Module 4: Power Series

Taylor Series
Maclaurin Series
Radius of Convergence
Manipulation of Power Series

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Power Series
• A power series in 𝑥𝑥 - an infinite series containing non-negative
integral powers of a variable 𝑥𝑥,

𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + ⋯ = ∑∞ 𝑐𝑐

𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛

• c𝑛𝑛 are constants

• The more general form, power series in 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎:

𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ = ∑∞

𝑛𝑛=0 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎)
𝑛𝑛

• These two series converge to 𝑐𝑐0 when 𝑥𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥𝑥 =

𝑎𝑎, respectively.
• For example 1 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ = ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑥𝑥 is a power
𝑛𝑛

series in 𝑥𝑥.
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Taylor Series
• For a power series representing a function 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 on 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 <
𝑟𝑟,
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯
= ∑∞ 𝑛𝑛=0 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 ,
𝑛𝑛

there is a relationship between the coefficients 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 and the

derivatives of 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 .
That is,
𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐1 + 2𝑐𝑐2 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 + 3𝑐𝑐3 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 2 + 4𝑐𝑐4 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 3 +⋯ ,

𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑐𝑐2 + 3 � 2𝑐𝑐3(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎) + 4 � 3𝑐𝑐4(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎)2 + ⋯ ,

𝑓𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥𝑥 = 3 � 2 � 1𝑐𝑐3 + 4 � 3 � 2𝑐𝑐4(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎) + ⋯ ,

and so on.

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• Evaluating the above series at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎 gives
𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎 = 𝑐𝑐0 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓′ 𝑎𝑎 = 1 � 𝑐𝑐1,
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎 = 2 � 1 � 𝑐𝑐2 = 2! 𝑐𝑐2,
𝑓𝑓′′′ 𝑎𝑎 = 3 � 2 � 1 � 𝑐𝑐3 = 3! 𝑐𝑐3,
respectively.
𝑛𝑛
𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎
In general, 𝑓𝑓
𝑛𝑛
𝑎𝑎 = 𝑛𝑛! 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛, or 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 = for 𝑛𝑛 ≥ 0
𝑛𝑛!

𝑛𝑛
𝑓𝑓 𝑎𝑎
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎
𝑛𝑛 = ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛 for 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 < 𝑟𝑟.
𝑛𝑛!

• This series is called the Taylor series for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 at 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎

• Named in honour of the English mathematician Brook

Taylor (1685-1731), who published this result in 1715).
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Maclaurin Series
• A special case of a Taylor series when 𝑎𝑎 = 0, is called the
Maclaurin series for 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 :

𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 0 + 𝑓𝑓 ′ 0 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓(0) +𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓(0) +⋯.
2! 3!

∞ (𝑛𝑛)
𝑓𝑓 (0) 𝑛𝑛
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = � 𝑥𝑥
𝑛𝑛!
𝑛𝑛=0

• Named after the Scottish mathematician, and former

student of Sir Isaac Newton, Colin Maclaurin (1698-1746)).

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Example 1: Find the Taylor series expansion for ln(𝑥𝑥) about

𝑥𝑥 = 1.
Solution: 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ln 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 1 = 0,
1
𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓 1 = 1,
𝑥𝑥
−1
𝑓𝑓 ′′ 𝑥𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 1 = −1,
𝑥𝑥
2
2!
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 3 and so on, ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 1 = 2!, and so on,
𝑥𝑥
Thus, the Taylor series for In𝑥𝑥 ∶
𝑓𝑓𝑓(1) 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓(1) 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓(1)
In𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 1 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 1 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 3 +⋯
1! 2! 3!

1 −1 2
=0 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 3 +⋯
1! 2! 3!

1 1
= 𝑥𝑥 − 1 − 𝑥𝑥 − 1 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 1 3 +⋯
2 3

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𝜋𝜋
Example 2: Find the Taylor series for sin 𝑥𝑥 about 𝑥𝑥= or in
4
𝜋𝜋
power of 𝑥𝑥 − 4 .
𝜋𝜋 1
Solution: 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = sin 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 =
4 2
𝜋𝜋 1
𝑓𝑓′ 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓′ =
4 2

𝜋𝜋 1
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = − sin 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 =−
4 2

𝜋𝜋 1
𝑓𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥𝑥 = − cos 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 =−
4 2

𝜋𝜋 2 1 𝜋𝜋 3
1 1 𝜋𝜋 1 𝑥𝑥− 4 𝑥𝑥− 4
∴ sin 𝑥𝑥 = + 𝑥𝑥 − − − 2
+⋯ .
2 2 4 2 2! 3!

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Example 3 Find the Taylor series for 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑥𝑥 about 𝑥𝑥 = 2
or in power of 𝑥𝑥 − 2 .

Solution 𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 2 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2

1 1
𝑓𝑓′ 𝑥𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑓𝑓′ 2 =
𝑥𝑥 2
1 1
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = − ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2 = −
𝑥𝑥2 4

2 1
𝑓𝑓 ′′′ 𝑥𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 2 =
𝑥𝑥3 4

2 3
1 1 𝑥𝑥−2 1 𝑥𝑥−2
∴ 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 2 − + +⋯ .
2 4 2! 4 3!

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Example 4: Find the Maclaurin series for cos 𝑥𝑥 .
Solution:
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = cos 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 0 = 1,
𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = − sin 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓 0 = 0,
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 1 = − cos 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 0 = −1,
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = sin 𝑥𝑥, and so on, ⇒𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 0 = 0, and so on.

Hence Maclaurin series for cos 𝑥𝑥 :

𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 0 + 𝑓𝑓 ′ 0 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓(0) +𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓(0) +⋯ .
2! 3!

𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥6

∴ cos 𝑥𝑥 = 1 − + − +⋯
2! 4! 6!

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Example 5: Find the Maclaurin series for 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 .

Solution:
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 0 = 1
𝑓𝑓′ 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓′ 0 = 1
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 and so on, ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 0 = 1, and so on,

Hence Maclaurin series for 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 :

𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 0 + 𝑓𝑓 ′ 0 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓(0) +𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓(0) +⋯ .
2! 3!

𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3
∴ 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥𝑥 + + +⋯
2! 3!

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Example 6: Find the Maclaurin series for 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1 + 𝑥𝑥) .

Solution:
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1 + 𝑥𝑥) ⇒ 𝑓𝑓 0 = 0
1
𝑓𝑓′ 𝑥𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑓𝑓′ 0 = 1
1+𝑥𝑥

−1
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 0 = − 1
(1+𝑥𝑥)2

2
𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 0 = 2
(1+𝑥𝑥)3

−6
𝑓𝑓𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑥𝑥 = 4 ⇒ 𝑓𝑓𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 0 = −6
1+𝑥𝑥

𝑥𝑥2 2𝑥𝑥3 6𝑥𝑥4

∴ 𝑙𝑙 𝑛𝑛 1 + 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 − + − +⋯
2! 3! 4!
𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥5
= 𝑥𝑥 − + − + ⋯
2 3 4 5

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Note: Some important Maclaurin series:

𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
𝑥𝑥
𝑒𝑒 = 1 + 𝑥𝑥 + + +⋯ = ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛! for all 𝑥𝑥,
2! 3!
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 4 𝑥𝑥 6 ∞ −1 𝑛𝑛 2𝑛𝑛
cos 𝑥𝑥 = 1 − + − +⋯ = ∑𝑛𝑛=0 𝑥𝑥 for all 𝑥𝑥,
2! 4! 6! (2𝑛𝑛)!
𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥 5 𝑥𝑥 7 ∞ −1 𝑛𝑛
sin 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 − + − +⋯ = ∑𝑛𝑛=0 𝑥𝑥 2𝑛𝑛+1 for all 𝑥𝑥,
3! 5! 7! (2𝑛𝑛+1)!
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 4 𝑥𝑥 6 ∞ 𝑥𝑥 2𝑛𝑛
cosh 𝑥𝑥 = 1 + + + +⋯ = ∑𝑛𝑛=0 for all 𝑥𝑥,
2! 4! 6! (2𝑛𝑛)!

𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥 5 𝑥𝑥 7 ∞ 𝑥𝑥 2𝑛𝑛+1
sinh 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 + + + +⋯ = ∑𝑛𝑛=0 for all 𝑥𝑥,
3! 5! 7! (2𝑛𝑛+1)!

𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 3 𝑥𝑥 4 ∞ (−1)𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛+1
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1 + 𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 − + − +⋯= ∑𝑛𝑛=0 𝑥𝑥 , for 𝑥𝑥 <1.
2! 3! 4! (𝑛𝑛+1)!

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Radius of Convergence
• Interval of convergence - the set of all real numbers 𝑥𝑥 for which a power
series converges.
• A power series in 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 may converge:
• on a finite interval centered at 𝑎𝑎:
𝑎𝑎 − 𝑟𝑟, 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑟𝑟 , 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑟𝑟, 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑟𝑟 , 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑟𝑟, 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑟𝑟 or 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑟𝑟, 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑟𝑟 ;
• on the infinite interval −∞, ∞ ; or
• at the single point 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑎𝑎.
In the respective cases, we say that the radius of convergence is
𝑟𝑟, ∞ or 0. For example, for the case 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑟𝑟, 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑟𝑟 :

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∞ 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛
Example 1: Find the radius of convergence for ∑𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛 .
2
2 𝑛𝑛+1

Solution:

𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛+1 2𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛 + 1 2

lim = lim 𝑛𝑛+1
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛→∞ 2 𝑛𝑛 + 2 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛

1 2 1 2
𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛+1 2
𝑥𝑥 1+𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 1+𝑛𝑛
= lim 2 = ∙ lim 2 = ∙ lim 2
𝑛𝑛→∞ 2 𝑛𝑛+2 2 𝑛𝑛→∞ 1+ 2 𝑛𝑛→∞ 1+
𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
=1
𝑥𝑥
=
2
∙<1
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 < 2

∴ 𝑅𝑅 = 2

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𝑛𝑛
𝑥𝑥
Example 2: Find the radius of convergence for ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛! .

Solution:
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛!
lim = lim
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛 + 1 ! 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛

�
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 � 𝑛𝑛! 𝑥𝑥 1
= lim = lim = 𝑥𝑥 � lim
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛!𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛+1
=0

= 0 < 1, ∀𝑥𝑥
∴ 𝑅𝑅 = ∞

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(𝑥𝑥−5)
Example 3: Find the radius of convergence for ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 .

Solution:
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 (𝑥𝑥 − 5)𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛. 3𝑛𝑛
= lim
𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛→∞ (𝑛𝑛 + 1)3𝑛𝑛+1 𝑥𝑥 − 5 𝑛𝑛

𝑥𝑥−5 𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥−5 𝑛𝑛
= lim = ∙ lim 𝑛𝑛+1
𝑛𝑛→∞ 3 𝑛𝑛+1 3 𝑛𝑛→∞

𝑥𝑥−5 1
=
3
∙ lim 1
𝑛𝑛→∞ 1+𝑛𝑛
=1
𝑥𝑥−5
=
3
𝑥𝑥−5
= <1
3
⇒ 𝑥𝑥 − 5 < 3
∴ 𝑅𝑅 = 3
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Example 4: Find
𝑛𝑛
the radius of convergence of
𝑛𝑛+1 𝑥𝑥
∑(−1) .
𝑛𝑛
Solution:

𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛
lim = lim 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛+1 𝑥𝑥

𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛+1
= lim
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛+1 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛
= 𝑥𝑥 lim
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑛𝑛+1

n
= 𝑥𝑥 < 1. (since lim =1)
n→∞ n+1

∴ 𝑅𝑅 = 1

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𝑛𝑛! 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛
Example 5: Find the radius of convergence of ∑ .
2𝑛𝑛 !
Solution:

𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛 + 1 ! 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + 1 2𝑛𝑛 !
lim = lim
𝑛𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛→∞ 2𝑛𝑛 + 2 ! 𝑛𝑛! 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝑛𝑛+1 𝑛𝑛!𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 2𝑛𝑛 !
= lim
𝑛𝑛→∞ 2𝑛𝑛+2 2𝑛𝑛+1 2𝑛𝑛 !𝑛𝑛!𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛

𝑛𝑛+1
= 𝑥𝑥 lim
𝑛𝑛→∞ (2𝑛𝑛+2)(2𝑛𝑛+1)
= 𝑥𝑥 × 0=0
= 𝑥𝑥 < 1, ∀𝑥𝑥
∴ 𝑅𝑅 = ∞

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Manipulation of Power Series

1. Addition and Subtraction of Power Series
• Power series can be added or subtracted, term-by-term for
those values of 𝑥𝑥 for which both series converge.
• Suppose:
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 =∑∞ 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥+ 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 + ⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 <𝑟𝑟1,
2

and

𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 =∑∞ 𝑑𝑑
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 =𝑑𝑑 + 𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥+ 𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑑 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 <𝑟𝑟
0 1 2 𝑛𝑛 2,

• 𝑟𝑟1 and 𝑟𝑟2 are the corresponding radius of convergence, then

𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 ± 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = ∑∞ 𝑛𝑛 ∞ 𝑛𝑛 ∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 ± ∑𝑛𝑛=0 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥 = ∑𝑛𝑛=0 (𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 ± 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 )𝑥𝑥
𝑛𝑛

= (𝑐𝑐0 +𝑑𝑑0) ± (𝑐𝑐1+𝑑𝑑1)𝑥𝑥 ± (𝑐𝑐2+𝑑𝑑2) 𝑥𝑥2 ± ⋯ ±(𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 + 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛) 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 ± ⋯

for 𝑥𝑥 < min(𝑟𝑟1, 𝑟𝑟2).
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Example 1: Find a power series representation for cosh 𝜃𝜃.

Hence, obtain estimate for cosh (1/2).
Solution:
• Using the relation:
cosh 𝜃𝜃 = 1/2(𝑒𝑒 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝜃𝜃 ), and the series expansion for
𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3 𝑥𝑥4
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 =1 + 𝑥𝑥 + + + + ⋯ for all 𝑥𝑥,
2! 3! 4!
we have:
1 𝜃𝜃2 𝜃𝜃3 𝜃𝜃4 𝜃𝜃2 𝜃𝜃3 𝜃𝜃4
cosh 𝜃𝜃 = �1 + 𝜃𝜃 + + + + ⋯ + �1 − 𝜃𝜃 + − + +
2 2! 3! 4! 2! 3! 4!
𝜃𝜃2 𝜃𝜃4 𝜃𝜃6
⋯ �� =1 + + + + ⋯ for all 𝜃𝜃
2! 4! 6!
2 4 6
1⁄2 1⁄2 1⁄2
For θ = 1/2: cosh 1⁄2 = 1 + + + +⋯
2! 4! 6!

≈ 1.1276.

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2. Composition of Power Series

Suppose:
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ∑∞ 𝑐𝑐
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛

= 𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑟𝑟1.

The power series for 𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 can be obtained from:

𝑓𝑓 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
𝑛𝑛

= 𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑐𝑐2 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑐3 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 3 +⋯+

𝑛𝑛
𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 for 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑟𝑟1.
and follow by substituting the power series expansion for 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥)
into this expression.

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Example 2: Using the standard series from the Concise Collection of
2
Formulae, determine the first few terms of the power series for 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 ⁄2.
Solution:
Using the power series expansion for 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 :
𝑛𝑛
𝑡𝑡
𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 = ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑛𝑛!
𝑡𝑡2 𝑡𝑡3 𝑡𝑡4
= 1 + 𝑡𝑡 + + + + ⋯for all 𝑡𝑡,
2! 3! 4!
1
We have upon substituting 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑥𝑥 2 ,
2
1 2 2 1 2 3 1 2 4
1 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥2⁄2 =1+ 𝑥𝑥 + 2
+ 2
+ 2
+⋯
2 2! 3! 4!

𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥6 𝑥𝑥8 1

=1+ + + + +⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 2 < 1 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 < 2.
2 8 48 384 2

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3. Multiplication of Power Series

Suppose
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥
n

= 𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥n + ⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑟𝑟1,

and 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥
n

= 𝑑𝑑0 + 𝑑𝑑1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑑3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥n + ⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑟𝑟2,

then

𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 x 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = (𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ )(𝑑𝑑0 + 𝑑𝑑1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑑3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ )

= 𝑐𝑐0𝑑𝑑0 + (𝑐𝑐0𝑑𝑑1 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑑𝑑0 )𝑥𝑥 + (𝑐𝑐2𝑑𝑑0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑑𝑑1 + 𝑐𝑐0𝑑𝑑2)𝑥𝑥2

+ (𝑐𝑐0𝑑𝑑3 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑑𝑑2 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑑𝑑1 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑑𝑑0)𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯for 𝑥𝑥 < min(𝑟𝑟1, 𝑟𝑟2).

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Example 3: Using the standard series from Concise Collection of

Formulae, determine the first few terms of the power series for
𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥.
Solution:
• Using the power series expansions for 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 and cos 𝑥𝑥, we
have:

𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥6

𝑒𝑒 cos 𝑥𝑥 = (1 + 𝑥𝑥 + + + + ⋯)(1 − + − + ⋯)
2! 3! 4! 2! 4! 6!
2 1 1 1 1
= 1 + 𝑥𝑥 1 + 𝑥𝑥 − + + 𝑥𝑥3 − + +⋯
2 2 2 6
𝑥𝑥3
= 1 + 𝑥𝑥 − + ⋯ for all 𝑥𝑥.
3

• The series expansion for 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥 is valid for all 𝑥𝑥, since both
the series expansions for 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥 are valid for all 𝑥𝑥.
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4. Division of Power Series

Suppose
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 = ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥
n

= 𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐n + ⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑟𝑟1,

and 𝑔𝑔 𝑥𝑥 = ∑∞
𝑛𝑛=0 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥
n

= 𝑑𝑑0 + 𝑑𝑑1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑑3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑n + ⋯ for 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑟𝑟2,

then the quotient,
𝑓𝑓 𝑥𝑥 𝑐𝑐0+𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥+ 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑥𝑥3 +⋯+𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥n+⋯
=
𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) 𝑑𝑑0+𝑑𝑑1𝑥𝑥+ 𝑑𝑑2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑑3𝑥𝑥3+⋯+ 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛𝑥𝑥n+⋯
= 𝑞𝑞0 + 𝑞𝑞1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑞𝑞2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑞𝑞3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞n + ⋯
provided 𝑐𝑐0 ≠ 0 and 𝑑𝑑0 ≠ 0. The coefficients (𝑞𝑞0,𝑞𝑞1, 𝑞𝑞2, 𝑞𝑞3,𝑞𝑞4 …)
may be obtained by the procedure of long division,

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or by writing:

𝑐𝑐0 + 𝑐𝑐1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑐𝑐2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑐3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑐𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯

= (𝑞𝑞0 + 𝑞𝑞1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑞𝑞2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑞𝑞3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑞𝑞𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ )

× (𝑑𝑑0 + 𝑑𝑑1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑑3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯ ),

and expanding the right-hand-side and equating coefficients of

like terms.
• Note that the resulting power series may not converge for
𝑥𝑥 < min(𝑟𝑟1 , 𝑟𝑟2 ) as there is an added complication, and
problems may occur whenever the denominator is zero.

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Example 4: Using the standard series from the Concise
Collection Formulae, determine the first few terms of the power
1
series for tanh 𝑥𝑥. Hence, evaluate ∫0 tanh 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥.
Solution:
Using the power series expansions for sinh 𝑥𝑥 and cosh 𝑥𝑥, we
have:
𝑥𝑥3 𝑥𝑥5 𝑥𝑥7
sinh 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 + + + + ⋯ for all 𝑥𝑥,
3! 5! 7!

𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥6

cosh 𝑥𝑥 = 1 + + + + ⋯ for all 𝑥𝑥,
2! 4! 6!
sinh 𝑥𝑥
⟹tanh 𝑥𝑥 =
cosh 𝑥𝑥
3 5 7
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
𝑥𝑥 + 3! + 5! + 7! +⋯
= 𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥6
1+ 2! + 4! + 6! +⋯

= 𝑞𝑞0 + 𝑞𝑞1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑞𝑞2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑞𝑞3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑞𝑞𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯.

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This requires:
𝑥𝑥3 𝑥𝑥5 𝑥𝑥7
𝑥𝑥 + + + +⋯
6 120 5040

𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥6

= (𝑞𝑞0 + 𝑞𝑞1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑞𝑞2𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑞𝑞3𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑞𝑞𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + ⋯) × (1 + + + + ⋯)
2 24 720

1 1 1 1
𝑞𝑞0 + 𝑞𝑞1𝑥𝑥 + 𝑞𝑞 + 𝑞𝑞2 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑞𝑞 + 𝑞𝑞3 𝑥𝑥3 + 𝑞𝑞0 + 𝑞𝑞2 + 𝑞𝑞3 𝑥𝑥4
2 0 2 1 24 2

1 1 1 1 1
+ 𝑞𝑞 + 𝑞𝑞3 + 𝑞𝑞5 𝑥𝑥5 + 𝑞𝑞 + 𝑞𝑞 + 𝑞𝑞4 + 𝑞𝑞6 𝑥𝑥6
24 1 2 720 0 24 2 2

1 1 1
+ 𝑞𝑞 + 𝑞𝑞 + 𝑞𝑞5 + 𝑞𝑞7 𝑥𝑥7 + ⋯
720 1 24 3 2

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Equating the coefficients of x we have

𝑞𝑞0 = 0
𝑞𝑞1 = 1
𝑞𝑞0
𝑞𝑞2 = − =0
2
1 𝑞𝑞1 1
𝑞𝑞3 = − =−
6 2 3
𝑞𝑞0 𝑞𝑞2
𝑞𝑞4 = − − =0
24 2
2 17
Similarly, 𝑞𝑞5 = , 𝑞𝑞6 = 0, 𝑞𝑞7 = − , …..
15 315

𝑥𝑥3 2𝑥𝑥5 17𝑥𝑥7

∴ tanh 𝑥𝑥 =𝑥𝑥 − + − + ⋯ for all 𝑥𝑥.
3 15 315

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1 1
𝑥𝑥3 2𝑥𝑥5 17𝑥𝑥7
∴ � tanh 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑥𝑥 − + − + ⋯ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 0 3 15 315

8 𝑥𝑥 = 1
𝑥𝑥3 𝑥𝑥4 𝑥𝑥5 17𝑥𝑥
= � − + 𝑥𝑥6 − �
3 12 45 2520 𝑥𝑥 = 0

121
= ≈ 0.4321.
280
𝑥𝑥
Exact Answer:

1 1 sinh 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 = 1
∫0 tanh 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =[ln cosh 𝑥𝑥 ]
cosh 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 = 0

= ln(cosh 1) − 1𝑛𝑛(1)

≈ 0.4338.

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Example 5:

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−𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3

Solution (a) 𝑒𝑒 = 1 − 𝑥𝑥 + − + ⋯
2! 3!
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1 + )= − + + ⋯
2 2 8 24
−𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥2 𝑥𝑥3
∴ 𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1 + ) = (1 − 𝑥𝑥 + − + ⋯)( − + + ⋯)
2 2! 3! 2 8 24
𝑥𝑥 1 1 1 1 1
= + (− − ) 𝑥𝑥2 +( + + )𝑥𝑥 3 + ⋯
2 8 2 24 8 4
𝑥𝑥 5 5
= − 𝑥𝑥2 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥3 + ⋯
2 8 12
−𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡
(b) 𝑒𝑒 : r1 = ∞ (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑒𝑒 , 𝑟𝑟 = ∞)

𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1 + ): 𝑡𝑡 < 1, < 1 ⟹ 𝑥𝑥 < 2
2 2

∴ r2 = 2
𝑥𝑥
∴ 𝑅𝑅 of 𝑒𝑒 −𝑥𝑥 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1 + ) = min 𝑟𝑟1, 𝑟𝑟2 = 2
2

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1 −𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 1 𝑥𝑥 5 5
(c) ∫0 𝑒𝑒 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(1 + ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫0 (2 − 2
𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥3 ) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2 8 12
1
𝑥𝑥2 5𝑥𝑥3 5𝑥𝑥4 1 5 5 7
= − + = − + =
4 24 48 0 4 24 48 48

1 −13 4
(d) Upper bound for the error ≤ ∫0 64 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

1
13𝑥𝑥5
𝑥𝑥
=
64 x 5 0

= 0.04
(e) No, because the upper limit of integration (i.e. 3) is
outside the convergence interval as 𝑅𝑅 = 2.

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