COMPUTER‌‌NETWORKS‌ ‌

‌
Define‌‌Network?‌ ‌
Ans:‌A‌‌network‌‌is‌‌a‌s‌ et‌‌of‌‌devices‌‌‌that‌‌are‌‌connected‌‌with‌a‌ ‌‌physical‌‌
media‌‌link.‌‌‌In‌‌a‌‌network,‌t‌ wo‌‌or‌‌more‌‌nodes‌‌are‌‌connected‌‌‌by‌‌a‌‌
physical‌‌link‌‌‌or‌‌two‌‌or‌‌more‌‌networks‌‌are‌‌connected‌‌by‌‌one‌‌or‌‌more‌‌
nodes.‌‌A‌‌network‌‌is‌‌a‌‌collection‌‌of‌‌devices‌c ‌ onnected‌‌to‌‌each‌‌other‌‌to‌‌
allow‌‌the‌‌sharing‌‌of‌‌data.‌ ‌
A‌‌node‌‌can‌‌be‌‌a‌c‌ omputer,‌‌printer,‌‌or‌‌any‌‌other‌‌device‌‌capable‌‌of‌‌sending‌‌
or‌‌receiving‌‌the‌‌data‌.‌‌The‌‌links‌‌connecting‌‌the‌‌nodes‌‌are‌‌known‌‌as‌‌
communication‌‌channels.‌ ‌
‌
Types‌‌of‌‌Network?‌ ‌
-‌‌Networks‌‌can‌‌be‌‌divided‌‌on‌‌the‌‌basis‌‌of‌‌area‌‌of‌‌distribution.‌ ‌
‌

‌
‌
‌

● LAN‌‌(Local‌‌Area‌‌Network):‌‌‌It‌‌is‌‌used‌‌for‌‌a‌‌small‌‌geographical‌‌

location‌‌like‌‌office,‌‌hospital,‌‌school,‌‌etc.‌‌ ‌
 ● P
‌ AN‌‌(Personal‌‌Area‌‌Network):‌‌‌Its‌‌range‌‌limit‌‌is‌‌up‌‌to‌‌10‌‌meters.‌‌

It‌‌is‌‌created‌‌for‌‌personal‌‌use.‌‌Generally,‌‌personal‌‌devices‌‌are‌‌
connected‌‌to‌‌this‌‌network.‌‌For‌‌example‌‌computers,‌‌telephones,‌‌fax,‌‌
printers,‌‌etc.‌‌ ‌

● MAN‌‌(Metropolitan‌‌Area‌‌Network):‌‌‌It‌‌is‌‌used‌‌to‌‌connect‌‌the‌‌

devices‌‌which‌‌span‌‌to‌‌large‌‌cities‌‌like‌‌metropolitan‌‌cities‌‌over‌‌a‌‌wide‌‌
geographical‌‌area.‌‌ ‌

● W
‌ AN‌‌(Wide‌‌Area‌‌Network):‌‌‌It‌‌is‌‌used‌‌over‌‌a‌‌wide‌‌geographical‌‌

location‌‌that‌‌may‌‌range‌‌to‌‌connect‌‌cities‌‌and‌‌countries.‌ ‌ ‌

Topology:‌‌ ‌

Topology‌‌defines‌‌the‌s
‌ tructure‌‌of‌‌the‌‌network‌‌‌of‌‌how‌a
‌ ll‌‌the‌‌components‌‌
are‌‌interconnected‌‌to‌‌each‌‌other.‌ ‌

‌
Mesh‌T
‌ opology:‌

‌
Star‌T
‌ opology:‌ ‌

‌
‌
Bus‌T
‌ opology‌ ‌

‌
Ring‌T
‌ opology:‌ ‌

‌
‌
Hybrid‌‌Topology:‌ ‌

‌
‌
OSI‌M
‌ odel(open‌s
‌ ystem‌i‌nterconnection):‌ ‌
It‌‌is‌‌a‌n
‌ etwork‌‌architecture‌‌model‌‌‌based‌‌on‌‌the‌‌ISO‌‌standards.‌‌It‌‌is‌‌called‌t‌ he‌‌
OSI‌‌model‌‌‌as‌‌it‌‌deals‌‌with‌c
‌ onnecting‌‌the‌‌systems‌‌that‌‌are‌‌open‌‌for‌‌
communication‌‌with‌‌other‌‌systems.‌ ‌
Open‌‌System‌‌Interconnection‌‌‌is‌‌a‌‌reference‌‌model‌‌that‌‌describes‌‌how‌‌
information‌‌from‌‌a‌s ‌ oftware‌‌‌application‌‌in‌‌one‌c
‌ omputer‌‌‌moves‌‌through‌‌a‌‌
physical‌‌medium‌‌to‌‌the‌‌software‌‌application‌‌in‌‌another‌‌computer‌.‌ ‌
‌
The‌O ‌ SI‌‌model‌‌has‌‌seven‌‌layers.‌ ‌
‌
‌

‌
‌
‌
Physical‌‌Layer:‌ ‌
●‌‌It‌‌is‌‌the‌l‌owest‌‌layer‌‌of‌‌the‌‌OSI‌‌‌reference‌‌model.‌ ‌
●It‌‌is‌‌used‌‌for‌‌the‌t‌ ransmission‌‌of‌‌an‌‌unstructured‌‌raw‌‌bit‌‌stream‌‌over‌‌a‌‌
physical‌‌medium.‌‌ ‌
●‌‌Physical‌‌layer‌‌transmits‌‌the‌d ‌ ata‌‌either‌‌in‌‌the‌‌form‌‌of‌‌electrical/optical‌‌
or‌‌mechanical‌‌form.‌‌ ‌
●‌‌The‌‌physical‌‌layer‌‌is‌‌mainly‌‌used‌‌for‌‌the‌p ‌ hysical‌‌connection‌‌between‌‌
the‌‌devices,‌‌‌and‌‌such‌‌physical‌‌connection‌‌can‌‌be‌‌made‌‌by‌‌using‌‌
twisted-pair‌‌cable,‌‌fibre-optic‌‌or‌‌wireless‌‌transmission‌‌media.‌ ‌ ‌
network‌‌hubs,‌‌cabling,‌‌repeaters,‌‌network‌‌adapters‌‌or‌‌modems‌.‌ ‌
‌
‌

Functions‌‌of‌‌a‌‌Physical‌‌layer:‌ ‌

● Line‌‌Configuration:‌‌‌It‌‌defines‌‌the‌‌way‌‌how‌t‌ wo‌o
‌ r‌m
‌ ore‌d
‌ evices‌‌‌can‌‌be‌‌
connected‌p
‌ hysically.‌ ‌

● Data‌‌Transmission‌:‌‌It‌‌defines‌‌the‌t‌ ransmission‌m
‌ ode‌‌‌whether‌‌i‌t‌i‌s‌s
‌ implex,‌‌
half-duplex‌o
‌ r‌f‌ ull-duplex‌‌‌mode‌‌between‌‌the‌‌two‌‌devices‌‌on‌‌the‌‌network.‌ ‌

● Topology‌:‌‌It‌‌defines‌‌the‌w
‌ ay‌h
‌ ow‌n
‌ etwork‌d
‌ evices‌a
‌ re‌a
‌ rranged.‌ ‌

● Signals:‌‌‌It‌‌determines‌‌th‌ e‌t‌ ype‌o‌ f‌t‌ he‌s‌ ignal‌u‌ sed‌f‌ or‌t‌ ransmitting‌t‌ he‌‌
information.‌ ‌

‌
‌
‌
‌
DataLink‌‌Layer:‌ ‌
● Last‌S ‌ econd‌‌Layer‌,it‌‌is‌‌between‌t‌ he‌‌network‌‌and‌‌physical‌‌
layer.‌ ‌
● It‌‌is‌‌used‌‌for‌t‌ ransferring‌‌the‌‌data‌‌‌from‌o‌ ne‌‌node‌‌to‌‌another‌‌
node.‌ ‌
● It‌‌receives‌‌the‌d ‌ ata‌‌from‌‌the‌‌network‌‌layer‌‌‌and‌c ‌ onverts‌‌the‌‌
data‌‌into‌‌data‌‌frames‌‌‌and‌‌then‌a ‌ ttaches‌‌the‌‌physical‌‌
address‌‌to‌‌these‌‌frames‌‌‌which‌‌are‌s ‌ ent‌‌to‌‌the‌‌physical‌‌
layer.‌‌ ‌
● It‌‌enables‌‌the‌‌‌error-free‌‌transfer‌‌of‌‌data‌‌from‌‌one‌‌node‌‌to‌‌
another‌‌node.‌‌ ‌
‌
Functions‌o
‌ f‌D
‌ ata-link‌l‌ayer:‌‌ ‌
●‌‌Frame‌s
‌ ynchronization:‌‌D
‌ ata-link‌‌layer‌c‌ onverts‌‌the‌‌data‌‌into‌‌frames‌,‌‌
and‌‌it‌‌ensures‌‌that‌‌the‌‌destination‌‌must‌r‌ ecognize‌‌the‌‌starting‌‌and‌‌ending‌‌
of‌‌each‌‌frame.‌‌ ‌
‌
●‌‌Flow‌‌control:‌‌D ‌ ata-link‌‌layer‌c‌ ontrols‌‌the‌‌data‌‌flow‌‌‌within‌‌the‌‌network.‌‌ ‌
‌
●‌‌Error‌‌control:‌‌I‌t‌d
‌ etects‌‌and‌‌corrects‌‌the‌‌error‌‌‌occurred‌‌during‌‌the‌‌
transmission‌‌from‌‌source‌‌to‌‌destination‌.‌‌
‌
●‌‌‌Addressing:‌‌D ‌ ata-link‌‌layers‌‌attach‌t‌ he‌‌physical‌‌address‌‌with‌‌the‌‌data‌‌
frames‌‌‌so‌‌that‌‌the‌‌individual‌‌machines‌‌can‌‌be‌‌easily‌‌identified.‌‌ ‌
‌
●‌‌‌Link‌‌management:‌‌‌Data-link‌‌layer‌‌manages‌‌the‌‌initiation,‌‌
maintenance‌‌and‌‌termination‌‌of‌‌the‌‌link‌‌between‌‌the‌s ‌ ource‌‌and‌‌
destination‌‌‌for‌‌the‌‌effective‌‌exchange‌‌of‌‌data.‌ ‌
‌
Network‌‌Layer:‌ ‌
The‌‌Network‌‌Layer‌‌is‌‌the‌t‌ hird‌‌layer‌‌of‌‌the‌‌OSI‌‌model.‌It‌‌handles‌‌the‌s
‌ ervice‌‌
requests‌‌from‌‌the‌‌transport‌‌layer‌‌‌and‌‌further‌f‌ orwards‌‌the‌‌service‌‌request‌‌to‌‌the‌‌
data‌‌link‌‌layer‌.The‌‌network‌‌layer‌t‌ ranslates‌‌the‌‌logical‌‌addresses‌‌into‌‌physical‌‌
addresses‌ ‌

It‌‌determines‌t‌ he‌‌route‌‌from‌‌the‌‌source‌‌to‌‌the‌‌destination‌‌‌and‌‌also‌m
‌ anages‌‌the‌‌
traffic‌‌problems‌‌such‌‌as‌‌switching,‌‌routing‌‌and‌‌controls‌‌the‌‌congestion‌‌of‌‌data‌‌
packets.‌The‌‌main‌‌role‌‌of‌‌the‌‌network‌‌layer‌‌is‌t‌ o‌‌move‌‌the‌‌packets‌‌from‌‌the‌‌
sending‌‌host‌‌to‌‌the‌‌receiving‌‌host.‌ ‌

Functions‌‌of‌‌Network‌‌Layer:‌ ‌
i)Internet‌‌Networking:‌‌ A‌ n‌‌internetworking‌‌is‌‌the‌m
‌ ain‌‌
responsibility‌‌of‌‌the‌‌network‌‌layer‌.‌‌It‌‌provides‌‌a‌l‌ogical‌‌connection‌‌
between‌‌different‌ ‌devices.‌ ‌
ii)Addressing:‌‌‌‌A‌‌Network‌‌layer‌a‌ dds‌‌the‌‌source‌‌and‌‌destination‌‌
address‌‌to‌‌the‌‌header‌‌of‌‌the‌‌frame‌.‌‌Addressing‌‌is‌‌used‌‌to‌‌identify‌‌the‌‌
device‌‌on‌‌the‌‌internet.‌ ‌
iii)Routing:‌R‌ outing‌‌is‌‌the‌‌major‌‌component‌‌of‌‌the‌‌network‌‌layer,‌‌and‌‌
it‌‌determines‌‌the‌‌best‌‌optimal‌‌path‌‌out‌‌of‌‌the‌‌multiple‌‌paths‌‌‌from‌‌source‌‌
to‌‌the‌‌destination.‌ ‌
iv)Packetizing:‌The‌‌process‌‌of‌e‌ ncapsulating‌‌the‌‌data‌‌received‌‌
from‌‌upper‌‌layers‌‌of‌‌the‌‌network(also‌‌called‌‌as‌‌payload)‌‌i‌n‌‌a‌‌network‌‌
layer‌‌packet‌‌at‌‌the‌‌source‌‌‌and‌d
‌ ecapsulating‌‌the‌‌payload‌‌from‌‌the‌‌
network‌‌layer‌‌packet‌‌at‌‌the‌‌destination‌‌‌is‌‌known‌‌as‌‌packetizing.‌‌ ‌
‌
Problems‌‌with‌‌classful‌‌addressing:‌ ‌
i)‌‌Wastage‌‌of‌‌IP‌‌addresses‌ ‌
ii)‌‌Maintenance‌‌is‌‌time‌‌consuming‌ ‌
iii)More‌‌prone‌‌to‌‌errors‌ ‌
iv)Flexibility‌‌issue‌ ‌
‌
Classless‌‌Addressing:‌ ‌
‌
Q)What‌ ‌is‌‌Bandwidth?‌ ‌
Ans:‌E‌ very‌‌signal‌‌has‌‌a‌l‌imit‌‌of‌‌upper‌‌range‌‌frequency‌‌and‌l‌ower‌‌
range‌‌frequency.‌T ‌ he‌‌range‌‌of‌‌the‌‌limit‌‌of‌‌a‌‌network‌‌between‌‌‌its‌‌
upper‌‌and‌l‌ower‌‌frequency‌‌is‌‌called‌‌bandwidth‌.‌ ‌
‌

Q)What‌‌is‌‌Node‌‌and‌‌Link?‌ ‌
Ans:‌‌‌A‌‌network‌‌is‌‌a‌c‌ onnection‌‌setup‌‌of‌‌two‌‌or‌‌more‌‌computers‌‌directly‌‌
connected‌‌by‌‌some‌‌physical‌‌mediums‌‌like‌‌optical‌‌fiber‌‌or‌‌coaxial‌‌cable‌.‌‌
This‌p ‌ hysical‌‌medium‌‌of‌‌connection‌‌is‌‌known‌‌as‌‌a‌‌link‌,‌‌and‌t‌ he‌‌computers‌‌
that‌‌it‌‌is‌‌connected‌‌to‌‌‌are‌‌known‌‌as‌‌nodes.‌ ‌
‌
Q)Gateway‌a
‌ nd‌D
‌ ifference‌b
‌ etween‌g
‌ ateway‌a
‌ nd‌R
‌ outers?‌ ‌

Ans:‌‌A‌ ‌node‌ ‌that‌ ‌is‌ ‌connected‌ ‌to‌ ‌two‌ ‌or‌ ‌more‌ ‌networks‌ ‌is‌ ‌commonly‌‌
known‌ ‌as‌ ‌a‌ ‌gateway‌.‌ ‌It‌ ‌is‌ ‌also‌ ‌known‌ ‌as‌ ‌a‌ ‌router.‌ ‌It‌ ‌is‌ ‌used‌ ‌to‌ ‌forward‌‌
messages‌ ‌from‌ ‌one‌ ‌network‌ ‌to‌ ‌another‌.‌ ‌Both‌ ‌the‌ ‌gateway‌ ‌and‌ ‌router‌‌
regulate‌ ‌the‌ ‌traffic‌ ‌in‌‌the‌‌network‌.‌‌‌A‌‌router‌‌is‌‌a‌‌networking‌‌device‌‌that‌‌‌forwards‌‌
the‌ ‌packet‌ ‌based‌ ‌on‌ ‌the‌ ‌information‌ ‌available‌ ‌in‌ ‌the‌ ‌packet‌ ‌header‌ ‌and‌ ‌forwarding‌‌
table.‌ ‌
Differences‌b
‌ etween‌g
‌ ateway‌a
‌ nd‌r‌ outer:‌ ‌
A‌ ‌ro
‌ uter‌ ‌sends‌ ‌the‌ ‌data‌ ‌between‌ ‌two‌ ‌similar‌ ‌networks‌ ‌while‌ ‌gateway‌‌
sends‌‌the‌‌data‌‌between‌‌two‌‌dissimilar‌‌networks‌.‌ ‌

Q)‌What‌i‌s‌R
‌ outing?‌(physical,data‌l‌ink,network‌l‌ayer)‌ ‌

Ans:‌‌‌A‌ ‌Router‌ ‌is‌ ‌a‌ ‌process‌ ‌of‌ ‌selecting‌‌a‌‌path‌‌along‌‌which‌‌the‌‌data‌‌can‌‌

be‌ ‌transferred‌ ‌from‌ ‌source‌ ‌to‌ ‌the‌ ‌destination‌.‌ ‌Routing‌ ‌is‌ ‌performed‌ ‌by‌ ‌a‌‌
special‌‌device‌‌known‌‌as‌‌a‌‌router‌.A‌‌Router‌‌works‌‌at‌‌the‌‌‌network‌‌layer‌‌in‌‌the‌‌
OSI‌‌model‌‌and‌‌internet‌‌layer‌‌in‌‌TCP/IP‌‌model‌ ‌

● The‌‌routing‌‌algorithms‌‌are‌‌used‌‌for‌r‌ outing‌‌the‌‌packets‌.‌‌The‌‌routing‌‌
algorithm‌‌is‌‌nothing‌‌but‌‌a‌‌software‌‌responsible‌‌for‌‌‌deciding‌‌the‌‌optimal‌‌
path‌‌through‌‌which‌‌a‌‌packet‌‌can‌‌be‌‌transmitted.‌ ‌

● The‌‌routing‌‌algorithm‌i‌nitializes‌‌and‌‌maintains‌‌the‌‌routing‌‌table‌‌for‌‌the‌‌
process‌‌‌of‌‌path‌‌determination.‌ ‌

Things‌‌for‌‌optimal‌‌paths:Hop‌‌Count,Delay,Bandwidth,Load,Reliability.‌

Types‌o
‌ f‌R
‌ outing:‌ ‌
i)Static‌ ‌Routing:‌It‌ ‌is‌ ‌a‌ ‌technique‌ ‌in‌ ‌which‌ ‌the‌ ‌administrator‌ ‌manually‌‌
adds‌‌the‌‌routes‌‌in‌‌a‌‌routing‌‌table.‌ ‌

ii)Default‌ ‌Routing:‌ ‌Default‌ ‌Routing‌ ‌is‌ ‌a‌ ‌technique‌ ‌in‌ ‌which‌ ‌a‌ ‌router‌ ‌is‌‌
configured‌‌to‌‌send‌‌all‌‌the‌‌packets‌‌to‌‌the‌‌same‌‌hop‌‌device,‌‌‌and‌‌‌it‌‌doesn't‌‌matter‌‌
whether‌‌it‌‌belongs‌‌to‌‌a‌‌particular‌‌network‌‌or‌‌not.‌‌A‌‌Packet‌‌is‌‌transmitted‌‌to‌‌the‌‌
device‌‌for‌‌which‌‌it‌‌is‌‌configured‌‌in‌‌default‌‌routing.‌ ‌

iii)Dynamic‌‌Routing:‌‌‌Dynamic‌‌protocols‌‌are‌‌used‌‌to‌‌‌discover‌‌the‌‌new‌‌routes‌‌to‌‌
reach‌t‌ he‌d
‌ estination‌.‌ ‌
 ‌

Q)What‌‌Does‌‌Ping‌‌Command‌‌Do?‌ ‌
Ans:‌ ‌The‌ ‌"ping"‌ ‌is‌ ‌a‌ ‌utility‌ ‌program‌ ‌that‌ ‌allows‌ ‌you‌ ‌to‌ ‌check‌ ‌the‌ ‌connectivity‌‌
between‌ ‌the‌ ‌network‌ ‌devices‌.‌ ‌You‌ ‌can‌ ‌ping‌ ‌devices‌ ‌using‌ ‌its‌ ‌IP‌ ‌address‌ ‌or‌‌
name.‌ ‌
Q)‌‌What‌‌is‌‌a‌‌NIC(Network‌‌interface‌‌card)?‌ ‌

● NIC‌‌stands‌‌for‌N
‌ etwork‌‌Interface‌‌Card.‌‌‌It‌‌is‌‌a‌p
‌ eripheral‌‌card‌‌
attached‌‌to‌‌the‌‌PC‌‌to‌‌connect‌‌to‌‌a‌‌network‌.‌‌Every‌‌‌NIC‌‌has‌‌its‌‌own‌‌
MAC‌‌address‌‌‌that‌‌identifies‌‌the‌‌PC‌‌on‌‌the‌‌network.‌ ‌

● It‌‌provides‌‌a‌w
‌ ireless‌‌connection‌‌to‌‌a‌‌local‌‌area‌‌network.‌ ‌

● NICs‌‌were‌‌mainly‌‌used‌‌in‌d
‌ esktop‌‌computers.‌ ‌

Q)‌What‌‌is‌‌an‌‌IP?‌ ‌

Ans:‌I‌P‌‌stands‌‌for‌i‌nternet‌‌protocol.‌‌‌It‌‌is‌‌a‌p‌ rotocol‌‌defined‌‌in‌‌the‌‌TCP/IP‌‌
model‌‌used‌‌for‌‌sending‌‌the‌‌packets‌‌from‌‌source‌‌to‌‌destination‌.‌‌The‌‌main‌‌task‌‌
of‌‌IP‌‌is‌‌to‌‌deliver‌‌the‌p
‌ ackets‌‌from‌‌source‌‌to‌‌the‌‌destination‌‌based‌‌on‌‌the‌‌IP‌‌
addresses‌‌available‌‌in‌‌the‌‌packet‌‌headers‌.‌‌IP‌‌defines‌t‌ he‌‌packet‌‌structure‌‌that‌‌
hides‌‌the‌‌data‌‌which‌‌is‌‌to‌‌be‌‌delivered‌‌as‌‌well‌‌as‌‌the‌‌addressing‌‌method‌‌‌that‌‌
labels‌‌the‌‌datagram‌‌with‌‌a‌‌source‌‌and‌‌destination‌‌information.‌ ‌
An‌‌IP‌‌protocol‌‌provides‌t‌ he‌‌connectionless‌‌service,‌‌‌which‌‌is‌‌accompanied‌‌by‌‌
two‌‌transport‌‌protocols,‌‌i.e.,‌T
‌ CP/IP‌‌‌and‌‌UDP/IP‌,‌‌so‌‌the‌‌internet‌‌protocol‌‌is‌‌also‌‌
known‌‌as‌T
‌ CP/IP‌‌‌or‌U
‌ DP‌/IP.‌ ‌

Function:‌T‌ he‌‌main‌f‌ unction‌o‌ f‌t‌ he‌i‌nternet‌p‌ rotocol‌‌‌is‌‌to‌p‌ rovide‌a‌ ddressing‌t‌ o‌‌

the‌h
‌ osts,‌‌‌en
‌ capsulating‌t‌ he‌d
‌ ata‌i‌nto‌a
‌ ‌p
‌ acket‌s
‌ tructur‌e,‌‌and‌r‌ outing‌t‌ he‌d
‌ ata‌f‌ rom‌‌
source‌t‌ o‌t‌ he‌d
‌ estination‌a
‌ cross‌o
‌ ne‌o
‌ r‌m
‌ ore‌I‌ P‌‌n
‌ etworks.‌‌‌In‌‌order‌‌to‌‌achieve‌‌these‌‌
functionalities,‌‌internet‌‌‌protocol‌‌provides‌‌two‌‌major‌‌things‌‌which‌‌are‌‌given‌‌below.‌ ‌

An‌i‌nternet‌p
‌ rotocol‌d
‌ efines‌t‌ wo‌t‌ hings:‌ ‌

● Format‌o
‌ f‌I‌ P‌p
‌ acket‌ ‌

● IP‌A
‌ ddressing‌s
‌ ystem‌ ‌

Q)What‌‌is‌‌IP‌‌Addressing?‌ ‌

Ans:‌A‌ n‌‌IP‌‌address‌‌is‌‌a‌u‌ nique‌‌identifier‌‌assigned‌‌to‌‌the‌‌computer‌‌which‌‌is‌‌

connected‌‌to‌‌the‌‌internet‌.‌‌Each‌‌IP‌‌address‌‌consists‌‌of‌‌a‌‌series‌‌of‌‌characters‌‌like‌‌
192.168.1.2.‌U
‌ sers‌‌cannot‌‌access‌‌the‌‌domain‌‌name‌‌of‌‌each‌‌website‌‌with‌‌the‌‌
help‌‌of‌‌these‌‌characters‌,‌‌so‌‌DNS‌‌resolvers‌‌are‌‌used‌‌to‌‌convert‌‌the‌‌
human-readable‌‌domain‌‌names‌‌into‌‌a‌‌series‌‌of‌‌characters.‌E
‌ ach‌‌IP‌‌packet‌‌
contains‌‌two‌‌addresses‌,‌‌i.e.,‌‌the‌I‌ P‌‌address‌‌of‌‌the‌‌device,‌‌‌which‌‌is‌‌sending‌‌the‌‌
packet,‌‌and‌‌the‌I‌ P‌‌address‌‌of‌‌the‌‌device‌‌which‌‌is‌‌receiving‌‌the‌‌packet.‌ ‌

Types‌‌of‌‌IP‌‌Addressing:‌ ‌
1)Public‌A
‌ ddress:‌‌The‌‌public‌‌address‌‌is‌‌also‌‌known‌a‌ s‌‌an‌‌external‌‌
address‌‌as‌‌they‌‌are‌‌grouped‌‌under‌‌the‌‌WAN‌‌addresses‌.‌‌We‌‌can‌‌also‌‌define‌‌the‌‌
public‌‌address‌‌as‌‌a‌‌way‌‌to‌‌communicate‌‌outside‌‌the‌‌network‌.‌‌This‌‌address‌‌is‌‌
used‌‌to‌a
‌ ccess‌‌the‌‌internet.‌T
‌ he‌‌public‌‌address‌‌available‌‌on‌‌our‌‌computer‌‌
provides‌‌remote‌‌access‌‌to‌‌our‌‌computer.‌‌With‌‌the‌‌help‌‌of‌‌a‌p
‌ ublic‌‌address,‌‌we‌‌
can‌‌set‌‌up‌‌the‌‌home‌‌server‌‌to‌‌access‌‌the‌‌internet.‌‌‌This‌‌address‌‌is‌‌generally‌‌
assigned‌‌by‌‌the‌‌ISP‌‌(Internet‌‌Service‌‌Provider).‌ ‌

Key‌p
‌ oints‌r‌ elated‌t‌ o‌p
‌ ublic‌a
‌ ddress‌a
‌ re:‌ ‌

● The‌‌scope‌‌of‌‌the‌p
‌ ublic‌a
‌ ddress‌i‌s‌g
‌ lobal‌,‌‌which‌‌means‌t‌ hat‌w
‌ e‌c
‌ an‌‌
communicate‌o
‌ utside‌t‌ he‌n
‌ etwork.‌ ‌

● This‌‌address‌‌is‌‌assigned‌‌by‌‌the‌‌I‌ SP‌(‌ Internet‌S

‌ ervice‌P
‌ rovider).‌ ‌

● It‌‌is‌n
‌ ot‌a
‌ vailable‌a
‌ t‌f‌ ree‌o
‌ f‌c
‌ ost.‌ ‌

2)‌‌Private‌‌Address:‌A‌ ‌‌private‌‌address‌‌is‌‌also‌‌known‌‌as‌a‌ n‌i‌nternal‌‌

address,‌a
‌ s‌i‌t‌i‌s‌g
‌ rouped‌u
‌ nder‌t‌ he‌L
‌ AN‌a
‌ ddresses.‌‌‌It‌‌is‌‌used‌‌to‌c
‌ ommunicate‌w
‌ ithin‌‌
the‌n
‌ etwork.‌‌‌These‌‌addresses‌‌are‌n
‌ ot‌r‌ outed‌o
‌ n‌t‌ he‌i‌nternet‌s
‌ o‌t‌ hat‌n
‌ o‌t‌ raffic‌c
‌ an‌‌
come‌f‌ rom‌t‌ he‌i‌nternet‌t‌ o‌t‌ his‌p
‌ rivate‌a
‌ ddress.‌‌‌The‌‌address‌‌space‌‌for‌‌the‌‌private‌‌
address‌‌is‌‌al‌located‌u
‌ sing‌I‌ nterNIC‌t‌ o‌c
‌ reate‌o
‌ ur‌o
‌ wn‌n
‌ etwork‌.‌‌The‌‌private‌‌addresses‌‌
are‌‌a‌ssigned‌m
‌ ainly‌t‌ o‌t‌ hose‌c
‌ omputers,‌p
‌ rinters,‌s
‌ martphones,‌w
‌ hich‌a
‌ re‌k
‌ ept‌i‌nside‌‌
the‌h
‌ ome‌‌‌or‌‌the‌‌computers‌‌that‌‌are‌‌kept‌‌within‌‌the‌‌organization.‌‌ ‌
‌

Key‌p
‌ oints‌r‌ elated‌t‌ o‌p
‌ rivate‌a
‌ ddresses‌a
‌ re:‌ ‌
 ● Its‌‌scope‌‌is‌‌local,‌‌as‌‌we‌c
‌ an‌c
‌ ommunicate‌w
‌ ithin‌t‌ he‌n
‌ etwork‌o
‌ nly.‌ ‌

● It‌‌is‌‌generally‌‌used‌‌for‌c
‌ reating‌a
‌ ‌l‌ocal‌a
‌ rea‌n
‌ etwork.‌ ‌

● It‌‌is‌‌available‌‌at‌f‌ ree‌o
‌ f‌c
‌ ost.‌ ‌

● We‌‌can‌‌get‌‌to‌‌know‌‌the‌p
‌ rivate‌I‌ P‌a
‌ ddress‌b
‌ y‌s
‌ imply‌t‌ yping‌t‌ he‌"‌ ipconfig"‌‌‌on‌‌the‌‌
command‌‌prompt.‌ ‌

Q)‌What‌‌is‌‌a‌‌MAC‌‌Address‌?‌ ‌

Ans:‌P‌ art‌‌of‌‌the‌d‌ ata‌‌link‌‌layer‌‌‌stands‌‌for‌m

‌ ultiple‌a
‌ ccess‌‌protocol‌.‌ ‌

● MAC‌‌address‌‌is‌t‌ he‌‌physical‌‌address,‌‌‌which‌u
‌ niquely‌‌identifies‌‌
each‌‌device‌‌on‌‌a‌‌given‌‌network‌.‌‌To‌‌make‌c
‌ ommunication‌‌between‌‌
two‌‌networked‌‌devices‌,‌‌we‌‌need‌‌two‌‌addresses:‌I‌ P‌‌address‌‌and‌‌
MAC‌‌address.‌‌‌It‌‌is‌‌assigned‌‌to‌‌the‌‌NIC‌‌(Network‌‌Interface‌‌card)‌‌of‌‌
each‌‌device‌‌that‌‌can‌‌be‌‌connected‌‌to‌‌the‌‌internet.‌ ‌

● It‌‌is‌g
‌ lobally‌‌unique;‌‌‌it‌‌means‌‌‌two‌‌devices‌‌cannot‌‌have‌‌the‌‌same‌‌
MAC‌‌address.‌I‌t‌‌is‌‌represented‌‌in‌‌a‌h
‌ exadecimal‌‌format‌‌‌on‌‌each‌‌
device,‌‌such‌‌as‌0
‌ 0:0a:95:9d:67:16.‌ ‌

● It‌‌is‌‌provided‌b
‌ y‌‌the‌‌device's‌‌vendor‌‌at‌‌the‌‌time‌‌‌of‌‌manufacturing‌‌
and‌e
‌ mbedded‌‌in‌‌its‌‌NIC‌,‌‌which‌‌ideally‌‌cannot‌‌be‌‌changed.‌ ‌

‌
Types‌‌of‌‌MAC‌‌Address:‌ ‌

1)Unicast‌‌Mac‌‌address:‌I‌f‌‌the‌‌LSB‌‌(least‌‌significant‌‌bit)‌‌of‌‌the‌fi
‌ rst‌o
‌ ctet‌o
‌ f‌a
‌ n‌‌
address‌i‌s‌s
‌ et‌t‌ o‌z
‌ ero‌,‌‌the‌‌frame‌‌is‌‌meant‌‌to‌‌reach‌o
‌ nly‌o
‌ ne‌d ‌ IC‌.‌ ‌
‌ estination‌N

2)Multicast‌‌Mac‌‌address:‌L‌ SB‌‌(least‌‌significant‌‌bit)‌‌or‌fi
‌ rst‌3
‌ ‌b
‌ ytes‌o
‌ f‌t‌ he‌fi
‌ rst‌o
‌ ctet‌‌
of‌a
‌ n‌a
‌ ddress‌‌‌is‌‌set‌‌to‌‌one‌a
‌ nd‌r‌ eserved‌f‌ or‌t‌ he‌m ‌ ddresses.‌‌ ‌
‌ ulticast‌a

3)Broadcast‌‌Mac‌‌address:‌E‌ thernet‌‌frames‌‌with‌‌o‌ nes‌i‌n‌a‌ ll‌b‌ its‌o‌ f‌t‌ he‌d‌ estination‌‌

address‌(‌ FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF)‌‌‌are‌‌known‌‌as‌‌a‌‌broadcast‌‌address‌ ‌

The‌‌main‌‌difference‌‌between‌‌MAC‌‌and‌‌IP‌‌address:‌ ‌MAC‌‌Address‌‌
is‌ ‌used‌ ‌to‌ ‌ensure‌ ‌the‌ ‌physical‌ ‌address‌ ‌of‌ ‌a‌ ‌computer‌.‌ ‌It‌ ‌uniquely‌‌
identifies‌ ‌the‌ ‌devices‌ ‌on‌ ‌a‌ ‌network‌.‌ ‌While‌ ‌IP‌‌addresses‌‌are‌‌used‌‌to‌‌
uniquely‌‌identify‌‌the‌‌connection‌‌of‌‌a‌‌network‌‌with‌‌that‌‌device‌‌taking‌‌
part‌‌in‌‌a‌‌network.‌ ‌
‌

‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
Difference‌b
‌ etween‌I‌ Pv4‌v
‌ s‌I‌ Pv6?‌ ‌

‌
 ‌
‌
Q)What‌‌is‌‌a‌‌subnet?‌ ‌
Ans:‌Dividing‌‌the‌‌big‌‌network‌‌‌into‌‌the‌s‌ mall‌‌network‌.A‌‌subnet‌‌is‌a‌ ‌‌
network‌‌inside‌‌a‌‌network‌‌‌achieved‌‌by‌‌the‌p ‌ rocess‌c
‌ alled‌‌subnetting‌‌
which‌‌helps‌‌divide‌‌a‌n ‌ etwork‌‌into‌‌subnets.‌ ‌
It‌‌is‌‌used‌‌for‌‌getting‌‌a‌‌higher‌‌routing‌‌efficiency‌a‌ nd‌e
‌ nhances‌t‌ he‌‌
security‌‌of‌‌the‌‌network.‌‌ ‌
It‌r‌ educes‌‌the‌‌time‌‌to‌‌extract‌‌the‌‌host‌‌address‌‌from‌‌the‌‌routing‌‌table‌.‌ ‌
‌

Q)What‌‌is‌‌Supernet?‌ ‌
Ans:‌Supernetting‌‌is‌‌the‌o‌ pposite‌‌of‌S‌ ubnetting‌.‌‌In‌‌subnetting,‌‌
a‌‌single‌‌big‌‌network‌‌is‌‌divided‌‌into‌‌multiple‌‌smaller‌‌
subnetworks‌.‌‌In‌‌Supernetting,‌‌multiple‌‌networks‌‌are‌‌‌combined‌‌
into‌‌a‌‌bigger‌‌network‌‌termed‌‌as‌‌a‌‌Supernetwork‌‌or‌‌Supernet.‌ ‌
‌
There‌‌are‌‌some‌‌points‌‌which‌‌should‌‌be‌‌kept‌‌in‌‌mind‌‌while‌‌supernetting:‌ ‌
● All‌‌the‌‌Networks‌‌should‌‌be‌‌contiguous.‌ ‌
● The‌‌block‌‌size‌‌of‌e
‌ very‌‌network‌‌should‌‌be‌‌equal‌‌‌and‌m
‌ ust‌‌be‌‌in‌‌the‌‌
form‌‌of‌‌2^‌ n‌.‌ ‌
● First‌‌Network‌‌id‌‌should‌‌be‌‌exactly‌‌divisible‌‌by‌‌the‌‌whole‌‌size‌‌of‌‌the‌‌
supernet.‌ ‌

Advantages‌o
‌ f‌‌Supernetting‌‌‌–C
‌ ontrol‌‌and‌‌reduce‌‌network‌‌

traffic‌,M
‌ inimize‌‌the‌‌routing‌‌table‌ ‌

‌
Q)What‌‌is‌‌a‌‌firewall?‌ ‌
Ans:‌T‌ he‌‌firewall‌‌is‌a‌ ‌‌network‌‌security‌‌system‌‌‌that‌‌is‌‌used‌‌
to‌m ‌ onitor‌‌the‌‌incoming‌‌and‌‌outgoing‌‌traffic‌‌‌and‌b ‌ locks‌‌the‌‌
same‌‌based‌‌on‌‌the‌‌firewall‌‌security‌‌policies‌.‌‌ ‌
It‌‌acts‌‌as‌‌a‌w‌ all‌‌between‌‌the‌‌internet‌‌(public‌‌network)‌‌‌and‌‌
the‌n ‌ etworking‌‌devices‌‌(a‌‌private‌‌network).‌‌ ‌
It‌‌is‌‌either‌‌a‌‌hardware‌‌device,‌‌software‌‌program,‌‌or‌‌a‌‌
combination‌‌of‌‌both.‌‌ ‌
It‌a‌ dds‌‌a‌‌layer‌‌of‌‌security‌‌to‌‌the‌‌network‌.its‌‌acts‌‌as‌‌a‌‌
boundary‌ ‌
‌
Q)Packet‌fi ‌ ltering‌fi ‌ rewall?(layer-4)‌ ‌
Ans:‌c‌ heck‌‌IP‌‌header,TCP‌‌header,‌ ‌
works‌‌on‌‌the‌‌network‌‌and‌‌transport‌‌layer.‌ ‌
can‌‌block‌‌Ip‌‌address,full‌‌networks.‌ ‌
Can‌‌block‌‌a‌‌service(http,ftp)‌ ‌
Q)What‌i‌s‌t‌ he‌A
‌ pplication‌G
‌ ateway(Proxy‌‌
firewall)?(layer-5)‌ ‌
Ans:‌U
‌ ser‌a‌ uthentication‌ ‌
‌
Q)‌W
‌ hat‌i‌s‌a
‌ ‌p
‌ roxy‌s
‌ erver?‌ ‌
Ans:‌‌ ‌
‌
‌
Transport‌‌Layer:‌ ‌
The‌‌transport‌‌layer‌‌is‌‌a‌4
‌ th‌
‌ ‌ ‌layer‌‌from‌‌the‌‌top‌.T
‌ he‌‌main‌‌role‌‌of‌‌the‌‌transport‌‌
layer‌‌is‌‌to‌p
‌ rovide‌‌the‌‌communication‌‌services‌‌directly‌‌to‌‌the‌‌application‌‌
processes‌‌running‌‌on‌‌different‌‌host‌.A
‌ ‌‌computer‌‌network‌‌provides‌‌more‌‌
than‌‌‌one‌‌protocol‌‌to‌‌the‌‌network‌‌applications.‌‌For‌‌example,‌‌TCP‌‌and‌‌UDP‌‌
are‌‌two‌‌transport‌‌layer‌‌protocols‌t‌ hat‌‌provide‌‌a‌‌different‌‌set‌‌of‌‌services‌‌to‌‌
the‌‌network‌‌laye‌r.All‌‌transport‌‌layer‌‌protocols‌‌provide‌‌
multiplexing/demultiplexing‌‌service.‌‌It‌‌also‌‌provides‌‌other‌‌services‌‌such‌‌as‌‌
reliable‌‌data‌‌transfer,‌‌bandwidth‌‌guarantees,‌‌and‌‌delay‌‌guarantees.‌

‌
Multiplexing:‌T‌ he‌‌transport‌‌layer‌‌uses‌‌the‌m
‌ ultiplexing‌‌
to‌‌improve‌‌transmission‌‌efficiency.‌ ‌
i)‌‌Upward‌‌Multiplexing:‌up‌ ward‌‌multiplexing‌‌means‌m
‌ ultiple‌‌
transport‌‌layer‌‌connections‌‌use‌‌the‌‌same‌‌network‌‌connection‌.‌ ‌
‌
ii)Downward‌‌Multiplexing:‌Downward‌‌multiplexing‌‌means‌o‌ ne‌‌
transport‌‌layer‌‌connection‌‌uses‌‌multiple‌‌network‌‌connections‌.‌ ‌
‌

Transport‌‌Layer‌‌protocol:‌‌TCP‌‌and‌‌UDP‌ ‌
‌
UDP(User‌‌datagram‌‌protocol):‌UDP‌‌stands‌‌for‌U‌ ser‌‌
Datagram‌‌Protocol‌.UDP‌‌is‌‌a‌s ‌ imple‌‌protocol‌‌and‌‌it‌‌provides‌‌nonsequenced‌‌
transport‌‌‌functionality.UDP‌‌is‌‌a‌‌co
‌ nnectionless‌‌protocol.‌This‌‌type‌‌of‌‌
protocol‌‌is‌‌used‌w
‌ hen‌‌reliability‌‌and‌‌security‌‌are‌‌less‌‌important‌‌than‌‌
speed‌‌and‌‌size.‌ ‌

‌
‌

Disadvantage:‌UDP‌‌can‌‌discover‌t‌ hat‌‌an‌‌error‌‌has‌‌occurred,‌‌‌but‌‌it‌‌
d‌oes‌‌not‌‌specify‌‌which‌‌packet‌‌has‌‌been‌‌lost‌‌‌as‌i‌t‌‌does‌‌not‌‌contain‌‌an‌‌ID‌‌
or‌‌sequencing‌‌number‌‌‌of‌‌a‌‌particular‌‌data‌‌segment.‌ ‌
‌
‌
‌
 ‌
TCP(Transmission‌‌control‌‌protocol)‌ ‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
Session‌‌Layer:‌‌ ‌
It‌‌is‌‌a‌l‌ayer‌‌3‌‌in‌t‌ he‌‌OSI‌‌model‌.The‌‌Session‌‌layer‌‌is‌‌used‌‌to‌e
‌ stablish,‌‌
maintain‌‌and‌s ‌ ynchronize‌‌the‌‌interaction‌‌between‌‌communicating‌‌
devices.‌ ‌
‌
Functions:‌ ‌
1)Authentication‌ ‌
‌
2)Authorization‌ ‌
‌
3)Dialog‌‌control:‌‌S
‌ ession‌‌layer‌‌acts‌‌as‌‌a‌d
‌ ialog‌‌controller‌‌that‌‌creates‌‌a‌‌
dialog‌‌between‌‌two‌‌processes‌‌‌or‌‌we‌‌can‌‌say‌‌that‌i‌t‌‌allows‌‌the‌‌
communication‌‌between‌‌two‌‌processes‌‌‌which‌‌can‌‌be‌‌either‌‌half-duplex‌‌or‌‌
full-duplex.‌ ‌

4)Synchronization:‌‌‌Session‌‌layer‌a‌ dds‌‌some‌‌checkpoints‌‌when‌‌
transmitting‌‌the‌‌data‌‌in‌‌a‌‌sequence‌.‌‌If‌‌some‌‌error‌‌occurs‌‌in‌‌the‌‌middle‌‌of‌‌
the‌‌transmission‌‌of‌‌data,‌‌then‌‌the‌‌transmission‌‌will‌‌ta
‌ ke‌‌place‌‌again‌‌from‌‌
the‌‌checkpoint.‌‌‌This‌‌process‌‌is‌‌known‌‌as‌S
‌ ynchronization‌‌and‌‌recovery.‌ ‌

‌
‌
‌
‌
Presentation‌L
‌ ayer:‌‌ ‌
A‌‌Presentation‌‌layer‌‌is‌‌mainly‌c ‌ oncerned‌‌with‌‌the‌‌syntax‌a
‌ nd‌‌
semantics‌‌of‌t‌ he‌‌information‌‌exchanged‌‌between‌‌the‌‌two‌‌systems.‌ ‌
It‌‌acts‌‌as‌‌a‌d
‌ ata‌‌translator‌‌for‌‌a‌‌network‌.‌ ‌
This‌‌layer‌‌is‌‌a‌‌part‌‌of‌‌the‌‌operating‌‌system‌‌‌that‌c
‌ onverts‌t‌ he‌‌data‌‌
from‌‌one‌p ‌ resentation‌‌format‌‌to‌‌another‌‌format.‌The‌‌Presentation‌‌
layer‌‌is‌‌also‌‌known‌‌as‌‌the‌s ‌ yntax‌‌layer.‌ ‌

‌
Functions‌‌of‌‌Presentation‌‌layer:‌ ‌
i)Translation:‌‌D‌ ifferent‌‌computers‌‌use‌‌different‌‌encoding‌‌methods‌.It‌‌
converts‌‌the‌‌data‌‌‌from‌s
‌ ender-dependent‌‌format‌‌into‌‌a‌‌common‌‌format‌‌
and‌‌changes‌‌the‌c‌ ommon‌‌format‌‌into‌‌receiver-dependent‌‌format‌‌‌at‌‌the‌
receiving‌‌end.‌ ‌

‌
ii)Encryption:‌E‌ ncryption‌‌is‌‌needed‌‌to‌m
‌ aintain‌‌privacy.‌‌‌Encryption‌‌
is‌‌a‌‌process‌‌of‌c
‌ onverting‌‌the‌‌sender-transmitted‌‌information‌‌into‌‌another‌‌
form‌‌‌and‌s‌ ending‌‌the‌‌resulting‌‌message‌‌over‌‌the‌‌network‌.‌ ‌
‌
iii)Compression:‌‌D‌ ata‌‌compression‌‌is‌‌a‌‌process‌‌of‌c‌ ompressing‌‌
the‌‌data‌,‌‌i.e.,‌i‌t‌‌reduces‌‌the‌‌number‌‌of‌‌bits‌‌to‌‌be‌‌transmitted‌.‌‌Data‌‌
compression‌‌is‌‌‌very‌‌important‌‌in‌‌multimedia‌‌such‌‌as‌‌text,‌‌audio,‌‌and‌‌
video.‌ ‌
‌
‌

Application‌‌Layer:‌ ‌
The‌a ‌ pplication‌‌layer‌‌in‌‌the‌‌OSI‌‌mode‌l‌‌is‌‌the‌c
‌ losest‌‌layer‌‌to‌‌the‌‌end‌‌user‌‌
which‌‌means‌‌that‌t‌ he‌‌application‌‌layer‌‌and‌‌end‌‌user‌‌can‌‌interact‌‌directly‌‌
with‌‌the‌‌software‌‌application.‌‌‌The‌‌application‌‌layer‌‌is‌p ‌ resent‌‌at‌‌the‌‌top‌‌
of‌‌the‌‌OSI‌‌model‌.‌‌It‌‌is‌‌the‌l‌ayer‌‌through‌‌which‌‌users‌‌interact.‌ ‌
‌
Functions:‌ ‌
i)Identifying‌‌Communication‌‌partners.‌ ‌
ii)determine‌‌resource‌‌availability.‌ ‌
iii)Synchronizing‌‌Communication.‌ ‌
‌
Application‌‌architecture‌‌is‌‌of‌‌two‌‌types:‌ ‌
i)Client-Server‌A
‌ rchitecture:‌‌A
‌ n‌‌application‌‌program‌‌running‌‌on‌‌
the‌l‌ocal‌‌machine‌‌sends‌‌a‌‌request‌‌to‌‌another‌‌application‌‌program‌‌is‌‌
known‌‌as‌‌a‌‌clien‌t,‌‌and‌‌a‌‌program‌‌that‌s‌ erves‌‌a‌‌request‌‌is‌‌known‌‌as‌‌a‌‌
server.‌In‌‌Client-server‌‌architecture,‌c ‌ lients‌‌do‌‌not‌‌directly‌‌communicate‌‌
with‌‌each‌‌other‌.‌ ‌
‌
ii)P2P(Peer‌t‌ o‌p
‌ eer)‌A
‌ rchitecture:‌T‌ he‌‌peers‌c‌ ommunicate‌‌with‌‌
each‌‌other‌‌without‌‌passing‌‌the‌‌information‌‌through‌‌a‌‌dedicated‌‌server‌,‌‌
this‌‌architecture‌‌is‌‌known‌‌as‌‌peer-to-peer‌‌architecture.‌‌The‌‌applications‌‌
based‌‌on‌‌P2P‌‌architecture‌‌includes‌‌file‌‌sharing‌‌and‌‌internet‌‌telephony.‌ ‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
Application‌L
‌ ayer‌P
‌ rotocol:‌ ‌
1)TELNET:‌T‌ ELecommunications‌‌NETwork‌.‌‌‌A‌‌program‌‌that‌‌allows‌‌a‌‌
user‌‌to‌‌log‌‌on‌‌to‌‌a‌‌remote‌‌computer.‌‌‌A‌‌popular‌‌client-server‌‌program‌‌Telnet‌‌is‌‌
used‌‌to‌‌meet‌‌such‌‌demands.‌‌ ‌
‌
2)‌FTP‌‌‌:‌F‌ ile‌‌Transfer‌‌protocol‌‌‌is‌‌a‌‌standard‌i‌nternet‌p‌ rotocol‌p‌ rovided‌b‌ y‌‌
TCP/IP‌‌‌used‌‌for‌t‌ ransmitting‌t‌ he‌fi ‌ les‌f‌ rom‌o‌ ne‌h
‌ ost‌t‌ o‌a‌ nother‌.It‌‌is‌‌mainly‌‌used‌‌for‌‌
transferring‌‌the‌w
‌ eb‌p ‌ age‌fi‌ les‌f‌ rom‌t‌ heir‌c‌ reator‌t‌ o‌t‌ he‌c
‌ omputer‌t‌ hat‌a ‌ cts‌a‌ s‌a
‌ ‌s‌ erver‌‌
for‌o
‌ ther‌c
‌ omputers‌o ‌ n‌t‌ he‌i‌nternet‌.It‌‌is‌‌also‌‌used‌‌for‌d ‌ ownloading‌t‌ he‌fi ‌ les‌‌‌to‌‌the‌‌
computer‌‌from‌‌other‌‌servers.‌ ‌
‌
‌

3)SMTP(Simple‌m
‌ ail‌t‌ ransfer‌p
‌ rotocol):‌ ‌
SMTP‌‌is‌‌a‌‌set‌‌of‌c
‌ ommunication‌‌guidelines‌‌that‌‌allow‌‌software‌‌to‌‌transmit‌‌an‌‌
electronic‌‌mail‌o ‌ ver‌‌the‌‌internet.‌It‌‌is‌‌a‌‌program‌‌used‌‌for‌s
‌ ending‌‌messages‌‌to‌‌
other‌‌computer‌‌users‌‌based‌‌on‌‌e-mail‌‌addresses‌.‌ ‌
‌
4)SNMP‌‌:‌‌I‌ t‌s‌ tands‌‌for‌S‌ imple‌‌Network‌‌Management‌‌Protocol‌.SNMP‌‌is‌‌a‌‌
framework‌u ‌ sed‌‌for‌‌managing‌‌devices‌‌on‌‌the‌‌internet‌.It‌‌provides‌‌a‌‌set‌‌of‌‌
operations‌‌for‌m
‌ onitoring‌‌and‌‌managing‌‌the‌‌internet.‌ ‌
‌
‌
5)‌‌HTTP‌‌‌:‌H‌ TTP‌‌stands‌‌for‌‌‌HyperText‌‌Transfer‌‌Protocol.‌It‌‌is‌‌a‌‌protocol‌‌used‌‌
to‌a
‌ ccess‌‌the‌‌data‌‌on‌‌the‌‌World‌‌Wide‌‌Web‌‌(www‌).The‌‌HTTP‌‌protocol‌‌can‌‌be‌‌
used‌‌to‌t‌ ransfer‌‌the‌‌data‌‌in‌‌the‌‌form‌‌of‌‌plain‌‌text,‌‌hypertext,‌‌audio,‌‌video,‌‌‌and‌‌so‌‌
on.‌ ‌
‌
Features‌o
‌ f‌H
‌ TTP:‌ ‌
i)Connectionless‌‌Protocol‌ ‌
ii)Media‌‌independent‌ ‌
iii)‌Stateless‌ ‌
‌

6)‌DNS‌(Domain‌‌Name‌‌System)‌:‌I‌t‌ ‌‌is‌‌a‌n‌ aming‌‌system‌‌

for‌a
‌ ll‌‌the‌‌resources‌‌over‌‌the‌‌internet‌‌which‌‌includes‌‌physical‌‌nodes‌‌and‌‌
applications‌.‌‌It‌‌is‌‌used‌‌to‌‌locate‌r‌ esources‌‌easily‌‌over‌‌a‌‌network‌.‌ ‌

● DNS‌‌is‌‌an‌‌internet‌‌which‌‌‌maps‌‌the‌‌domain‌‌names‌‌to‌‌their‌‌associated‌‌
IP‌‌addresses.‌ ‌

● Without‌‌DNS,‌‌‌users‌‌must‌‌know‌t‌ he‌‌IP‌‌address‌‌of‌‌the‌‌web‌‌page‌‌that‌‌
you‌‌wanted‌‌to‌‌access.‌‌Works‌‌on‌‌UDP‌‌Protocol.‌ ‌

Working‌‌DNS:‌If‌ ‌you‌ ‌want‌‌to‌‌visit‌‌the‌‌website‌‌of‌‌"javaTpoint",‌‌then‌‌the‌‌

user‌ ‌will‌ ‌type‌ ‌"h
‌ ttps://www.javatpoint.com‌"‌ ‌into‌ ‌the‌ ‌address‌ ‌bar‌ ‌of‌ ‌the‌ ‌web‌‌
browser‌.‌ ‌Once‌ ‌the‌ ‌domain‌ ‌name‌ ‌is‌ ‌entered‌,‌ ‌then‌‌the‌‌‌domain‌‌name‌‌system‌‌will‌‌
translate‌‌the‌‌domain‌‌name‌‌into‌‌the‌‌IP‌‌address‌‌which‌‌can‌‌be‌‌easily‌‌interpreted‌‌by‌‌
the‌ ‌computer.‌ ‌Using‌ ‌the‌ ‌IP‌ ‌address,‌ ‌the‌ ‌computer‌ ‌can‌ ‌locate‌ ‌the‌ ‌web‌ ‌page‌‌
requested‌‌by‌‌the‌‌user‌.‌ ‌

Q)Why‌‌does‌‌DNS‌‌use‌‌UDP‌‌and‌‌not‌‌TCP?‌ ‌
Ans:‌‌ ‌
1)‌U‌ DP‌‌is‌‌much‌‌faster.‌‌‌TCP‌‌is‌‌slow‌‌as‌i‌t‌‌requires‌‌a‌‌3-way‌‌handshake‌.‌‌The‌‌
load‌‌on‌‌DNS‌‌servers‌‌is‌‌also‌‌an‌‌important‌‌factor.‌D ‌ NS‌‌servers‌‌(since‌‌they‌‌use‌‌
UDP)‌‌don’t‌‌have‌‌to‌‌keep‌‌connections‌.‌‌ ‌
2)‌‌DNS‌‌requests‌‌are‌‌ge
‌ nerally‌‌very‌‌small‌‌and‌‌fit‌‌well‌‌within‌‌UDP‌‌segments.‌‌ ‌
‌
Q)‌‌Address‌‌Resolution‌‌in‌‌DNS?‌ ‌
Ans:‌‌Iterative‌‌and‌‌Recursive‌ ‌

‌
‌

‌
Q)Difference‌b
‌ /w‌h
‌ ttp:‌&
‌ ‌h
‌ ttps:?‌ ‌
Ans:‌ ‌

● I‌n‌‌HTTP,‌‌the‌U
‌ RL‌‌begins‌‌with‌‌“http://”‌‌‌whereas‌‌the‌‌URL‌‌starts‌‌with‌‌
“https://”‌.‌ ‌
● HTTP‌‌uses‌‌port‌‌number‌‌80‌‌‌for‌‌communication‌‌and‌H
‌ TTPS‌‌uses‌‌443‌ ‌
● HTTP‌‌is‌‌considered‌‌to‌‌be‌i‌nsecure‌‌and‌‌HTTPS‌‌is‌‌secure‌ ‌
● HTTP‌‌Works‌‌at‌A
‌ pplication‌‌Layer‌a
‌ nd‌H
‌ TTPS‌‌works‌‌at‌‌Transport‌‌Laye‌r‌ ‌
● in‌H
‌ TTP,‌‌Encryption‌‌is‌‌absent‌‌‌and‌E
‌ ncryption‌‌is‌‌present‌‌in‌‌HTTPS‌.‌ ‌
● HTTP‌‌does‌‌not‌r‌ equire‌‌any‌‌certificates‌‌‌and‌‌HTTPS‌‌needs‌S
‌ SL‌‌
Certificates‌ ‌

‌
‌
‌

Q)‌W
‌ hat‌h
‌ appens‌w
‌ hen‌y
‌ ou‌e
‌ nter‌“‌ Google.com”?‌ ‌
Ans:‌ ‌
Steps‌:‌ ‌‌ ‌
●‌‌Check‌‌the‌‌browser‌‌cache‌‌first‌‌if‌‌the‌‌content‌‌is‌‌fresh‌‌and‌‌
present‌‌in‌‌the‌‌cache‌‌display‌‌the‌‌same.‌‌ ‌
●‌‌If‌‌not,‌‌the‌‌browser‌‌checks‌‌if‌‌the‌‌IP‌‌of‌‌the‌‌URL‌‌is‌‌present‌‌
in‌‌the‌‌cache‌‌(browser‌‌and‌‌OS)‌‌if‌‌not‌‌then‌‌requests‌‌the‌‌OS‌‌
to‌‌do‌‌a‌‌DNS‌‌lookup‌‌using‌‌UDP‌‌to‌‌get‌‌the‌‌corresponding‌‌IP‌‌
address‌‌of‌‌the‌‌URL‌‌from‌‌the‌‌DNS‌‌server‌‌to‌‌establish‌‌a‌‌new‌‌
TCP‌‌connection.‌‌ ‌
●‌‌A‌‌new‌‌TCP‌‌connection‌‌is‌‌set‌‌between‌‌the‌‌browser‌‌and‌‌
the‌‌server‌‌using‌‌three-way‌‌handshaking.‌‌ ‌
●‌‌An‌‌HTTP‌‌request‌‌is‌‌sent‌‌to‌‌the‌‌server‌‌using‌‌the‌‌TCP‌‌
connection.‌‌ ‌
●‌‌The‌‌web‌‌servers‌‌running‌‌on‌‌the‌‌Servers‌‌handle‌‌the‌‌
incoming‌‌HTTP‌‌request‌‌and‌‌send‌‌the‌‌HTTP‌‌response.‌‌ ‌
●‌‌The‌‌browser‌‌processes‌‌the‌‌HTTP‌‌response‌‌sent‌‌by‌‌the‌‌
server‌‌and‌‌may‌‌close‌‌the‌‌TCP‌‌connection‌‌or‌‌reuse‌‌the‌‌
same‌‌for‌‌future‌‌requests.‌‌ ‌
●‌‌If‌‌the‌‌response‌‌data‌‌is‌‌cacheable‌‌then‌‌browsers‌‌cache‌‌
the‌‌same.‌‌ ‌
●‌‌Browser‌‌decodes‌‌the‌‌response‌‌and‌‌renders‌‌the‌‌content.‌ ‌ ‌
‌
‌
Q)Hub‌‌vs‌‌Switch?‌ ‌
Ans:‌ ‌
Hub:‌‌H‌ ub‌‌is‌‌a‌n‌ etworking‌‌device‌‌which‌‌is‌‌used‌‌to‌‌transmit‌‌the‌‌signal‌‌to‌‌
each‌‌port‌‌(except‌‌one‌‌port)‌‌to‌‌respond‌‌from‌‌which‌‌the‌‌signal‌‌was‌‌
received‌.‌‌Hub‌‌is‌‌operated‌‌on‌‌a‌‌Physical‌‌layer.‌‌In‌‌this‌‌packet‌‌filtering‌‌is‌‌not‌‌
available.‌‌ ‌
‌ ctive‌‌Hub,‌‌Passive‌‌Hub‌.‌‌ ‌
It‌‌is‌‌of‌‌two‌‌types:‌A

Switch:‌‌S‌ witch‌‌is‌‌a‌n‌ etwork‌‌device‌‌which‌‌is‌‌used‌‌to‌‌enable‌‌the‌‌

connection‌‌establishment‌‌and‌‌connection‌‌termination‌‌on‌‌the‌‌basis‌‌of‌‌
need‌.‌‌Switch‌‌is‌‌operated‌‌on‌‌the‌‌Data‌‌link‌‌layer.‌‌In‌‌this‌‌packet‌‌filtering‌‌is‌‌
available.‌‌It‌‌is‌‌a‌‌type‌‌of‌‌full‌‌duplex‌‌transmission‌‌mode‌‌and‌‌it‌‌is‌‌also‌‌called‌‌
an‌‌efficient‌‌bridge.‌ ‌

‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
‌
Q)Different‌‌Types‌‌of‌‌delay?‌ ‌
Ans:‌Th‌ e‌‌delays,‌‌here,‌‌means‌‌the‌t‌ ime‌‌for‌‌which‌‌the‌‌processing‌‌
of‌‌a‌p
‌ articular‌‌packet‌‌takes‌‌place.‌ ‌
‌
1.‌‌Transmission‌‌Delay:‌‌ ‌
The‌t‌ime‌t‌aken‌‌to‌‌transmit‌‌a‌p
‌ acket‌‌from‌‌the‌‌host‌‌to‌‌the‌‌
transmission‌‌medium‌‌‌is‌‌called‌‌Transmission‌‌delay.‌‌ ‌
Let‌‌B‌‌bps‌‌is‌‌the‌‌bandwidth‌‌and‌‌L‌‌bit‌‌is‌‌the‌‌size‌‌of‌‌the‌‌data‌‌then‌‌transmission‌‌
‌ t‌‌
delay‌‌is,‌ ‌ T =‌‌
L/B‌‌
2.Propagation‌‌delay:‌‌ ‌
After‌‌the‌p‌ acket‌‌is‌‌transmitted‌‌to‌‌the‌‌transmission‌‌medium‌,‌‌it‌‌has‌‌to‌‌go‌‌
through‌‌the‌m ‌ edium‌‌to‌‌reach‌‌the‌‌destination‌.‌‌Hence‌‌the‌t‌ ime‌‌taken‌‌by‌‌the‌‌
last‌‌bit‌‌of‌‌the‌‌packet‌‌to‌‌reach‌‌the‌‌destination‌‌‌is‌‌called‌‌propagation‌‌delay.‌‌ ‌
‌‌

Tp‌‌
=‌‌
Distance‌‌
/‌‌
Velocity‌‌
‌
3.‌
Queueing‌‌delay:‌‌ ‌
If‌‌the‌‌packet‌‌is‌r‌ eceived‌‌by‌‌the‌‌destination‌,‌‌the‌p‌ acket‌‌will‌‌not‌‌be‌‌processed‌‌
by‌‌the‌‌destination‌‌immediately‌.‌‌It‌‌has‌t‌ o‌‌wait‌‌in‌‌a‌‌queue‌‌in‌‌something‌‌c ‌ alled‌‌
a‌‌buffer.‌‌‌So‌‌the‌a ‌ mount‌‌of‌‌time‌‌it‌‌waits‌‌in‌‌queue‌‌before‌‌being‌‌processed‌‌‌is‌‌
called‌‌queueing‌‌delay.‌‌ ‌

‌
4.‌‌Processing‌‌delay:‌‌ ‌
Now‌‌the‌p‌ acket‌‌will‌‌be‌‌taken‌‌for‌‌processing‌‌‌which‌‌is‌c
‌ alled‌‌processing‌‌
delay.‌T
‌ ime‌‌taken‌‌to‌‌process‌‌the‌‌data‌‌packet‌‌by‌‌processor‌‌is‌‌time‌‌required‌‌by‌‌
intermediate‌‌routers‌‌to‌‌decide‌‌where‌‌to‌‌forward‌‌the‌‌packet,‌‌update‌‌TTL,‌‌perform‌‌
header‌‌checksum‌‌calculations.‌ ‌
Total‌=
‌‌T
‌t‌+
‌‌T
‌p‌+
‌‌T
‌q‌+‌‌T
‌pro‌‌
‌
Total‌=
‌‌T
‌t+Tp(when‌t‌aking‌T
‌q‌a‌nd‌T
‌pro‌e
‌quals‌t ‌)‌‌ ‌
‌o‌0
‌
‌
‌