equilibrium which gaseous products of combustion distort. This distortion accelerates the greenhouse effect. The threshold limit value is
5000 ppm. At concentrations of over 15% volume (150000 ppm) in breath, loss of consciousness occurs immediately.

Typical values in flue gas: Oil burners: 12.5 % - 14 % and gas burners: 8 % - 11 %

3. Water vapour (Humidity)

The hydrogen contained in the fuel combines with oxygen to form water (H2O). This escapes with the water from the fuel and the combusted air,
depending on the flue gas temperature (FT), in the form of flue gas moisture (at a high flue gas temperature FT) or as condensate (at a low flue gas
temperature).

4. Oxygen (O2)

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The remaining oxygen not used in combustion in the case of excess air appears as gaseous flue gas and is used to measure combustion efficiency. It is
used to determine flue gas loss and carbon dioxide content.

Typical values in flue gas: Oil burners: 2% - 5% and Gas burners: 2% - 6%

5. Carbon monoxide (CO)

Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless breathing poison and is the product of incomplete combustion. In too high a concentration, it prevents the
blood from absorbing oxygen. If for example the air for breathing in a room contained 700 ppm CO, a human being breathing in that air would be dead
in 3 hours. The threshold limit value is 50 ppm.

Typical values in flue gas: Oil burners: 80 ppm - 150 ppm and Gas burners: 80 ppm - 100 ppm

6. Nitrogen oxides (NOX)

At high temperatures (combustion), the nitrogen (N2) present in the fuel and in the ambient air combines with the oxygen of the air (O2) to form nitrogen
monoxide (NO). After some time, this colorless gas oxidizes in combination with oxygen (O2) to form nitrogen dioxide (NO2).

NO2 is a water-soluble respiratory poison which causes severe lung damage if breathed in and contributes to ozone formation in combination with
ultraviolet radiation (sunlight). The NO and NO2 components together are called nitrogen oxides (NOX).

Typical values in flue gas: Oil/gas burners: 50 ppm - 100 ppm

7. Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is a colorless, toxic gas with a pungent smell. It is formed by the sulphur present in the fuel. The threshold limit value is 5 ppm.
Sulphurous acid (H2SO3) is formed in combination with water (H2O) or condensate.

Typical value in flue gas of oil burners: 180 ppm - 220 ppm

8. Unburned Hydrocarbons (HC)

Unburned hydrocarbons (HC) are formed when combustion is incomplete and contribute to the greenhouse effect. This group includes methane (CH4),
butane (C4H10) and benzene (C6H6).

Typical value in flue gas of oil burners: under 50 ppm

9. Soot

Soot is almost pure carbon (C) resulting from incomplete combustion.

Typical value in flue gas oil burners: Smoke spot number 0 or 1

10. Particulate Matter

Particulate matter (dust) is the name given to the smallest solids distributed through the air. These may occur in any shape and density. Particulate
matter is formed by the ash and mineral components of solid fuels.

V. Analysis of Flue Gas

The result of the analysis of dry flue gas by volume can be expressed by the equation:

The weight of gaseous products liberated during the combustion of fuel with air:

The weight of dry flue gas formed per kg of fuel burned:

Mass in the product of Combustion:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Note: By weight or mass (exact):

Total = 100%

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 5.

6.

7.

VI. Mass Balance of Ideal gas to fuel ratio (G/F) and Air to fuel ratio (A/F)

VII. Ideal Gas Mixtures

A. Gravimetric Analysis - % mass

B. Volumetric or Molal Analysis - % mole = % volume

C. Molecular Weight of Mixture

Where:
m = mass
n = no. of moles
M = Molecular Weight

VIII. Diatomic Molecules

Diatomic molecules consist of two atoms bonded together. In contrast, monatomic elements consist of single atoms (e.g., Ar, He). Many compounds
are diatomic, such as HCl, NaCl, and KBr. Diatomic compounds consist of two different elements.

There are seven pure elements that form diatomic molecules.

Hydrogen (H2)
Nitrogen (N2)
Oxygen (O2)
Fluorine (F2)
Chlorine (Cl2)
Iodine (I2)
Bromine (Br2)

All of these elements are nonmetals, since the halogens are a special type of nonmetallic element. Bromine is a liquid at room temperature, while the
other elements all gases under ordinary conditions. As the temperature is lowered or pressure is increased, the other elements become diatomic liquids.

Problem 4.1 In a boiler design, it is desirable to have the flue gas exit temperature above the dewpoint. Calculate the (a) total kg molecules (kg-mol)
and (b) the percentage of vapor by volumetric analysis in flue gas produced by combustion having the gravimetric analysis of:

N2 = 71.84 %
O2 = 3.61 %
CO2 = 20.35 %
H20 = 4.20 %

Convert gravimetric analysis into volumetric analysis for every 100 kg of fuel

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(b)

Problem 4.2 A coal fired steam boiler uses 3000 kg of coal per hour. Air required for combustion is 15 kg per coal at a barometric pressure of 98.2 kPaa.
The flue gas has a temperature of 285°C and an average molecular weight of 30. Assuming an ash loss of 11% and an allowable gas velocity of 7.5 m/s,
find the diameter of the chimney in meters.

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