Problem Solving and Reasoning

Inductive Reasoning

The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the examination of specific examples
is called inductive reasoning. The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is often called a
conjecture, since it may or may not be correct. When you examine a list of numbers and predict the
next number in the list according to some pattern you have observed, you are using inductive
reasoning.

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions,

procedures, or principles.

Example 3:
Example

Each four neighbors, Sean, Maria Sarah and Brian, has different occupation (editor, banker,
chef or dentist). From the following clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor

• Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
• Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
• The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
• The banker lives next door to Brian.
Solution:
From the clue 1. Maria is not the banker or the dentist. In the following chart, write X1
(which stands for “ruled out by clue 1”) in the Banker and the dentist columns of Maria`s row.

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean
Maria X1 X1
Sarah
Brian

From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled out by clue 2) in the Editor column of
Sarah`s row. We know from clue 1 that the banker is not the last to get home; therefore, Sarah is not
the banker. Write X2 in the Banker column of Sarah`s row.

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean
Maria X1 X1
Sarah X2 X2
Brian
 From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist. Write X3 for this condition. There are now Xs for three
of the four occupation in Sarah`s row; therefore, Sarah must be the chef. Place a √ in that box. Since
Sarah is the chef, none of the other three people can bet he chef. Write X3 for this conditions. There
are now Xs for three of the four occupations in Maria`s row; therefore, Maria must be the editor.
Insert a √ to indicate that Maria is the editor, and write X3 twice to indicate that neither Sean nor
Brian is the editor.

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean X3 X3
Maria √ X3
Sarah √ X3
Brian X3 X3

From clue 4, Brian is not the Banker. Write X4 for this condition. See the following table. Since
there are three Xs in the Banker column, Sean must be the Banker. Place a √ in that box. Thus Sean
cannot be the dentist. Write X4 in that box. Since there are 3 Xs in the Dentist column, Brian must be
the dentist. Place a √ in that box.

Editor Banker Chef Dentist

Sean X3 √ X3 X4
Maria √ X1 X3 X1
Sarah X2 X2 √ X3
Brian X3 X4 X3 √

Therefore, Sean is the banker, Maria is the editor, Sarah is the chef, and Brian is the dentist.

Polya’s Problem Solving Strategies

Polya’s Problem Solving Techniques In 1945 George Polya published a book How To Solve It,
which quickly became his most prized publication. It sold over one million copies and has been
translated into 17 languages. In this book he identifies four basic principles of problem solving.
Polya’s First Principle: Understand the Problem

This seems so obvious that it is often not even mentioned, yet students are often stymied in their
efforts to solve problems simply because they don’t understand it fully, or even in part. Polya taught
teachers to ask students questions such as:

• Do you understand all the words used in stating the problem?

• What are you asked to find or show?

• Can you restate the problem in your own words?

• Can you think of a picture or diagram that might help you understand the problem?

• Is there enough information to enable you to find a solution?

Polya’s Second Principle: Devise a Plan

Polya mentions that there are many reasonable ways to solve problems. The skill at choosing an
appropriate strategy is best learned by solving many problems. You will find choosing a strategy
increasingly easy. A partial list of strategies is included:

*Guess and check *Use a model

*Look for a pattern *Make an orderly list

*Draw a picture *Eliminate the possibilities

*Solve a simpler problem *Use symmetry

*Consider special cases *Work backwards

*Use direct reasoning *Use a formula

*Solve an equation *Be ingenious

Polya’s Third Principle: Carry Out the Plan

This step is usually easier than devising the plan. In general, all you need is care and patience,
given that you have the necessary skills. Persist with the plan that you have chosen. If it continues
not to work, discard it and choose another. Don’t be misled, this is how mathematics is done, even by
professionals.

Polya’s Fourth Principle: Review the Solution

Polya mentions that much can be gained by taking the time to reflect and look back at what
you have done, what worked, and what didn’t. Doing this will enable you to predict what strategy to
use to solve future problems.
Example: The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is 4590. None of the teens are the same
age. What are the ages of the teenagers?
Problem Solving Strategies

• Look for a pattern

This strategy entails looking for patterns in the data in order to solve the problem, that is, the
solver looks for items or numbers that are repeated, or a series of events that repeat. This can be used
to solve many math problems and can be used in combination with many other strategies, including
make a table, make a list, or simplify the problem.
Example: Find the sum of the first 100 even positive numbers.

Solution:

The sum of the first 1 even positive numbers is 2 or 1(1+1) = 1(2).

The sum of the first 2 even positive numbers is 2 + 4 = 6 or 2(2+1) = 2(3).
The sum of the first 3 even positive numbers is 2 + 4 + 6 = 12 or 3(3+1) = 3(4).
The sum of the first 4 even positive numbers is 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 = 20 or 4(4+1) = 4(5).
Look for a pattern: The sum of the first 100 even positive numbers is 2 + 4 + 6 + ... =? or
100(100+1) = 100(101) or 10,100.

• Make an organized list

Making a list is a systematic method of organizing information in rows and/or columns. By

putting given information in an organized list, you can clearly analyze the information and then solve
the problem by completing the list. It should be emphasized that one should make a systematic list.
By making a systematic list, one will see every possible combination.

Example: Find the median of the following test scores: 73, 65, 82, 78, and 93.

Solution: Make a list from smallest to largest: 65 73 78 82 93. Since 78 is the middle number,
the median is 78.

• Guess and check

Often referred to as “trial and error”, it is important to recognize than an error really isn’t a
mistake at all. It helps to guide the problem solver to the next attempt at the answer. The following
are the essential features of the guess and check strategy:

q Make an “educated” guess at the solution.

q Check the guess against the conditions of the problem.

q Use the information obtained in checking to make a better guess.

q Continue this procedure until the correct answer is obtained.
 Example: Which of the numbers 4, 5, or 6 is a solution to (n + 3)(n - 2) = 36?

Solution: Substitute each number for “n” in the equation. Six is the solution since (6 + 3)(6 -
2) = 36.

• Look for a pattern

This strategy entails looking for patterns in the data in order to solve the problem, that is, the
solver looks for items or numbers that are repeated, or a series of events that repeat. This can be used
to solve many math problems and can be used in combination with many other strategies, including
make a table, make a list, or simplify the problem.

Example: How many diagonals does a 13-gon have?

Solution: Make a table: Number of sides

Number of diagonals 3 0 4 2 5 5 6 9 7 14 8 20 Look for a pattern.

Hint: If n is the number of sides, then n(n-3)/2 is the number of diagonals. Explain in words
why this works. A 13-gon would have 13(13-3)/2 = 65 diagonals.

• Work backwards

This strategy is used to solve problems that include a number of linked factors or events,
where some of the information has been provided, usually at the beginning of the problem. This
entails starting with the end results and reversing the steps you need to get those results, in order to
figure out the answer to the problem.

Example: Fortune Problem: a man died and left the following instructions for his fortune, half
to his wife; 1/7 of what was left went to his son; 2/3 of what was left went to his butler; the man’s
pet pig got the remaining $2000. How much money did the man leave behind altogether?

Solution: The pig received $2000. 1/3 of ? = $2000 ? = $6000 6/7 of ? = $6000 ? = $7000 1/2
of ? = $7000 ? = $14,000

• Use logical reasoning

Example: At the Keep in Shape Club, 35 people swim, 24 play tennis, and 27 jog. Of these
people, 12 swim and play tennis, 19 play tennis and jog, and 13 jog and swim. Nine people do all three
activities. How many members are there altogether?
 Solution: Hint: Draw a Venn Diagram with 3 intersecting circles.

• Draw a diagram

Drawing a diagram is the most common problem solving strategy. Very often, a problem solver needs
to draw a diagram just to understand the meaning of the problem. The diagram represents the
problem in a way we can see it, understand it, and think about it while looking for the next step. When
you draw a diagram, you organize information spatially, which then allows the visual part of your
brain to become more involved in the problem-solving process.

Example: Fortune Problem: a man died and left the following instructions for his fortune, half
to his wife; 1/7 of what was left went to his son; 2/3 of what was left went to his butler; the man’s
pet pig got the remaining $2000. How much money did the man leave behind altogether?

• Solve a simpler problem

Sometimes you can find the answer to a problem by solving another problem that has simpler
numbers or fewer case. To use this strategy, first use a simpler or more familiar case of the problems.
Then use the same concepts and relationships to solve the original problem.

Example: In a delicatessen, it costs $2.49 for a half pound of sliced roast beef. The person
behind the counter slices 0.53 pound. What should it cost?

Solution: Try a simpler problem. How much would you pay if a half pound of sliced roast beef
costs $2 and the person slices 3 pounds? If a half pound costs $2, then one pound would cost 2 x $2
or $4. Multiply by the number of pounds needed to get the total: 3 x $4 = 12.

Now try the original problem: If a half pound costs $2.49, then one pound would cost 2 x $2.49 or
$4.98. Multiply by the number of pounds needed to get the total: .53 x $4.98 = $2.6394 or $2.64.
• Read the problem carefully Know the meaning of all words and symbols in the problem.

If a problem can’t be solved right away, divide it into part, and solve one part at a time. A
problem which at first seems difficult becomes easier if you divide it into parts and solve one part at
a time.

Example: List the ten smallest positive composite numbers.

Solution: Since positive means greater than 0 and a composite number is a number with more
than two whole number factors, the solution is 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 18. For example, 4 has
three factors, 1, 2, and 4.

Sort out information that is not needed.

Example: Last year the Williams family joined a reading club. Mrs. Williams read 20 books.
Their son Jed read 12 books. Their daughter Josie read 14 books and their daughter Julie read 7
books. How many books did the children of Mr. and Mrs. Williams read altogether?

Solution: You do not need to know how many books Mrs. Williams has read since the question
is focusing on the children.

Determine if there is enough information to solve the problem.

Example: How many children do the Williams have?

Solution: There is not enough information to solve the problem. You do not know if Josie,
Julie, and Jed are the only children.