Explain the principle and working of RADAR with a neat block diagram.

Hint : A radar system uses high-speed electromagnetic waves to determine location, velocity, direction, and the
elevation of objects. It transmits electromagnetic energy and analyses the energy reflected back to it.
Complete step by step answer

Let us look at the block diagram of the working of RADAR system. It consists of an antenna, duplex switch, receiver,
cathode ray indicator, modulator, master clock, transmitter, scanner.
Working of each component:
-The radar signal is generated by the transmitter and radiated into space by the antenna.
-The master clock is used to coordinate the actions of transmitter, receiver, and indicator, to make sure they are
synchronised.
-The modulator is used to amplify the pulses to sufficient amplitude to operate the transmitter.
-The RF pulse generator is used to convert the modulator pulse into RF pulse.
-The antenna is used to transmit the pulses and receive them back from the target.
-The scanner is an electro-mechanical system, used to scan the space for targets by sending signals and moving the
antenna in the required directions.
-The receiver is used to amplify and demodulate the received signal.
Cathode ray indicators are used to indicate the echo signals and the coordinates of the target.
Basic principles of RADAR:
-Reflection of electromagnetic rays: The electromagnetic rays are reflected back, if they meet an electrically
leading surface. This implies that there is an obstacle in its way.
-Electromagnetic energy travels through air at a constant speed, at approximately the speed of light. This constant
speed allows the determination of the distance between the reflecting objects and the radar site by measuring the
running time of the transmitted pulses.
-Using the RADAR antenna, the energy can be transmitted to the desired direction, implies that the direction of the
target can also be determined.

Note
RADAR is used in many fields. It includes:
-Air traffic control: It is used to locate the traffic and ensure safety near airports.
-It is used in target detection management in air defence.
-It is used in remote sensing to locate sea ice for smooth travel through sea, locate objects in space, also for
observing weather conditions.
-It is also used to monitor meteors, detect satellites etc.

With the help of a block diagram, explain the operation of the FM superheterodyne receiver.

Hint: A superheterodyne receiver is a radio frequency receiver that uses frequency mixing to convert a received
signal into an Intermediate frequency (IF), this allows the signal to be processed more conveniently than
processing the original carrier frequency.

Complete Step by step answer:

The receiver first receives the signals from the antenna and is fed to the RF Amplifier. In the RF amplifier, they are
also tuned in order to remove any unwanted signals from other frequencies.
The tuned signals from the RF amplifier mixes with the incoming local frequency signals which are generated from
a local oscillator. This mixing process is done in the mixer and this mixing creates an intermediate frequency (IF).
The intermediate frequency formed by the mixing is more convenient to process as compared to the original
carrier frequency.
The intermediate frequency is then amplified and filtered; this amplitude is maintained by using a limiter. During
filtering, the signals of a particular channel can be selected. As compared to RF filtering, the IF filter can be tuned
better than the RF filter because it can be designed for a fixed frequency.
This signal is then applied to a demodulator which is an FM detector, this detector demodulates the output. It is
also possible to switch between different demodulators to achieve the desired output form.
This demodulated signal is then audio amplified using a loudspeaker where it converts to sound waves of the
audible frequency.

Note: The speciality of a superheterodyne FM receiver is that it mixes the original incoming frequency from a
source with a locally generated frequency, this allows the receiver to filter and select only the desired RF signals.

What is Modulation in Physics?

Nowadays, information, messages, data, and signals are sent from one location to another within seconds. How is
such fast transmission possible? The communication system uses modulation to enhance the range of the signals.
Most of the signals generated in daily life are sinusoidal waveforms. Sinusoidal wave is a curve that describes
smooth repetitive oscillations. The signals transferred during communication include crucial information in the
form of a sinusoidal wave. Modulation and its types play a crucial role in the rapid transmission of the signals from
the sender to the receiver. Modulation is the superimposition of the signal wave (carrying the message) with a
high-frequency carrier signal to ensure faster transmission of the signal.

What is Modulation And Its Types?

Modulation is one of the crucial branches of electronics science that is widely used in communication systems. It
includes the different fundamental properties of the signal to transpose it from one location to another.

Types of Signals used in the Modulation

 Modulating Signal: This is the signal that contains the message to be transmitted from the sender to the
receiver and is called a message signal. Generally, the message signals are the band of low or high
frequencies and are often called baseband signals. The message signals are the signals to be transmitted
from the sender to the receiver. The frequency of the message signals to be sent is generally low. Thus,
these signals undergo modulation to get correctly transmitted from one location to another.

 Carrier Signal: The other signal used in the process of modulation is the carrier signal that has high-
frequency sinusoidal waves. The high-frequency carrier wave can travel much quicker as compared to the
baseband signal. These signals have a specific frequency, amplitude, and phase, but no information. After
modulation, carrier signals are used to transmit the signal to the receiver.

 Modulated Signal: After the modulation is done, the resultant signal refers to the modulated signal. This
signal is the mixture of the carrier signal and message signal.

(Image to be added soon)

The diagram shows three types of signals, namely, message signal, carrier signal, and modulated signal that is the
mixture of the message and carrier signal.

What Are The Types Of Modulation?

There are generally three types of modulation:

 Amplitude Modulation: By superimposing the base signal with the carrier signal having a different
amplitude, but the same frequency, if the amplitude of the base signal modifies or modulates, then it is
said to be amplitude modulation.

The diagram shows the amplified modulated wave after superimposing the message signal with the carrier signal.

 Phase Modulation: It is the type of modulation in which the phase of the base signal changes while
superimposing it with a carrier signal.

 Frequency Modulation: By superimposing the base signal with the carrier signal having a different
frequency, but the same amplitude, if the frequency of the base signal modifies or modulates, then it is
said to be frequency modulation.

What is the Need for Modulation?

 Increase The Signal Strength

The baseband signals transmitted by the sender are not capable of direct transmission. The strength of the
message signal should be increased so that it can travel longer distances. This is where modulation is essential. The
most vital need of modulation is to enhance the strength of the signal without affecting the parameters of the
carrier signal.
  Wireless Communication System

Modulation has removed the necessity for using wires in the communication systems. It is because modulation is
widely used in transmitting signals from one location to another with faster speed. Thus, the modulation technique
has helped in enhancing wireless communication systems.

 Prevention Of Message Signal From Mixing

Modulation and its types prevent the interference of the message signal from other signals. It is because a person
sending a message signal through the phone cannot tell such signals apart. As a result, they will interfere with each
other. However, by using carrier signals having a high frequency, the mixing of the signals can be prevented. Thus,
modulation ensures that the signals received by the receiver are entirely perfect.

 Size Of The Antenna

The signals within 20 Hz to 20 kHz frequency range can travel only a few distances. To send the message signal, the
length of the antenna should be a quarter wavelength of the used frequency. Thus, modulation is required to
increase the frequency of the message signal and to enhance its strength to reach the receiver.Length of the
antenna can be easily calculated using this formula:

L = λ = u/ν

= (3 x 108) / ν

Here, L = length of antenna

λ = wavelength of the transmitted signal

ν = carrier wave frequency

What are the Uses of Modulation?

 One of the most common uses of different types of modulation is the inter-conversion of signals from its
existing to another form.

 Digital Modulation is used for the transmissions of the digital signals over analog baseband.

 Analog Modulation is used to transfer the low bandwidth signals such as TV or radio signals over a higher
bandwidth.

 Modern modulation techniques are widely used to carry out FDM, that is, Frequency Division Multiplexing

What is PAM, PWM and PPM?

Answer
Hint: Pulse modulation is a type of modulation in which the signal is sending in pulses. It can be
used to transfer analog data. Continuous signals sampled at regular intervals in pulse modulation.
Pulse modulation divided into two types:
Analog: The sample amplitude indication is indefinitely changeable.
Digital: Indicates the amplitude of a sample at the nearest preset level.
Complete answer:
PAM is an abbreviation for Pulse Amplitude Modulation.
PWM is an abbreviation for Pulse Width Modulation.
PPM is an abbreviation for Pulse Position Modulation.
These are the types of pulse modulation.
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM):
It is the most basic type of Pulse Modulation. Each sample in this sort of modulation is proportional
to the amplitude of the signal at the time of sampling. As the signal traces out the path of the entire
wave, the PAM signal follows the amplitude of the original signal. In this case, a Nyquist-sampled
signal can be reconstructed by passing it through an efficient Low Pass Filter (LPF) with a precise
cutoff frequency. PAM is simple to create and demodulate. This method sends data by encoding it in
the amplitude of a series of signal pulses.
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM):
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), also known as Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM), or Pulse Time
Modulation (PTM), is an analog modulation system in which the duration, width, or time of the pulse
carrier varies proportionally to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal. The width of the
pulse varies in this manner, but the signal amplitude remains constant. Amplitude limiters are used
to keep the signal's amplitude consistent. These circuits limit the noise by clipping the amplitude to
the desired level.
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM):
The amplitude and width of the pulse are both kept constant in this sort of modulation. We alter the
position of each pulse about a specific pulse. In this case, a single pulse with the required number of
phase changes is sent. So, pulse position modulation is an analog modulation system in which the
amplitude and breadth of the pulse remain constant while the position of the pulse concerning the
direction of a reference pulse varies depending on the instantaneous value of the message signal.
Note:
Applications of PAM:
1. It is mostly used in Ethernet communication.
2. This approach is used by many microcontrollers to create control signals.
3. It is employed in photobiology.
4. It functions as a driver for LED circuits.
Applications of PPM:
1. It is utilized in air traffic control and telecommunications networks.
2. Pulse code modulation is used in remote-operated autos, planes, and trains.
3. It is used to compress data and, therefore, for storage.
Applications of PWM:
1. Drive a buzzer with varying levels of volume.
2. Control the motor's speed.
3. Control the movement of a servo.
4. Make an analog output available.
5. Create an audio signal.
6. Message encoding in telecommunications.