ABSTRACT

Computers are important tools in nearly every

profession, so almost everyone can benefit by
knowing how they work and how to use them. In
this course, you will learn the basics of computer
hardware and software

Segawa Sekawaabe
Computer Skills

CONCEPTS OF IT
FDN1103
What is a Computer?
A computer is an electronic device that when given an input, has the ability to process it to
produce an output. Computers have the ability to be programmed and also to store the data.
The term "computer" was originally given to humans who performed numerical calculations using
mechanical calculators, such as the abacus and slide rule. The term was later given to mechanical
devices as they began replacing human computers. Today's computers are electronic devices that
accept data (input), process that data, produce output, and store (storage) the results.

Above, is a picture of a desktop computer with each of the main components. You can see the
display monitor, speakers, keyboard, mouse and a printer.

The basic components of a modern digital computer are: Input Device, Output Device, Central
Processor Unit (CPU), mass storage device and memory. The main functions of a computer are:
Input (Data):
Input is the raw information entered into a computer from the input devices. It is the collection
of letters, numbers, images etc.

Process:
Process is the operation of data as per given instruction. It is a totally internal process of the
computer system.

Output (Information):
Output is the processed data given by computer after data processing. Output is also known as
the Result. We can save these results in the storage devices for the future use.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DATA AND INFORMATION

The words Data and Information may look similar and many people use these words very
frequently, but both have lots of differences between them.
DATA are plain facts. The word “data” is plural for “datum.” When data are processed, organized,
structured or presented in a given context so as to make them useful, it is referred to as
Information. Data on its own is fairly useless, but when interpreted and processed to determine
its true meaning, it becomes useful and can be named as Information.
Data can be anything like name of a person or a place or a number etc. Data is the name given to
basic facts and entities such as names and numbers. The main examples of data are weights,
prices, costs, numbers of items sold, employee names, product names, addresses, tax codes,
registration marks etc.
Data can be represented in the form of: Numbers, words, special symbols (., ?, :, “, {, }, <, >, etc.)
Images, sounds, videos, and animations data
INFORMATION is data that has been processed in such a way as to be meaningful to the person
who receives it. It is anything that is communicated.
It is data that has been converted into a more useful or intelligible form.
Information helps human beings in their decision-making process. Examples are: Time tables,
merit lists, report cards, headed tables, printed documents, pay slips, receipts, reports, etc. The
information is obtained by assembling items of data into a meaningful form.
Need of Information
Modem civilization has become so complicated and sophisticated such that to survive one has to
be competitive. This compels people to keep themselves informed of everything happening in
their society. With the advent of educational reforms in society, mankind is surrounded with a
vast amount of data available.
Modern business management has also required the bulk collection of data from various sources,
that need to be rearranged in a fashion so that it can be utilized with minimum possible time. This
needs a high amount of filing either at data stage or at information stage. No office can be without
files. If you go to any tax collection department or law enforcement office you will find a high
amount of files stacked here and there.
Modem rules, regulation and law, requires every transaction to happen in a written form. This
can be in form of an agreement, application, voucher, bill, letter, memo, order, etc. Paper files
require a high amount of storage space and paper storage creates several other problems like fire
risk, spoilage and deterioration by way of aging microorganism and humidity, etc.
The amount of information is growing very rapidly. The current age of information demands
computer literacy to be accompanied by information literacy as employers’ dependence is now
focused on professionals with up-to-date information and all kinds of information processing skills
so as to take the challenge of ever-changing scenario of information. Information literacy helps
to gather the appropriate information, evaluate the information and generate an informed
decision. The impact of information revolution has been extended to each individual in the
society and it is much faster than industrial revolution.
The migration from industrial age to an information age has ended the repetitive effort of workers
by replacing them with computer software. Robots with artificial intelligence have replaced the
humans, and multiprocessing computers have replaced office workers with typewriters.
In modem days, information is needed to run man’s own livelihood, to run a system or process or
to command a business. This has resulted in the fast growth of computers (both their hardware
and software) to meet the high demands of informational decisions.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS
There a number of types of computers in existence today. The most common types are discussed
below.

1. Desktop Computer / PC
The desktop refers to a general-purpose computer that is made up of a separate processor unit,
monitor, keyboard and mouse.
The term PC (Personal Computer) usually
refers to a computer system that is IBM-
compatible thus distinguishing it from
the Macintosh / Apple Computer.
A typical Desktop Computer is
characterized by:
Capacity: Large hard disks combined
with a large working memory (RAM)
Speed: Fast. Normally measured in GHz.
Costs: Getting cheaper by the day.
Typical Users: Home users, large and small office users. Education, Doctors. In fact, just about
everyone needs to know how to operate a PC these days.

Advantages of a Desktop computer

▪ Desktop computers are more versatile when it comes to a variety of computer
performances demanded by different types of users and industries. This is because
desktop computers have bigger physical space for different components, therefore they
can accommodate more powerful hardware in more quantities that cannot be fit into
smaller devices such as laptops.
▪ Desktop computers have a lower risk of theft, which means less chance of losing your data
and having to pay to replace your computer.
▪ Desktop computers are generally easier, and less expensive, to repair.
▪ Desktop computers have a more comfortable keyboard and a much easier to use mouse.
▪ Desktop computers are generally less expensive overall than laptops of the same
performance and offer a better overall value.
▪ Desktop computers are easier, and less expensive, to upgrade.
▪ Desktop computers generally have more power and more features.
▪ With desktop computers, you can attach various hardware internally to make it function
as built-in components of the CPU, as long as the motherboard can support them while in
laptops, add-on hardware can only be attached externally, which means you cannot
guarantee a smoother and more optimized performance.
▪ For users who prioritize an optimized superior screen display, especially for graphic
designers and some drafters, desktop computers provide a larger and superior screen
display.
Disadvantages of Desktop Computers
▪ Not Portable. One of the major disadvantages of a desktop is that one cannot use it in a
transport or cannot carry it from place to place.
▪ Noisy. Desktop computers are noisier than the other types of computers. The reason
behind it is the cooling fans.
▪ Many of the desktop computers on the market are generic. Manufacturers provide the
components separately, and it is an external assembler who assembles them on a
computer. Therefore, there is no guarantee with the brand, but with the store where the
PC was purchased.
▪ Consumes More Space. A desktop computer consumes more space than a laptop.
▪ They consume more energy since they always have to plugged into a power supply. Having
the computer on, all day, has a direct impact on the electricity bill.

2. Laptops Computers
Laptop computers, as the name implies,
are small portable computers which can
run on batteries as well as mains power.
They use special screens, rather than the
traditional bulky VDUs (Visual Display
Units), which allows for longer battery life
as well as portability. A newer term,
“Notebooks”, simply indicates a VERY small
laptop. These are especially popular with
salespersons on the move or people giving
presentations. While they tend to still be
more expensive than an equivalent
Desktop computer, they can now match the power of a Desktop computer.
A typical laptop is characterized by:
Capacity: Large hard disks combined with a large working memory (RAM) – Often less powerful
than for a PC of equivalent price.
Speed: Fast. Normally measured in GHz. Often speed specifications are less than for a PC of
equivalent price.
Costs: Components need to be much more compact, so there is a price overhead when compared
to a PC of equivalent power.
Typical Users: Business users, people on the move, educational users.
Advantages of Laptops
▪ Portability – The lightweight, compact size, the built-in battery within the laptop allows it
to simply move from one place to a different one. Many are used in a park, cafe, or while
being transported in a car.
▪ Finished product – The laptop is straightforward to use with no additional devices. It has
everything like its own keyboard, built-in mouse (touchpad), built-in speakers, built-in
microphone, and many also have a built-in camera.
▪ Internet access – The increase in demand for the laptop is because it provides the power
to access the web through wireless technology (Wi-Fi).

Disadvantages of Laptops:
▪ Frequent Upgrades – The laptops are difficult to upgrade because of their integrated
design. They are very difficult to repair it. Every laptop has its own proprietary design and
construction, they’re difficult to upgrade. Additionally, they need a high maintenance cost
too.
▪ Higher price – The laptops are costly as compared to PCs, because the smaller
components required by the laptop come costly.
▪ Difficulty in customization – The laptop doesn’t offer an option for personalization
consistent with one’s requirements. The laptop only gives access to the computer’s
memory and disk drive. The opposite components like processors, graphics cards, and
cooling systems aren’t easy to access and replace.
▪ Highly insecure – Laptops are generally stolen thanks to their heavy cost. The thieves may
misuse the stolen business data or personal data which will convince be very dangerous.
▪ Health issues – Prolonged use of laptops can cause RSI thanks to their flat keyboard and
trackpad pointing devices. The integrated screen of the laptop often causes the users to
hunch for a far better view than can cause neck or spinal injuries.
▪ Durability – Thanks to their high portability laptops are subject to more wear and tear.
Laptop components like screen hinges, latches, and power jacks are susceptible to
deteriorate gradually thanks to ordinary use.

3. Apple Computers
The Apple Mac is a computer, but NOT a PC.
It uses a different operating system, and may require special versions of application programs
(such as word-processors or spreadsheets). Even the hardware add-ons have to be
customized to some extent to be able to be connected to a Mac.
 In the early days the thing which really distinguished the Mac
over the PC was the GUI (Graphical User Interface), or in plain
English the way you could use the mouse to drive the computer.
In the early days of the PC, you really had to be a bit of an expert
to use and maintain your PC. Recently the differences between
the PC and the Mac have blurred.

4. Tablets
Tablets are relatively new internet-enabled portable
computers. They work in a similar way to smartphones.
Tablets use touch-screen technology and don’t usually
have a conventional keyboard.
The keyboard is part of the touch screen and keys are
simply touched by the finger or a stylus. Internet access is
usually through Wi-Fi or 3G/4G/5G connectivity. Tablets
are equipped with a series of sensors including cameras,
microphones, accelerometers and touch screens.

Advantages of Tablets over Laptops

▪ Portability - Tablets are typically far lighter and more portable than conventional laptops.
▪ Convenience - Tablets can be used in situations such as standing or lying down where it is
not convenient to use a keyboard or mouse.
▪ Less Power Hungry - Tablets consume less power than laptops, lasting up to 10 hours at a
time. A laptop, on the other type, has a battery life of about 3-6 hours or less, depending
on the processing power.

Disadvantages of Tablets
▪ Cost - Tablet computers cost a lot higher when compared to laptops with better
specifications.
▪ Input Devices - Your input speed on a laptop would be a lot faster than that allowed on the
handwriting recognition software on a tablet PC.
▪ Screens & Hinges - Tablets are at higher risk of screen and hinge damage than conventional
laptops. Tablets are more susceptible to blown back-light bulbs, bad sensors, cracks, and
other damage from general misuse. Sadly, replacing the screen of a tablet can be an
expensive affair.
 ▪ Optical Drives & Ports - Because tablet computers are designed to be small, light, and
portable, most don’t come with optical drives. However, you can connect an optical drive if
you need but of course, that requires an additional investment.

5. Smartphones
A smartphone is a mobile phone (cell phone) offering advanced computer like features.
Capabilities and standards vary from one manufacturer to another. Most smartphones have
some sort of operating system allowing you to connect to other devices and also to install
applications.
Most smartphones allow you to send and
receive emails and may even allow you to
browse the Web. Some have a personal
organizer built into them and some sort
of contact management organizer. Some
even have a miniature computer-type
keyboard built into them, while others
have a touch screen. Some have GPS
positioning systems. Some smartphones
allow you to read documents in Microsoft
Word or Adobe PDF format. Other
features can include a built-in camera,
the ability to play music, display photos and video clips, media software for playing music,
browsing photos and viewing video clips.

Advantages of Smartphones
▪ Communications Made Easier – A smartphone has been built to primarily strengthen the
way people interact with each other. The development of technology for smartphones has
modernized communications. It has paved the way for SMS, text messages, calls, video
chat, and applications that allow individuals to connect with others around the world
instantly.
▪ Privacy - You don’t have to fear about people finding your personal texts. Smartphones
help you to save this information and protect it. A phone lock system is designed in most
smartphones. A pin, code or even your fingerprint can be used to secure your phone.
People are blocked from lurking in your private messages. You only have to make sure
others don’t know your password by using a unique password.
▪ Web Surfing - Smartphones make it easier for users to surf the internet. These devices are
integrated with mobile browsers that allow websites to be searched and viewed anywhere
and at any time.
 ▪ GPS - Your smartphone can work as a GPS device. There are several excellent applications
for navigation that will allow you to quickly locate the place. You’ll get directions no matter
if you’re a driver or a pedestrian. Many of the applications even display the traffic jam
locations, so this will help you escape the mess and arrive more efficiently.
▪ Education - Smartphones also support education, especially among children. Children can
have more immersive learning by watching instructional videos and playing educational
apps with easy access to information and helpful content.
▪ Entertainment - You can watch funny videos, listen to music or play your favorite games
using your smartphone – better so, while on the move.
▪ Useful Apps - With the assistance of applications, smartphones can do almost anything.
There are over 2 million applications in the Google Play Store, while the Apple App Store
has over 1.5 million apps.

Disadvantages of Smartphones
▪ Distraction - With a smartphone, you can be distracted quickly. Since accidents can occur,
you have to be careful. Put away your phone and focus if you are driving.
▪ Cost - Being a cell phone enthusiast, trend and fashion lover will leave you minus a
substantial amount of cash maybe every 3 to 6 months. You want to have that latest brand,
that fresh- and good-looking phone accessory; all result in debits to your wallet. Not to
mention airtime credits and internet costs every day.
▪ Health Problems - Late night chats and playing games on your phone with a bright screen,
results into eye issues. Network waves can result in some skin cancers. There is even more
if you plan to scrutinize the poor effects of using a smartphone. Among the problems are
eye cancer, sleeplessness that induces chronic exhaustion during the day and infertility
due to Wi-Fi connectivity.
▪ Addiction - Interesting games and social websites are available on smartphones that can
contribute to addiction, more so to the kids growing up before they reach the age of ten.
Some schools have thus restricted the use of cell phones in school premises.
▪ Risk of Data Loss - Information would no longer be confidential if your phone is stolen. It’s
really important to lock and deactivate your phone. You should complain to your service
provider that your phone is missing, and it will be deactivated.
▪ Uncensored Contents - There is a downside to quick access to data and the internet.
Individuals, particularly children, could see uncensored material, including violence,
pornographic content, etc., intentionally or not. If you have kids, make sure that their use
of smartphones is limited.
6. Smart Watches
Today’s smart watch is doing for watches what the smart
phone did for mobiles. Big tech and great design mean a
smart watch can do as much or as little as you want it to.
A good smart watch:
a) Links to your phone. A big smart watch feature is
how easily it can connect to your mobile phone.
b) Connects to Apps. Use your favourite apps
through your smart watch.
c) Looks great. A smart watch can look like a classic
time piece, as well as a modern device.
d) Makes calls. Some smart watches can make and
receive telephone calls.
e) Helps your health. A smart watch can help you get or stay healthy with a heap of
different features.
f) Tells the time. A smart watch still does everything a regular watch does, but better.

7. Media Players
Media players allow you to store digital music and video.
A famous example is the iPod from Apple, which lets you
store your digital music which you can then listen to at
your leisure. Thousands of songs can be stored on these
devices.
You can also get devices with a built-in screen which will
allow you to watch films and video clips that you
download to these devices.

WARNING: Remember that most music and films are covered by copyright and should only
be downloaded from legitimates sources.
8. Mainframe Computers
A mainframe computer is a combination of memory (RAM) and many processors. It acts as a
central processing unit for many workstations and terminals connected with it. A mainframe
computer is used to process the large and huge amount of data in petabytes. It can control
thousands of users.
The name ‘Mainframe’ means that a
frame for holding a number of
processors and main memory.
Mainframe computer plays a
significant role in e-business where
hundreds to thousands of people
connect to a server to precede their
request in a real time. Similarly, in
banking, government, education
system, etc., a mainframe computer
plays a valuable role.
All mainframes are multi-tasking,
multi-user machines, meaning they are designed so many different people can work on many
different problems, all at the same time.

Advantages of Mainframe Computer

▪ Mainframe computer provides a great security against the attack of viruses, warm, spyware,
malware. Encryption technique like file encryption, data set and file encryption, network
encryption, clustering encryption empower security.
▪ Mainframe computers are compatible with all types of software and hardware. Because
different user connects with servers along with different hardware and software on their
system. They can easily communicate with server-side without any interrupt.
▪ Mainframe computer deals with thousands of users to execute their instructions
simultaneously.
▪ Without disturbing any running processes on the computer, we can add storage, processors
or memory and extend its capability.

Disadvantages of Mainframe Computer

▪ A mainframe computer is expensive.
▪ Installation is not easy.
9. Super Computers
A super computer is the fastest computer in the world that can process a significant amount
of data very quickly. The computing Performance of a “supercomputer” is measured very high
as compared to a general-purpose computer. Usually, the supercomputer’s performance is
measured in floating-point operations per second (FLOPS). In the field of scientific
computations, FLOPS is a more accurate figure than measuring instructions per second.
These computers are massive in size and can occupy a few feet to hundreds of feet in length.
The cost of a super computer is also very high, and can vary from 200,000 dollars to over 100
million dollars.
They offer a high level of performance that allows governments and organizations to solve
problems that wouldn’t be possible with conventional computers.
Today’s supercomputers are built with AI (artificial intelligence) workloads in mind. In addition
to weather forecasting, climate research, physical simulations, and oil and gas exploration,
supercomputers help scientists discover more resilient building materials and study human
proteins and cellular systems at an extreme level of detail.
With a theoretical peak performance of 537 petaFLOPs, Fugaku is the world’s fastest
supercomputer. It is built by the Japan’s government and the project has cost over 1 billion
dollars.

It is designed to address high-priority social and scientific problems, such as weather forecasting,
clean energy development, drug discovery, personalized medicine, and exploring the laws of
quantum mechanics.
Characteristics of Supercomputer
▪ They can support more than a hundred users at a time.
▪ These machines are capable of handling a massive number of calculations that are beyond
the human capabilities, i.e., the human is unable to solve such extensive calculations.
▪ These are the most expensive computers that can ever be made.
▪ They were used initially in applications related to national security, nuclear weapon
design, and cryptography. But nowadays they are also employed by the aerospace,
automotive and petroleum industries.

Difference between mainframe and supercomputers

Besides raw speed, one big difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a
mainframe serves many people at once or runs several programs concurrently, whereas a
supercomputer funnels its power into executing a few programs at high speeds. Mainframes are
mostly used for large data storage and manipulation tasks, not for computationally-intensive
tasks.

HARDWARE
The term hardware refers to the physical (tangible) components of your computer such as the
system unit, mouse, keyboard, monitor etc.

Parts of a Computer
The basic elements that make up a computer include:
▪ Central Processing Unit (CPU)
▪ Types of memory
▪ The hard disk
▪ Input and output devices
The CPU
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is normally an Intel
(or equivalent) and it is one of the most important
components within your computer. It determines how
fast your computer will run and the CPU speed is
measured by its MHz or GHz speed. Thus, a 2 GHz CPU is
much faster than say a 1 GHz CPU. It is the CPU which
performs all the calculations within the computer, when
running programs such as word-processors, spreadsheets and databases. The CPU contains
following elements:
Control Unit: The Control Unit is responsible for controlling the sequencing and timing of the
other elements making up the CPU.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU performs the mathematical calculations using data stored
within the CPU registers.
Registers: The registers are memory storage areas within the CPU that hold the data that is
worked on by the ALU.
BUS: The computer bus transports data between the memory and registers.

Memory (RAM)
The Random Access Memory (RAM) within your computer is
where the operating system is loaded to when you switch on
your computer and also where your applications are copied to
when you start an application, such as a word processor or
database program. When you create data, (e.g., letters and
pictures), these are initially created and held in RAM and then
copied to disk when you save the data. As a rule of thumb, the
more RAM you have installed in your computer the better.
These days you will commonly find up to 32GB of RAM installed in some computers.

ROM-BIOS
The ROM-BIOS (Read Only Memory - Basic Input Output
System) chip is a special chip held on your computer's system
(mother) board. It contains software which is required to make
your computer work with your operating system, for instance it is responsible for copying your
operating system into RAM when you switch on your computer.

Disks
You use disks to store any data that you create. This can range from a document created within a
word processor to a video file created using a video camera. There are many different types of
disks used with a computer.

The Hard Disk / Hard Drive

Hard disks are the main, large data storage areas within your computer.
Hard disks are used to store your operating system, your application
programs (i.e., your word processor, games, etc.) and your data. They
are much faster than CD/DVDs and can also hold much more data. Hard
disks are installed within the system unit of your computer.

Input / Output Ports

The Input and Output ports are normally located at the back, in the front or on the side of your
computer. These include ports such as USB, serial, parallel, network and FireWire ports. You plug
cables into these ports to connect your computer to other devices, such as printers, scanners and
cameras.

1. Universal Serial Bus (USB) Port

You will see one or more USB sockets at the back of the system
unit, allowing you to plug in devices designed for the USB.
These devices include printers, scanners and digital cameras.
Memory sticks can also be plugged into a USB port allowing
you to copy data to or from your hard disk.

2. Serial Port
The serial port is a socket located at the back of your computer which enables you to connect
items to the computer, such as a modem. They are commonly labelled as COM1 or COM2.
 Serial Port (Female) Serial Port (Male)

3. Parallel Port
The parallel port is a socket located at the back of your computer which
enables you to connect items to the computer, such as a printer. It is
commonly labelled as LPT1 or LPT2.
NOTE: The parallel port used to be the main way the computer connected to a printer. These days
you are more likely to use a USB cable to connect the computer to a printer.

4. Network Port
The network port allows you to plug a ‘network cable’ into your
computer, which then lets you communicate with other
computers connected to your local network or to other
computers via the Internet.

5. FireWire Port
FireWire is an interface from Apple Inc. that allows high data
transfer between your computer and a compatible device such
as a digital camera. FireWire has largely replaced earlier ways
of transferring data, such as parallel or SCSI cables. There are
numerous versions of FireWire including fiber optic, coaxial
and wireless versions. Most multimedia computers will have FireWire ports built into them.
Firewire connectors usually look like this:
COMPUTER PERFORMANCE
Factors Affecting Computer Performance
There are a wide range of factors that can affect the performance of your computer. These include
CPU speed, RAM size, type of graphics card processor and memory plus the number of
applications running. It is important to realize that it is not just the speed of the CPU that affects
the overall performance of your computer. There is no point in having a very fast CPU if the other
parts of a computer may slow down the real-world performance.

CPU Clock Speed

The computer clock speed governs how fast the CPU will run. The higher the clock speed the
faster the computer will work for you. The clock speed is given in Megahertz (MHz) or Gigahertz
(GHz). The higher the CPU speed the faster the computer.
The original IBM PC released way back in 1981 ran at 4.77 MHz whereas modern PCs can run at
over 4000 MHz (4 GHz), which gives you an idea of how far things have progressed.
1 MHz means that the device will run at one million cycles per second. 1 GHz is a thousand times
faster, so that 1 GHz = 1000 MHz.

RAM Size
As a rule, the more memory you have the faster the PC will appear to operate. Windows also uses
the hard disk a lot, so logically the faster the hard disk can operate then again, the faster the PC
will appear to run.

Free Hard Disk Space

To get the most out of your Windows based PC, you not only need a fast hard disk but also a large
hard disk with plenty of "spare space". This is due to the fact Windows is constantly moving data
between the hard disk and RAM (Random Access Memory). Microsoft Windows will create many
so-called “temporary files” which it uses for managing your programs. In fact, if you have very
little free hard disk space you may find that Microsoft Windows will not be able to run your
programs at all.

Hard Disk Speed and Storage

Hard disks are also measured by their speed, defined by the disk access time, which is measured
in milliseconds. The smaller this access time the faster the hard disk will store or retrieve data.
The data storage capacity of hard disks continues to increase as new products are released. The
disk storage capacity is measured in Gigabytes (GBytes).
A solid-state drive (SSD) is a new generation of storage device used in computers. SSDs use
flash-based memory, which is much faster than a traditional mechanical hard disk. Upgrading to
an SSD is one of the best ways to speed up your computer and make it more resilient.

Multitasking Considerations
Windows is a multitasking system, which means that it can run more than one program at a time.
However, the more programs which are running at the same time, the slower each one will run.
To some extent, this slowing effect depends on what each program is doing. Editing a large high-
definition video for instance can take up a lot of CPU time.
MEMORY AND STORAGE
What is Computer Memory?
You can store data on your hard disk, while data which is being processed is stored in RAM
(Random Access Memory). Data which is stored on a hard disk can be permanent, while data in
RAM is only temporary. Normally when people talk about memory in relation to a PC, they are
talking about RAM.
RAM
Random Access Memory (RAM) is the main 'working' memory used by the computer. When the
operating system loads from disk when you first switch on the computer, it is copied into RAM.
The original IBM PC could only use up to 640 KB of memory (just over half a megabyte), whereas
a modern computer can effectively house as much RAM as you can afford to buy. Commonly
modern computers are supplied with over 1GB of RAM. As a rough rule, a Microsoft Windows
based computer will operate faster if you install more RAM. When adverts refer to a computer
having 4GB of memory, it is this RAM which they are talking about. Data and programs stored in
RAM are volatile (i.e., the information is lost when you switch off the computer).
ROM
Read Only Memory (ROM) as the name suggests is a special type of memory chip which holds
software which can be read but not written to. A good example is the ROM-BIOS chip, which
contains read-only software. Often, network cards and video cards also contain ROM chips.
ROM-BIOS
The 'Read Only Memory Basic Input Output System' chip is a chip located on the computer's
system (mother) board, which contains software. This software performs a variety of tasks. When
you first switch on the computer the ROM-BIOS software performs a self-diagnostic to check that
the computer is working OK. This software then loads your operating system from the disk into
the RAM.
Video (Graphics) Memory
The picture which you see on your screen is a form of data and this data has to be stored
somewhere. The on-screen pictures are held in special memory chips called video memory chips;
these chips are usually located on the video card. A modern computer will be supplied with
several Megabytes of video memory.
Measurement of Storage Capacity
It is important that you understand a little about the measurements used to define storage
capacities:
Bit: Computers are digital. This means they work by processing ones and zeros. The basic one or
zeros is called a bit of information.
Byte: There are eights bits in a Byte.
Kilobyte (KB): There are approximately a thousand bytes in a KB (also called a KByte)
Megabyte (MB): There are approximately a million bytes in a MB (also called a MByte)
Gigabyte (GB): There are approximately a thousand, million bytes in a GB (also called a GByte)
Terabyte (TB): There are approximately a million, million bytes in a TB (also called a TByte)
Petabyte (PB): There are approximately a million, million bytes in a TB (also called a PByte).

Types of Storage Media

These days there are a range of storage media to choose from including CDs, DVDs, USB flash
drives, memory cards, internal hard disks, external hard disks, network drives and on-line file
storage. Some are more suitable than others for a particular job, for instance a flash drive is great
for quickly transferring relatively small amounts of data from one computer to another.
Internal Hard Disks
All PCs are supplied with an internal hard disk. This is where the operating
system (such as Windows) is stored. It is also where you store your data.
When you install new applications, they are copied from CD or DVD to your
internal hard disk.

External Hard Disks

As the name suggests, these are secondary hard disks that
you can plug into your computer. They are normally
connected via a USB cable. They are available in a range of
speeds and storage capacities and are an ideal way to back
up your data, such as photos or movies.
CDs
Many computers have a CD-ROM (Compact Disc - Read Only Memory) drive.
CD-ROM discs look exactly like music CDs but contain computer data instead
of music. A CD-ROM is can hold 700MB of data and some, more than that.

DVDs
Short for "Digital Versatile Disk”. Similar to CD-ROM drives but allows
you to use DVD disks, which contain vastly more information than a
traditional CD-ROM disk. These also transfer the data from the disk to
the computer far faster, allowing you to watch movies on your
computer screen. A single-layer, single-sided DVD can store 4.7GB of
data.

Blu-Ray Disc
Introduced in 2006, Blu-ray disk was the backup up for major IT and computer
companies. It can store up to 25 GB data in a single-layer disc and 50 GB data in
a dual-layer disc. Some newer discs can store up to 80GB of data.

USB Flash Drives (Memory Sticks / Pen Drives)

Flash drives plug into the USB port and when viewed via the Windows
Explorer, look just like any other drive. They are supplied in a range of sizes
with the 1 GB devices being a very cheap way of transferring relatively small
amounts of data between computers.
Memory Cards
A memory card (also called a flash memory card) is a card containing memory chips that is often
used in devices such as digital cameras, telephones, music players, video game consoles, GPS
system and similar devices where there is a need to store data in a compact form, often using a
battery power source. There are a number of different types of memory cards with different
storage capacities. Many new PCs have built-in slots for different types of memory cards.
Network Drives
Within an office it is normal that the computers are connected together via a network. This allows
you to store your data centrally, on a network server. This network server should be backed-up
by the IT support staff on a daily basis. This means that your data is safely backed up for you.
Alternatively, you may create and store your data on your own PC or laptop and periodically copy
it across the network to be stored safely on a central network server. In many companies, network
software automatically backs up selected folders on each computer to the central server.
Cloud Storage / On-Line File Storage
Cloud storage is enables storing data and files on the internet through a cloud computing provider
that you access either through the public internet or a dedicated private network connection.
The provider securely stores, manages, and maintains the storage servers, infrastructure, and
network to ensure you have access to the data when you need it at virtually unlimited scale, and
with elastic capacity. Cloud storage removes the need to buy and manage your own data storage
infrastructure, giving you agility, scalability, and durability, with anytime, anywhere data access.

INPUT DEVICES
Input devices allow you to input information to the computer and include things such as the
keyboard and mouse.
Keyboard
The keyboard allows you to type information into the computer. It
has evolved over the years. The keyboard is built into laptop
computers but is a separate item if used with a Desktop computer.
They can be connected via cables or may be wireless.

Mouse
When using an operating system, such as Microsoft Windows, you use the
mouse to select drop down menus, to point and click on items, to select items
and to drag and drop items from one place to another.

Scanners
A scanner allows you to scan printed material and convert it into a file format which may be used
within the PC. You can scan pictures and then manipulate these inside the PC using a graphics
application of your choice. In addition, you can scan
printed text and convert this not just to a picture of the
text but also to, actual text which can be manipulated
and edited as text within your word-processor. There
are a number of specialist programs, generically called
OCR (Optical Character Recognition) programs which
are specifically designed for converting printed text into
editable text within your applications.

Tracker Balls
A tracker ball is an alternative to the traditional mouse and favored by
graphic designers. Tracker balls often give much finer control over the
movement of the items on the screen. They may take a while to get used
to if you are used to the traditional mouse, but offer a lot in terms of added
flexibility.

Touch Pads
A touch pad is a desktop device and responds to
pressure. Used in conjunction with a special pen they
can be used by graphic artists wishing to create
original, digital artwork.

Joysticks
Many games require a joystick for the proper playing of the game.
There are many different types. The more sophisticated, respond to
movement in 3 axis directions, as well as having a number of
configurable buttons. Like most things in life, you get what you pay for
with joysticks and it is worth investing in a good, strongly constructed
model, especially bearing in mind that children will hammer these
devices whilst playing games.

Web Cams
Ever since it was invented, the Web has become increasingly interactive. You can now use a small
digital movie camera (a Web cam) mounted on the PC monitor to allow two-way communication
involving not just text communication but sound and video communication as well. While not yet
considered a standard piece of PC kit, it is only a matter of time.

Digital Cameras
A digital camera can be used in the same way a traditional camera can, but instead of storing
images on rolls of film which require developing, the images are
stored digitally in memory housed within the camera. These
pictures can easily be transferred to your computer and then
manipulated within any graphics programs which you have
installed on your computer. Currently they are limited by the
quality of the image recorded and the number of pictures
which you may store within the camera.
Microphones
Early voice recognition systems offered very poor results, due to the
limitations of the software combined with hardware limitations. It takes
an awful lot of CPU processing power to convert the spoken word into
text which appears on the screen. Things are changing rapidly however
and recent systems allow you to talk to a PC and see text appear on the
screen. Most of these systems require an initial training period, where
you train the software to respond to your particular voice. Whilst still not
perfect this is a key technology of the future.
OUTPUT DEVICES
Includes items such as screens (monitors), printers, speakers and headphones.
Computer Monitor
A computer monitor is an output device that displays information in
pictorial or textual form. A discrete monitor comprises a visual
display, support electronics, power supply, housing, electrical
connectors, and external user controls.
The display in modern monitors is typically an LCD with LED
backlight, having by the 2010s replaced CCFL backlit LCDs. Before the
mid-2000s, most monitors used a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). Monitors
are connected to the computer via DisplayPort, HDMI, USB-C, DVI, VGA, or other proprietary
connectors and signals.
More recently, flat screen computer screens have become available. These take up a lot less room
on a desk and use less energy than the traditional, more bulky monitors.
NOTE: If you specify a screen of a certain size, say a 17-inch screen, this is the size measured
diagonally, not horizontally across the screen. If you are upgrading you should also ask for the
"visible viewing area" of the screen.
Projector
These are projection devices which can be attached to your
computer and are useful for displaying presentations to a
group of people. They are best used in combination with
presentation programs, such as Microsoft PowerPoint. They
are used within education and are also very popular for sales
presentations. The price of these devices has dropped
dramatically recently. When purchasing one of these devices
the two things to look out for are the resolution (go for a minimum of XGA) and the brightness of
the lamp (the brighter the better). Other factors to be aware of are the quietness (or otherwise)
of the device, as well as the cost of replacement bulbs.
Speakers
Most computers are sold with the capability to add a pair of
speakers to your system unit. In fact, in some cases, the computer
screen may have speakers built directly into the unit. This enhances
the value of educational and presentation products and can now be
considered a standard PC component.
Headphones
Most computers allow you to plug headphones into one of the computer
sockets. This is useful as the sound will then not annoy others in the room.

Speech Synthesizers
A recent development, is the ability not only to display text on a monitor but also to read the text
to you. Thus, you could receive a text email from a colleague and the system could read that email
to you. This is of enormous benefit to the visually impaired when using a computer. On the flip
side, it is now possible to use a microphone to talk to the computer and for the computer to
directly convert the spoken word into text which will be displayed within say your word-processor.
Whilst these systems are far from foolproof, they are getting better as more advanced software
is being made available.
Printers
Most data is printed once you have created it and there are a vast
number of different printers available to accomplish this. Most
common are ink jet and laser printers both of which can now
produce colored output (at a cost).
Different Types of Printers
There are many different types of printers. In large organizations, laser printers are most
commonly used because they can print very fast and give a very high-quality output. In most
organizations, the printers are connected to the computers via a network. This means that each
person with a computer does not require his or her own printer. Each computer connected to the
network can print using a particular shared printer.
When you buy a printer, one of the things the salesperson will not necessarily stress is how much
it will cost to keep that printer running. Laser printers do not use ink; they use something called
toner which is normally supplied in a sealed unit called a toner cartridge. Each toner cartridge will
allow you to print a certain number of pages and when the toner is used up it needs to be
replaced. In some cases, the costs of these toner cartridges is very high. Ink jet printers can work
out even more expensive to run.
Laser Printers
Laser printers produce high print quality at high speed. They are
called "laser printers" due to the fact that they contain a small laser
within them. There is a wide range of laser printer manufacturers
and one buzzword to be aware of is Postscript, a type of printer
which is designed to give very high-quality reproduction of pictures.
Originally, most laser printers would only print in black and white (mono). More recently color
laser printers have dropped in price and are entering wide spread use. While many of these
produce excellent results, you should be aware of the fact that the "price per page", especially if
you are using a lot of color on a page can be very high compared to the cost of printing in black
and white.

Inkjet printers
Inkjet printers work by using tiny jets to spray ink
onto the paper. Inkjet printers are very quiet in
operation and produce print quality comparable
to that of laser printers, though laser printers still
have the edge in terms of speed. Inkjet printers
are ideal for low volume printing where high
quality print is required and speed is not a high
priority, e.g., printing letters in a small office or in the home.

Dot Matrix Printers

Dot matrix printers work by firing a row of pins through an ink
ribbon onto the paper. The more pins the print head has the
higher the quality of the print, most modern dot matrix printers
have 24 pins. Unfortunately, dot matrix printers can generate a
lot of noise and do not produce a very high quality of print,
especially when printing graphics. As a result, the inkjet printer
has now largely replaced the dot matrix printer. Dot matrix printers are used for high volume /
low quality printing, e.g., printing company pay slips.

DEVICES THAT ARE BOTH INPUT AND OUTPUT

Some devices are both input and output devices.
Modems
A modem can be used for downloading information from web sites and receiving emails. It can
also be used for uploading and sending emails.
Touchscreen Monitors
A touch screen can display a menu system (output device), and accept input when people touch
the menus displayed on the screen.
SOFTWARE
What is software?
Software is the collection of instructions which makes the computer work. For instance, when
you type in words via the keyboard, the software is responsible for displaying the correct letters,
in the correct place on the screen. Software is held either on your computer’s hard disk, CD-ROM,
DVD and is loaded (i.e., copied) from the disk into the computers RAM (Random Access Memory),
as and when required.

Operating System?
The operating system is a special type of program which loads automatically when you start your
computer. The operating system allows you to use the advanced features of a modern computer
without having to learn all the details of how the hardware works.
There are a number of different types of
operating system in common use. The IBM PC
(Personal Computer) was introduced way
back in 1981 and was originally supplied with
an operating system called DOS (Disk
Operating System). This operating system
was very basic, and you had to be a bit of a
computer expert just to understand how to
use it. It was NOT user-friendly. Later on,
Microsoft introduced Windows and this is the
operating system which is most widely used on PCs today. To complicate matters further, there
are a number of different types of Windows. Most people are today running either Windows 10
or Windows 11.
IBM produced an operating system called OS/2 but this was largely ignored and is only used by a
few companies.
UNIX and Linux are other examples of operating systems which may be run on PCs.
Other types of computers, such as those manufactured by Apple have a completely different
operating system.
▪ Microsoft Windows: Microsoft: https://www.microsoft.com
▪ IBM OS/2: https://www.ibm.com/software/os/warp
▪ Mac OS X: https://www.apple.com
▪ Linux: https://www.linux.org
▪ UNIX: https://www.unix.org
▪ Android: https://www.android.com/
Software Applications
An application program is the type of program which you use once the operating system has been
loaded. Examples include word-processing programs (for producing letters, memos, etc.),
spreadsheets (for doing accounts and working with numbers), databases (for organizing large
amounts of information), games programs and graphics programs (for producing pictures,
advertisements, manuals, etc.).
It is important that you recognize examples of application programs covering the following areas:
- Word processing
- Spreadsheets
- Databases
- Presentations
- E-mailing
- Web browsing
- Photo editing
- Computer games
Word Processing Applications
A word processing program (such as Microsoft Word) allows you to produce letters, memos, etc.,
easily. You can easily mail merge a list of names and addresses to produce mass mailers,
individually addressed to customers or subscribers.
Spreadsheets Applications
A spreadsheet program (such as Microsoft Excel) allows you to work out a company’s income,
expenditure and then calculate the balance. It enables you to make 'what if' type projections of
how the company will fair in the future and to forecast how changes in prices will affect profits.
Database Applications
A database program (such as Microsoft Access) allows you to compile information and then to
search this information to extract just the information you require. For instance, if you have a
database of all the equipment housed within an office you can very simply produce a report listing
only the equipment above a certain value.
Presentation Applications
A presentation program (such as Microsoft PowerPoint) allows you to produce professional
looking presentations, which can be printed out directly onto slides for use with an overhead
projector. Alternatively, you can display your presentations directly on a computer screen or via a
computerized projector.
E-mailing Applications
There are many emailing programs available. As the name suggests you use these to send and
receive emails. Microsoft Outlook is supplied within Microsoft Office. Another well know example
is the Thunderbird email program.
Web Browsing Applications
Applications used to view and interact with the World Wide Web (WWW).
▪ Microsoft Edge
▪ Apple Safari
▪ Mozilla Firefox
▪ Google Chrome
Photo Editing Applications
These programs allow you to edit digital photos. You can adjust items such as the picture
brightness, contact and color balance. You can remove defects such the red eye effect often
caused when using a flash. You can apply interesting special effects and filters to visually enhance
your photographs. Examples include Photoshop from Adobe and Paint Shop Pro from Correl.
Computer Games
Computer games started off as simple bat and ball games and today have evolved into an
enormous worldwide business. There are many different types of games ranging from the
educational, to the ‘shoot them up’ variety. The level of graphical detail on the screen gets better
each year. There are many different formats available for games. Some games can be played on a
standard computer, while others require a dedicated console such as a Sony Playstation.
Famous example include Doom (a shoot them up game) and Simms (a game where you build your
own little world within the computer).

Difference between the Operating System and Application Programs

The operating system works closely with the hardware that you have installed within your
computer. If interprets the input via the mouse or keyboard and outputs data to the screen.
The application programs sit above the operating system, and make use of the functionally built
into the operating system. They are specific to a particular task. For instance, Microsoft Word is
designed as a word processing program, while Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program.

Accessibility Options
There are a range of options to improve computer accessibility. These cover:
▪ Voice recognition software
▪ Screen reader software
 ▪ Screen magnifier software
▪ On-screen keyboard.
In addition, many web sites are now written to be compatible with software designed to increase
accessibility.
Voice Recognition Software
Voice recognition software lets you talk to a computer and use simple commands or sentences.
These systems are easily confused by regional accents and background noise, but are getting
better each year as the software improves.
This type of software is commonly used when phoning large organizations, typically banks. You
may be requested to read your credit card number. The software at the other end of the phone
will recognize the numbers that you tell it, and put your call through to the correct person.
Voice recognition software has obvious benefits as far as improving accessibility option is
concerned. If you are unable to use a keyboard then the ability to talk to a computer offers
tremendous opportunities, however we are a long way from the talking computes found on Star
Trek.
Screen Reader Software
Screen reader software is designed for the visually impaired and tries to interpret the contents of
the computer screen and then communicate that information in different formats, such as speech
output, sound icons or as Braille output.
Recent versions of Microsoft Windows are supplied with basic screen reader options.
Screen Magnifier Software
This type of software magnifies the screen contents, making it easier to read for the visually
impaired. Microsoft Windows has basic screen magnifier software included.
On-Screen Keyboard
An on-screen keyboard is a representation of the physical keyboard on the screen. It is designed
for use by individuals who are not be able to use a physical keyboard.
Windows has a basic on-screen keyboard option located within the Accessories group.
NETWORKS
Network Types
LAN (Local Area Network)
A LAN (Local Area Network) is a system whereby individual PCs are connected together within a
company or organization. For instance, if ten people are working together within an office it
makes sense for them all to be connected. In this way, the office can have a single printer and all
ten people can print to it. In a similar way, other devices such as modems or scanners can be
shared. Even more useful is the ability to share information when connected to a network.

WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)

A WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) allows you to connect to other computers within your
LAN using wireless technology.
WAN (Wide Area Network)
A WAN (Wide Area Network) as the name implies allows you to connect to other computers over
a wider area (i.e., the whole world).
Client / Server Networks
This term relates to the type of network where resources are kept centrally on the server and
used locally by the client. The server tends to be a very powerful PC (or group of PCs), while each
client workstation, which the users have, is less powerful.
Internet
A collection of networks started by and for the US military to enable them to 'survive' a nuclear
war. Later adopted by the educational system, and now exploited by the commercial world.
The Internet is a global network of interconnected networks. The unique thing about the Internet
is the sheer amount of information which you can access from it. Whatever your interest, you can
search for and find information on the most obscure topics. For research, the Internet is an
incredibly valuable tool. Whether you are gathering information about a rival company on the
other side of the world, or are looking for information about your family tree, you will find there
is plenty of information available. If you publish material on the Web, it can be accessed by
everyone on the Web (providing they can find it.). As a marketing tool, this has interesting
possibilities. It is possible for a small company to sell products and services worldwide, without
the need for a single sales-person. These days the problem is often not finding information but
rather dealing with the sheer amount of information which is available. Also, you have no idea
how accurate or up to date a lot of the information you access really is.
World Wide Web (WWW) vs. the Internet
The World Wide Web (WWW) is just a small part of the Internet as a whole. The Internet relates
to all the hardware and software involved, as well as the WWW, it also includes FTP (File Transfer
Protocol), email and newsgroups. The WWW is basically the text and pictures which you can view
using your web browser, such as Microsoft Internet Explorer, or Netscape Navigator.
Intranets
An Intranet is a smaller, closed version of the Internet, which can only be accessed by authorized
members of an organization. Intranets are becoming an increasingly popular way to share
information within a company or other organization. An Intranet uses Internet technologies to
allow users to access company documents, search databases, schedule meetings and of course
send emails. Once a company has installed a comprehensive Intranet many users need only one
piece of software on their PC, a web browser.
Extranets
An Extranet is an Intranet which is partially accessible to authorized outsiders. An Intranet is
normally only accessible by members of the same company or organization; an extranet also
allows outsiders who have been issued with a password to gain limited access to information held
on a company network. Extranets are being used as a way for business partners to share
information.

Data Transfer
Downloading from & Uploading to a Network
You can ‘download’ data from a network, for instance you can download a file from a web site.
Another example of downloading would be copying a file from another computer on your Local
Area Network to the hard disk on your computer.

Uploading refers to copying data from your computer to another computer, either on your local
area network or on your company web site.

Data Transfer Rate Measurement

When you download or upload data the speed of the data transfer is measured by the amount of
data that is transferred per second. Common transfer rate units are:
 ▪ Bits per second (bps). Very slow connections will be quoted in bits per second.
▪ Kilobits per second (kbps).
▪ Megabits per second (mbps). High speed data transfer is measured in megabits bits per
second.
Broadband Vs. Dial-Up Internet Connection Services
In the early days of the Internet, you plugged a modem into your computer, which in turn was
plugged into a phone line. Each time you wanted to connect to the Internet you had to dial up
your Internet Service Provider (ISP), via your modem and you would be connected to the Internet.
You were charged for every second that you connected to the Internet. As a result, most people
spend most of the time not actually connected to the Internet. This made emailing frustrating. It
was like phoning someone who unplugged their phone for most of the time. When you
reconnected to the Internet, you would check for email and read it then. Dial up Internet access
is very slow. It is OK for browsing Web sites, but you would not be able to watch movies on a dial
up connection.
A broadband Internet connection means that you are permanently connected to the Internet.
Your email program can receive and display mail as soon as someone sends you mail. Broadband
Internet connection is not charged by the second, but by a monthly fee. The speed of your
broadband connection depends on how much you wish to pay each month. A fast broadband
connection allows you to view movies and listen to music.

Internet Connection Options

Most people will connect to the Internet via a phone line or via a cable connection. There are
however a range of Internet connection options including:
Phone line: The most common type of Internet connection. Your computer is connected to a
modem which connects to the phone line. You can use dialup or broadband via the phone line.
Cable: The same cable that supplied TV channels can also supply your Internet connections. Often
cable gives you very high-speed Internet access.
Mobile phone: This is often very expensive and mainly appeals to the younger Internet users. The
connection is established via special, Internet compatible phones. The screen on mobile phone is
tiny, so you are limited in what information you can usefully view via a mobile phone.
Wireless Hot Spots: Many public places, such as shopping malls, hotels, airports and restaurant
chains now offer wireless access to the Internet. This is sometimes free but is normally charged
via your credit card as a fixed rate per time period. Often you cannot download materials, you
can just browser the Web or view your emails.
Satellite: If you live in a very remote area, your only way to connect to the Internet may be via a
satellite link. This may require large satellite dishes and expensive specialised equipment. The
cost of the Internet connection may also be high.
Features of a Broadband Internet Connection
Broadband features include:
Always on: Unlike a dialup connection a broadband connection is always connected to the
Internet.
Flat fee payment: Unlike a dialup connection where you often pay for every minute connected a
broadband connection is paid for via a flat monthly fee.
High speed access: With broadband the more you pay the higher the connection speed. There
are technical limitations that cap the speed and you should be aware that the theoretical access
speeds quoted by Internet Service Providers (ISPs), are seldom reached.
Risk of intruder attack: Because a broadband connection is always connected there is more
chance that hackers will try and invade your computer connection. This is often done via virus like
programs and you should always have an up-to-date virus checking program installed on any
computer that has a broadband connection. You will also need a firewall in place to protect you
from some of the online threats.

ICT IN EVERYDAY LIFE

What does ‘Information and Communication Technology’ (ICT) mean?
ICT stands for Information and Communications Technology. In the Australasia region the term IT
& T is often used instead of ICT. This stands for Information Technology and Telecommunications.
These terms cover a wide range of computer related fields including:
▪ Installing and maintaining computer systems and applications
▪ Designing, installing and maintaining computer networks
▪ Data management
▪ Computer hardware maintenance
▪ Database and software design and many other areas!
Internet Services for Consumers
The Internet offers a vast range of services for consumers including e-commerce, e-banking and
e-government.
E-COMMERCE
The phrase e-commerce is a buzzword which relates to buying or selling via the Internet.
Increasingly, you can purchase directly via a Web site by selecting the goods or services which
you require and entering your credit card details. When you send your credit card details these
SHOULD be encrypted by the site operators so that no one can intercept your details. Most sites
which accept credit card payment are on secure services and your Internet browser program (i.e.
Microsoft Edge or Google Chrome) will normally inform you (via a popup) when you are entering
or leaving a secure server.
There are numerous web sites from where you can purchase items online, a famous example
being amazon.com. Most Internet based shopping sites use a virtual “shopping cart” system. As
you browse the site, you can add any products you want to purchase to your cart. Once you have
placed items in the cart you can then move to the checkout stage. At the checkout you enter your
name & address, select the type of delivery you want and enter your payment details.
Advantages of E-Commerce
There are many advantages using e-commerce:
a) Services available 24 / 7: Unlike a normal shop which closes in the evening, you can shop
via the Internet 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, and 365 days a year.
b) Large stock range: A larger range of stock can be carried than a conventional store. The
stock does not have to be distributed and duplicated over many physical stores, but rather
it can be held in one central distribution warehouse.
c) Detailed product information: A detailed product description for each product, along with
a picture can be given. There can even be links to the product manufactures own web site.
d) Ability to compare prices: Many sites claim to offer you the very best prices. You can use
the information on these sites to compare prices.
e) Equal delivery to town and country: The fact that you may live in the countryside, far
from the nearest town makes no difference at all when shopping via the Net.
f) Right to return defective goods: Most e-commerce web sites will have a 'Returns Policy'
and it is advisable to read this prior to purchase. In many cases you will find that the law
gives you a right to return defective goods or even goods which are not quite as you
expected.
Disadvantages of E-Commerce
a) Possible credit card fraud: Some web sites have been set up solely to trick you into
providing your credit card details, which can later be sold to criminals so that they can
make purchases with your money. When it comes to credit card fraud there is basically
one rule 'wherever humanly possible the bank never pays: - someone else does', make
sure that someone is not you. Check the small print on your credit card agreement.
 b) Is the web site genuine: When you purchase from a company such as amazon.com, you
know that the company is well respected, is unlikely to go bust tomorrow, and above all
will not attempt to 'run off with your money'. But what about when you purchase online
from a company you have never heard of? Look for clues. Is there a client list on the site?
How long has the company been trading. Are full contact details provided? If in doubt ring
the phone numbers provided on the site and try to decide whether the company sounds
genuine. Ask for references from other customers. Just because you see trade association
logos on a site, do not assume that the use of these logos is genuine. There are
organisations now whose sole purpose is to verify that other web sites belong to honest
companies.
c) What about returning faulty goods: If the goods arrive and are substandard, who pays to
return them. Where do you return them to? Be sure you know about a company’s returns
policy, BEFORE you make an online purchase.
d) How are you covered when you purchase goods from another country: This is a
minefield. Each country may have its own laws relating to consumer protection. Be
warned!
e) Can you talk to a real person: I recently heard a radio presenter who purchased a
computer online, through a very well known PC manufacturer. He purchased the
computer for his daughter, in good time for Christmas. As Christmas due near he tried to
find out what was happening, but was unable to talk to a real person and was forced to
rely solely on email contact with the company. The computer eventually turned up in
February. Never buy from a company which does not provide you with full contact details
including a telephone number.

E-BANKING
The phrase e-banking relates to managing your money online. Instead of having to go to the local
branch, or telephoning them, you can pay your bills online and move money from one place to
another. Some online banks have no physical branches at all, making it a very profitable operation
for the bank. There are security considerations relating to online banking, with numerous
examples of poor security coupled with sloppy operations.
Most banks now offer some form of online banking. This has the advantage to the bank that costs
can be reduced. Some banks are completely online, with no physical branches at all. The
customers benefit from 24-hour access to banking services. The downside is that this leads to
many job losses in the banking industry and when things go wrong there is no physical person
you can go and see and make your complaints to. Some leading banks have demonstrated a
degree of incompetence when it comes to the security of their online systems and many people
are very reluctant to trust online banking systems yet.
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E-GOVERNMENT
Census: Every few years census details are taken and entered into large computer databases. This
data can then be used to extract useful information and predict trends. In some cases, this data
is also being made available online, so that it becomes even more accessible and useful.
Vehicle registration: All car and lorry details are kept centrally; this makes it easy to find the
owners of cars, which can be useful for police, customs and security services.
Revenue collection: Increasingly, aspects of government revenue collection are being
computerised, which in many cases involves online systems as well.
Electronic voting: Governments are experimenting with online voting systems, often in response
to appallingly low voter turnout. Security remains the main obstacle to the extension of this idea.

E-LEARNING
E-learning refers to learning via the Internet or working through a disk-based tutorial. There are
many advantages, but also some disadvantages.
Uses of Computer Applications in Education
Student registration and timetabling: There are many specialist programs designed to
computerise these otherwise time-consuming tasks.
Computer Based Training (CBT): Computer Based Training (CBT) offers a low cost solution to
training needs where you need to train a large amount of people on a single subject. These
programs are normally supplied on CD-ROM / DVD and combine text, graphics and sound.
Packages range from general encyclopaedias right through to learning a foreign language. As an
alternative to training via CD-ROM / DVD, CBT can also be delivered via the Internet.
Using the Internet as a homework resource: The Internet is the ultimate resource for getting the
information necessary to complete a student’s homework. The Internet can also be used to set
and collect homework (via email).
Distance learning systems: E-learning is a term used to describe studying via the Internet. It can
take many forms ranging from a simple web version of printed books, through to advanced use
of video images with sound. In many cases there can be real-time two-way communication
between the teacher and the student.
Advantages of E-Learning include:
▪ One trainer can train many people at many different locations.
 ▪ If the training is solely computer based, then the students can work at their own pace,
and repeat parts of a course which they do not understand. Also, the teaching can be at
any time, 24 hours a day, and 7 days a week.
▪ Often e-learning solutions are cheaper to provide than other more traditional teaching
methods.
Disadvantages of E-Learning Include:
▪ There may be no opportunity to ask a question of a real person.
▪ The Internet connection may temporarily fail for some reason.
▪ You may have to pay for the connection time, by the minute.
▪ The download speed may be too slow for some forms of e-learning
▪ Because of the increased time required to produce some types of e-learning packages,
the e-learning tutorials may not be available for some time following the release of a new
version of software, or a new certification syllabus.

TELEWORKING
Tele-working is a broad term which refers to people working at home connected to the rest of the
organisation via a computer network. Communication is via email or the telephone. This
arrangement has advantages and disadvantages to both the employer and the employee.
Advantages of Tele-working
Reduced or zero commuting time. This saves time (and money) for the employee and reduces
environmental overheads, as less commuting means less car pollution. It means that the
employee does not arrive at work already stressed from car jams or late train connections.
Greater ability to focus on one task: As there are fewer interruptions from low priority phone
calls, there is a greater ability to concentrate and focus.
Flexible schedules: In many cases, as long as the job gets done, it does not matter when the job
gets done. This means there is time for other activities, such as picking up the kids from school.
It also means that work can be finished in the evening if required. If it is a beautiful day, why not
take advantage of the weather, and finish your work later.
Reduced office desk space requirements: The cost of Office space can be very high and tele-
working can help to reduce these costs if a proportion of the staff works at home. "Hot Desking"
is a term used to indicate that people do not have a desk dedicated to their exclusive use. People
simply sit at any desk and log on to the networked computers using their own ID, which will allow
them to uniquely access their own work stored within the computer system. Hot Desking is
popular where staff spend a proportion of their time working at home, or at sites outside the
main office complex.
Disadvantages of Tele-working
Lack of human contact: Many people cite this as the single biggest factor when switching from a
regular office job, to tele-working. In fact, many companies now arrange company gossip
networks, just so that people can keep in touch.
Negative impact on teamwork: If you never see the rest of the team, it is hard to feel part of the
team. To some extent this is offset by video links and by occasional get-together meetings.
Self-discipline: It can take a lot to work from home and remain focused on work. It is all very well
saying 'I will take the afternoon off and work this evening', but come the evening you may not
feel like working.
Possible Employee Exploitation: If workers are isolated from each other there is the possibility
for companies to take advantage. Some large companies using tele-working restrict trade union
activity (or if they can, ban it altogether).

COMMUNICATION
Electronic Mail (E-Mail)
Email allows you to send a message to another person almost instantly, anywhere in the world. It
requires both computers to be connected to the Internet. As well as sending a text message, files
can be sent as email attachments.
Instant Messaging (IM)
Instant messaging (IM) provides a mechanism for real-time communication between two or more
people sending text messages via their computers. This is different from sending an email which
once sent may be read sometime later by the person you sent the email to.
Some types of instant messaging software let you speak rather than having to type your
messages. You can use your web cam so that you can see the person you are talking to.
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
Voice over Internet Protocol, (VoIP), is a technology that allows you to talk with other people via
the Internet. You can talk at no extra cost to other people using VoIP on their computers. You can
even make calls to real telephones at a much cheaper rate than normal. This system is ideal when
you need to make a lot of long distance or international calls. You can use VoIP by just installing a
microphone and headset, or you can purchase a special VoIP compatible phone, which will
normally plug into one of the USB sockets on your computer. A well know VoIP product supplier
is Skype, who produce a range of excellent phones.
Really Simple Syndication (RSS) Feeds
RSS (Really Simple Syndication) is a method used to publish information that needs to be
frequently updated. Such as news headlines, tickertapes or podcasts. A RSS document is called a
"feed" or "channel".
You need software called an RSS reader to read and update RSS content. You can then subscribe
to a feed using the RSS reader. The RSS reader regularly checks for updated content and then
displays the new content. Most good news websites will have the option of an RSS feed. In most
cases to subscribe, you need only click on a button within the site.
Blogging (Web Logs)
A blog (a combination of the words web and log) is a website on which chronological entries that
can be viewed by visitors. The word Blog is used as a verb and describes the activity of maintaining
a blog.
Blogs can provide information on a vast range of subjects, and often contain personalised views
on a particular subject. Some are devoted to news, politics or current affairs. Readers can often
comment interactively on the blog while other blogs are more like a shared, personal diary. Some
blogs have become incredibly popular and been made into published books.
Blogs are mainly text based with the odd picture, but they may also contain music and video
contents.
The blog search engine Technorati tracks well over 100 million blogs. You can visit Technorati at:
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Podcasts
A podcast is a way of providing content such as radio programs in a form which can be easily
downloaded and listened to later on a PC or mobile device such as an Apple iPod.
The term "podcast" is a combination of the words "iPod" and "broadcast".
Many web sites allow you to manually download content.
The thing that makes a podcast different is that once you subscribe to a podcast it will be
downloaded automatically for you.

VIRTUAL COMMUNITIES
Online (Virtual) Communities
It is important to understanding the concept of online (virtual) communities. These can take many
forms including:
▪ Social networking websites
 ▪ Internet forums
▪ Chat rooms
▪ Online computer games
Social Networking Websites
These sites allow you to link up with other people, to share news, experience and gossip. Some,
such as ‘Friends Reunited’ are specifically designed to let you find friends that you have lost
contact with.
Social media sites include: Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, YouTube, etc.
Internet Forums (Message Boards / Discussion Boards)
An Internet forum is a web-based application that lets you join in online discussions. You can post
your views or comments for all in the forum to see and react to. Try searching the Web for
information on message boards and you will find that there is a discussion for you, whatever your
interest!
Chat Rooms
The term ‘chat room’ has had a lot of media attention over the last few years. The term has
evolved to include any web-based mechanism to share your news with others on the web. The
communication is in real time, i.e., you can talk to other individuals, rather than leaving messages.
Try searching the Web for more information and examples.
Online Computer Games
Online games are games that are accessed and played via the Internet. In many cases, you can
play against other people. Try searching the web using the phrase ‘online computer games’ and
you will find lots of sites you can access.
Publishing and Sharing Content Online
It is important to understand the ways you can publish and share content online. You can set up
your own web log (blog). You can even set up your own podcast.
Sharing photos, video and audio clips.
There are many web sites that allow you to upload pictures, audio clips or video clips. Facebook
is a good example of a site that you can upload items of interest to. YouTube contains clips that
have been uploaded from people around the world. If you have something to share give it a go.
Precautions When Accessing Online Communities
You should take basic precautions when accessing online communities including the following:
Keep your profile private and limit the amount of personal information you post: In many cases
you can keep your profiles private and only share limited information with other users as you get
to know them. Remember that a criminal armed with just your age and address may be able to
access your bank details. Use common sense on the Web!
Be aware that posted information is publicly available: Remember that information that you
post is often publicly available and can be used by fraudsters.
Be wary of strangers: The Internet can be a dangerous place. Do not take information from people
you meet on the Internet at face value. If you are a child, how do you know the person that you
are talking to is a child of your age rather than someone pretending to be something that they
are not? Be very cautious of arranging to meet people that you have met via the Internet and
make sure that any meeting is in a public place, and preferably take a friend along.

HEALTH
What is Ergonomics?
Ergonomics covers the physical environment and design of equipment to maximise the quality of
an employee’s wellbeing. This covers everything from the design of the computer, the computer
desk, the chair and even the design of the lighting within a room.
Take regular breaks, have regular eye tests and get a good desk and chair to maintain good
posture.

Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI)

Often referred to as RSI. This is a condition caused by constant use of the keyboard or mouse. You
should take regular breaks to help avoid this type of injury. You may want to consider the use of
a pad on which you can rest your arms, which will help to some extent.

Eye Strain Injuries

It is vital that the correct type of lighting is used in conjunction with your computer use. Many
people find that banks with overhead fluorescent tube lighting give them headaches. Natural light
is better, but can cause reflected glair off the computer screen. Too much light can cause as much
eye strain as too little light. The direction of the light is also a consideration. If you are facing a
bright light source while concentrating on your computer screen, this can lead to eye strain.

Neck and Back Aches

When sitting at your computer, you should have a monitor at eye level which can be adjusted to
suit you. In addition, you may want to consider a footrest. Neck pain and backache can result
from prolonged bad posture.
Screen: Your screen should be fully adjustable so that your eyes are at the same height as the top
of the screen. You may wish to use a filter attached to the screen to reduce glare. If the screen is
badly focused, too bright or appears to flicker, then get a qualified technician to take a look at it.
You should periodically refocus into the distance, as opposed to always gazing at a screen a few
inches from your eyes.
Keyboard: Use a good keyboard and you may also wish to use a wrist pad to relieve pressure on
your wrists.
Mouse: Use a mouse mat to make the mouse easier to use. Ensure that you have enough space
to comfortably use the mouse. If your arms or fingers become tired or painful when using the
mouse, take a break and do something else.

Seating issues when using a computer

If you spend a lot of time sitting at your desk using a computer it is vital that you pay attention to
the type of chair you are sitting in. Your chair should be fully adjustable, and be able to be moved
up or down. It should have an adjustable back. If your chair is not easily adjusted it can lead to
permanent back injury.

Wellbeing When Using a Computer

1. You should take regular breaks to avoid staring constantly at the screen and straining your
eyes. During regular breaks, refocus your eye between short and long distances as this can
reduce eye strain.
2. During your regular breaks, you may also wish to do some practice stretching exercises.
These should be done only after medical advice so that they are appropriate for each
individual.
3. You should consider using the best (i.e. most expensive) monitor which you or your
company can afford. The better the monitor the better the screen resolution and the
higher the refresh rate. For detailed work, you should also consider using a larger screen
size. In many countries, your employer has a legal duty to pay for eye tests for employees
as and when they request it. You can get filters which fit in front of the screen and reduce
glare.
4. You may wish to use a footpad to rest your feet while using the computer.
5. Make sure that the area where you are using the computer is adequately lit and well
ventilated.
6. Ventilation is especially important if you are using a laser printer, which may produce
ozone when printing.
Make sure that cables are safely secured
You should always use the power cables which were supplied with your computer or cables of a
similar quality. Make sure that the cables are safely secured at the back of the desk and that you
have power points located near the desk. If your desk has a cable ducting system make sure that
you use it. Avoid long trailing cables as you or other people can easily trip over them and cause
injury to yourself or others. Apart from personal injury, accidentally pulling out a power cable
could cause your computer to lose power and you will lose data as a result. Network cables tend
to be delicate and easily damaged and the most common cause of failure to log onto a network
server is that someone has accidentally dislodged or damaged the network cables.

Make sure that power points are not overloaded

Overloading of a power point is dangerous and a potential fire hazard. If you need more power
sockets, have them properly installed by a qualified electrician.

ENVIRONMENT
Computer Recycling Options
You should have a separate bin for paper which can be sent for recycling (be sure that sensitive
material is first shredded).
Printer toner cartridges can be sent for recycling; in fact some charities now collect spent toner
cartridges, and send them for recycling. You may also wish to consider the use of recycled toners
in your printers (but be aware that in some cases this may invalidate the printer’s guarantee).
Rather than dump unwanted computer equipment, see if you can get them recycled, or even
collected and used by charitable organisations.
Where possible the use of on-screen manuals and help systems, rather than printed manuals, will
save on the amount of paper consumed. This equates to less trees being cut down.
Computer energy saving options
You may consider switching off computers and monitors when they are not being used.
Many monitors and other peripherals will automatically switch into 'sleep' mode after a period of
inactivity. This means that even though the computer is still switched on, it will consume less
power.
SECURITY
Identity/Authentication
Computer logon user name (ID) and password.
Passwords: If your computer has a password which prevents other users from accessing it, then
do NOT give this password to anybody else. Do not write the password on a card and prop this up
next to the monitor and above all do not attempt to hide your access passwords on the underside
of your desk (this is the first place most criminals would look if trying to break into your system).
Make sure you do not forget your passwords; in many cases, data cannot be recovered once the
password is lost.
User IDs and passwords: A User ID is normally used to logon to a computer, or computer network.
It uniquely identifies you to the network. In addition, you use a password which is only known to
you. The password guarantees that no one can access the network and impersonate you (in
theory). Once you have logged on (i.e., connected) to the rest of your computer network, you will
have been assigned access rights to the network. Your network administrator will have defined
these access rights. The idea of access rights is that you only have the ability to connect to, or
share, devices which you have authority to use. In other words, the network administrators often
have access rights to just about every computer, printer, modem etc on the network. You on the
other hand may have access rights to print to only certain, specified printers and you may be able
to access only certain data held on the network.

Password Policies
Your password is the only thing which will prevent someone else logging into a computer using
your user ID and impersonating you. It is important to choose a password which cannot be easily
guessed by other people. Ideally, a password should be at least 8 characters long & contain a
mixture of words and numbers. It is also recommended that you change your password regularly;
some computer systems will require you to change your password periodically. Never share your
password with others.

DATA SECURITY
Off-Site Backups
It is no good backing up your data only to leave the item which you backed up to next to the
computer; if someone steals your computer it is likely that they will also steal your backups too.
If you have a fire, then again you will lose your backups if the backups are stored next to the
computer. Ideally, backups should be stored off-site at a safe location. At the very least, consider
storing your backups in a fireproof safe, which will give some protection against fire damage.
Why do you need to backup your computer?
The most important thing which you store on your computer is information. Often, the contents
of a hard disk can represent years of work. If the hard disk stops working one day you could lose
all those years of work. For this reason, it is VITAL that you take regular backups of the information
which is stored on the computer. In large organisations, this backup procedure is normally
performed automatically by your computer support team, where the data is normally held on a
centralised, networked computer. In smaller organisations, it is often up to the individual to
organise some sort of data backup. If nothing else is available, copy your files to a USB memory
stick or CD/DVD disk and make sure that these backups are stored away from the computer,
ideally off-site. If there is a fire and your office burns down, if your backup disks are stored next
to the computer they too will be incinerated.

MORE USES OF COMPUTER

Education:
Getting the right kind of information is a major challenge as is getting information to make sense.
College students spend an average of 5-6 hours a week on the internet. Research shows that
computers can significantly enhance performance in learning. Students exposed to the internet
say they think the web has helped them improve the quality of their academic research and of
their written work. One revolution in education is the advent of distance learning. This offers a
variety of internet and video-based online courses.

Health and Medicine:

Computer technology is radically changing the tools of medicine. All medical information can now
be digitized. Software is now able to counter the risk of a disease. Mental health researchers are
using computers to screen troubled teenagers in need of psychotherapy. A patient paralyzed by
a stroke has received an implant that allows communication between his brain and a computer;
as a result, he can move a cursor across a screen by brainpower and convey simple messages.

Science:
Scientists have long been users of computers. A new adventure among scientists is the idea of a
“Collaboratory”, an internet based collaborative laboratory, in which researchers all over the
world can work easily together even at a distance. An example is space physics where space
physicists are allowed to band together to measure the earth’s ionosphere from instruments on
four parts of the world.

Business:
Businesses clearly see the interest as a way to enhance productivity and competitiveness. Some
areas of business that are undergoing rapid changes are sales and marketing, retailing, banking,
stock trading, etc. Sales representatives not only need to be better educated and more
knowledgeable about their customer’s businesses, but also must be comfortable with computer
technology. The internet has become a popular marketing tool. The world of cybercash has come
to banking – not only smart cards but internet banking, electronic deposit, bill paying, online stock
and bond trading, etc.

Recreation and Entertainment:

Our entertainment and pleasure-time have also been affected by computerization. For example:
▪ In movies, computer generated graphics give freedom to designers so that special effects
and even imaginary characters can play a part in making movies, videos, and commercials.
▪ In sports, computers compile statistics, sell tickets, create training programs and diets for
athletes, and suggest game plan strategies based on the competitor’s past performance.
▪ In restaurants, almost everyone has eaten food where the clerk enters an order by
indicating choices on a rather unusual looking cash register; the device directly enters the
actual data into a computer, and calculates the cost and then prints a receipt.

Government:
Various departments of the Government use computers for their planning, control and law
enforcement activities. To name a few – Traffic, Tourism, Information & Broadcasting, Education,
Aviation and many others.

National Security / Defense:

There are many uses computers in National Defense Systems such as:
▪ On Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) that use GPS together with computers to
help the missile get to the target.
▪ Computers are used to track incoming missiles and help slew weapons systems onto the
incoming target to destroy them.
▪ Controlling UAV or unmanned air-crafts.
▪ Computers are used in helping the military find out where all their assets are (Situational
Awareness) and in Communications/Battle Management Systems.
▪ Computers are used in the logistic and ordering functions of getting equipment to and
around the battlefield.
▪ Computers are used in tanks and planes and ships to target enemy forces, help run the
platform and more recently to help diagnose any problems with the platforms.
▪ Computers help in the designing and testing of new systems.

Sports:
In today’s technologically growing society, computers are used in nearly every sports activity.
▪ In football, Virtual Assistant Referees (VAR) has widely been introduced to help with
technical decisions that could have been missed by the center official and / or the
linesmen.
▪ Storing and Watching Video - Video preparation is a major component of professional
sports. Many athletes review game tape to study someone's performance at critical parts
of a competition. A boxer can review his next opponent’s fights to learn weaknesses to
exploit, or a football coach can review game tape to see how to improve his offense’s
passing attack.
▪ Statistical Data Storage - Statistics are an important part of sports. Fans, sports agents,
coaches, and players all want to know exactly how well they performed at any given
moment. Keeping track of that data is another way that computers can be used in sports.
For example, a team manager can create a spreadsheet database that holds all the current
stats for his team throughout the season. At the end of the year that information can be
used to decide which players the team will keep during contract negotiations and who has
 become expendable. Sports media outlets can also use computer applications in the same
manner when developing in-depth stories about the performance of specific players and
teams.
▪ Equipment Development - Safety is an important aspect in professional sports today.
News stories are often released about the study of concussions on football and hockey
athletes. To help minimize those injuries equipment developers have used computers to
develop safer equipment. For example, helmet company Riddell designed a new football
helmet for the National Football League during the 2010 season after a number of players
were injured by concussions. They used a variety of technological programs to design a
helmet that would be able to absorb the constant impact and limit damage to the head
and neck area.
▪ Sports Media - Computers play a major part in how well media outlets cover their
respective sports. Writers use computers to complete research on their stories, while
video editors use various applications to create vignettes and film pieces about their
subjects.