Block Periodization

Breakthrough in Sports Training

By
Vladimir Issurin, Ph.D,

Edited by Dr. Michael Yessis

 Contents

Dedication iv
Preface v
Acknowledgements viii

Chapter 1 Block Periodization vs. traditional theory 1

1.1. Traditional theory of periodization, basics and limitations 2
1.1.1. The scope of traditional theory 2
1.1.2. Pros and Cons of the traditional approach 7
1.1.3. Why traditional planning should be revised 15
1.2. The Block Periodization Concept - general outline 20
1.2.1. New concepts affecting the rationale and design of alternative training
periodization 20
1.2.2. General principles of the Block Periodization Concept 25
1.2.3. Structuring the annual cycle 27
1.3. Consequences of the modern approach 30
Summary 32

i
Chapter 2 The workout: general concepts and structure guidelines.37
2.1. Workout types and classifications 38
2.1.1. Workout types according to organization 39
2.1.2. Task related classification of workouts 41
2.1.3. Aim-Load related classification 43
2.1.4. Key-workouts as the decisive factor in developmental training sessions 45
2.2. Workout structure 48
2.2.1. Warm-up 48
2.2.2. The basic (main) part of the workout 54
2.2.3. Cooling down 58
2.3. Guidelines for structuring a workout 61
2.3.1. Sequencing exercises for different training modalities 62
2.3.2. Compatibility of different exercises 65
2.3.3. One day workout series 67
2.4. How to structure a workout 71
Summary 72

Chapter 3 Microcycles, mesocycles and training stages 78

3.1. Microcycles 79
3.1.1. Types and specifications of microcycles 80
3.1.2. Load variations within the microcycle (wave-shape design) 81
3.1.3. Microcycle to develop aerobic (strength-aerobic) abilities 84
3.1.4. Microcycle of high intensity anaerobic workloads 89
3.1.5. Microcycle for explosive strength in highly coordinated exercises 93
3.1.6. Pre-competitive microcycle 96
3.1.7. Microcycle for sport, specific fitness maintenance in dual and team sports.. 100
3.1.8. How to structure a microcycle 103
3.2. Mesocycles 105
3.2.1. Accumulation mesocycle 105
3.2.2. Transmutation mesocycle 110
3.2.3. Realization mesocycle 114
3.3. Training stage 119
3.3.1. Competition in the training stage 120
3.3.2. How to prolong the residual training effects 121
Summary 123

ii
Chapter 4 Long-term preparation 128
4.1. The annual cycle 129
4.1.1. Goal, objectives and basic directions of the annual plan 129
4.1.2. Constructing the annual program 131
4.1.3. General trends in workload planning within the annual cycle
of preparation 134
4.2. Quadrennial cycle of athletic preparation 136
4.3. Sport longevity of highly qualified athletes 139
4.4. Long-term preparation of young athletes 145
4.4.1. Stages and details of long-term preparation 145
4.4.2. Sensitive periods in the development of different motor abilities 151
4.4.3. Identifying gifted athletes 154
Summary 160

Chapter 5 Altitude training 164

5.1. Scientific background 166
5.1.1. General factors affecting altitude performance 166
5.1.2. Basics of altitude adaptation 168
5.1.3. Does altitude training provide benefits? 171
5.2. Training fundamentals 175
5.2.1. General principles and basic positions of altitude training 176
5.2.2. Phases of altitude acclimatization and training program design 179
5.2.3. Post-altitude re-acclimatization and athletic performance 183
5.2.4. Training stages with the altitude camp 187
5.2.5. Non-conventional approaches to altitude training and exposure 191
5.2.6. Altitude training as a part of the annual preparation cycle 196
5.2.7. Guidelines to structuring an altitude preparation program 199
Summary 200

Glossary 207
About the author 210
Coming Soon: Principles and basics of advanced
training of Athletes 211

iii
 Dedication

To my parents Sofia (Sonia) and Boris Issurin.

May their memory be a blessing for years to come.

iv
 Preface

This book deals with how to improve the training and preparation of
athletes to be more successful in high level performances. The bases of
contemporary training were founded a few decades ago when the knowledge was
far from complete and the level of workloads, results and demands were much
lower than now. At that time, traditional training periodization, meaning a
division of the whole seasonal program into smaller periods and training units,
was proposed and explained. This traditional periodization plan was repeated
many times and became a universal and monopolistic approach to training
planning and analysis.

However, further sports progress showed contradictions between

traditional periodization and successful experiences of prominent coaches and
athletes. Gradually these experiences led to alternative coaching concepts and,
ultimately, to a revamped training approach coined, Block Periodization. In

v
general, it assumes the use and sequencing of specialized mesocycle-blocks, in
which highly concentrated training workloads are focused on a minimal number
of motor and technical abilities. Unlike traditional periodization where
simultaneous development of many abilities is prevalent, the block concept
proposes consecutive training of carefully selected components. The new
approach has been implemented in various sports and has led to outstanding
athletic achievements. With this in mind, the purpose of this book is to introduce
Block Periodization of sports training as a general concept and the basis for a new
approach to training.

This book is intended for coaches who perceive their daily pursuit as a
creative profession. Coaching as a profession requires a very special combination
of knowledge and experience. The author's challenge is to show how knowledge
implemented in practice, can form a new positive experience and how by
summarizing experiences - new knowledge can be generated.

This book is also for athletes who want to understand why their results do
not always meet their expectations. Success in modern sport requires tremendous
effort and total dedication. However, the willingness to work harder and harder
depends on the athlete's awareness of the aims, means and methods of training.
The challenge is to give the athletes a comprehensive explanation of why they
must to train hard and how to do it wisely.

In addition, this book is for researchers and other curious people who are
looking for new (or relatively new) concepts, approaches and training designs. Sports
training deals with the continuous investigation of human nature, and with coaches, at
least the more creative among them, who are the true researchers. It is believed that
this book will stimulate the curiosity and creativity of such readers.

This book is also for students who still retain doubts about the accessibility of
science for training practices. Perhaps after reading this book they will decide that
such doubt is superfluous.

There are five chapters in the book that are united by the general idea of Block
Periodization that provides both the scientific background and practical consequences

vi
of this revamped training system. Chapter 1 elucidates the Block Periodization
concept. This chapter presents criticism of traditional periodization and provides the
bases and benefits of the alternative approach. Chapter 2 deals with the single
workout, namely, workout types and structures, sequence and compatibility of
different exercises, and the structure of a one day training series. Chapter 3 explains
how to design different type training microcycles. Also, the mesocycles for
accumulation, transmutation and realization are analyzed and discussed. Chapter 4 is
devoted to long-term preparation, namely, to annual and quadrennial plans, and the
bases of long-term preparation of adult and junior athletes. The basic approach to
identifying gifted youngsters is given special consideration. Chapter 5 describes the
bases of altitude training, focused in particular on how to construct the optimal Block
Periodization plan that includes training camps at altitude. The proposed guidelines
are based on long-term experiences of high-level athletes in altitude training.

In summary, during the last decades the achievements of athletes and their
sports mastery have improved tremendously. The main factor for this breakthrough,
which is obvious to all professional observers, is the progress in the preparation of
athletes. This has been noted in many professional reports, anecdotal statements and
in various publications, mostly journals and coaching magazines. However, current
training textbooks and coaching guidelines are still far from complete and a large
body of training knowledge is available only to a small group of experts. This book is
unique that it links successful experiences in sport practice with the scientific bases of
sports training. It consolidates both of the empirically proven positions with up-to-
date knowledge. The author hopes that the book will meet the expectations of readers
who perceive sports training as an area of creativity, self-confirmation and human
progress.

vii
 Acknowledgements

The book summarizes the findings of many studies conducted in cooperation

with my colleagues and friends. The first papers on Block Periodization were
published with Dr. Vassily Kaverin (Moscow) who at that time served as head-coach
of the USSR canoe-kayak team. A number of publications were written with Gilad
Lustig, Vladimir Shkliar, Leonid Kaufman from Israel; and Prof. Gershon Tenenbaum
from Florida State University (USA). Their willing cooperation is very much
appreciated.

The book contains practical examples supplied by my colleagues and friends:

Dr. Boris Blumenshtein, Gennadi Hiskia, Mark Tunis, Omrit Yanilov-Eden (all from
Israel), and Prof. Anatoly Bondarchuk from Canada. Very valuable information was
provided by the great swimming coach Gennadi Touretski, representing Russia and
Switzerland. I am extremely grateful to each of them for their contribution.

viii
A number of world famous coaches and athletes reviewed several parts of this book
and/or cooperated with me in different stages of my life. They are the coaches of
world and Olympic champions including Chris Carmichael (USA), Oreste Perri
(Italy), Gennadi Touretski (Russia, Switzerland), and great athletes who earned gold
medals in world championships and Olympic Games, Nikolae Juravschi (Moldova),
Ivan Klementiev (Latvia), Michael Kolganov (Israel), and Alexander Popov (Russia).
Special thanks to these great professionals and amazing personalities for sharing their
experiences and knowledge with me for this book.

I discussed and deliberated over several scientific positions with the late Prof.
Atko Viru (Estonia), whose valuable comments cannot be underestimated.
I thank also Mr. Mike Garmise for his valuable assistance in editing the initial text.

I would also like to thank Dr. Michael Yessis for his invaluable expertise in
doing the final edit of this book. His highly professional efforts greatly assisted to
make this book more easily understood in English.

Last but certainly not least, the person who has had the strongest influence on
my work and life, Prof. Vladimir Zatsiorsky (Penn State University, USA). I am
extremely grateful for his valuable comments on an earlier version of this book, for
his readiness to help and for his life-long friendship.

Finally, I want to thank my wife Irena. While she did not take part in any of
the studies reported in this book, she affected all my efforts as I worked on the
manuscript. Ultimately these efforts resulted in this book.

ix
 Chapter 1

Chris Carmichael- world famous coach and his athlete

Lance Armstrong - world champion in road cycling, 7-Time Tour de France Grand
Champion, USA

1
 Chapter 1

Block periodization
vs. traditional theory

Many generations of scientists, coaches and athletes have tried to build a

training system that would yield the best performance results. Their efforts have
focused on three general problems:
How to design an effective training plan for a sufficiently long period.
How to optimally implement such a plan.
How to achieve the most favorable combination of all athletic abilities exactly
at the time of the main competition.

These problems belong to training periodization, the purposeful sequencing

of different training units (long, medium and short-term training cycles and sessions)
so that the athlete can attain the desired state and planned for results. Because training
periodization contains many variables and depends on many circumstances, the ideal
model can exist only in theory. Nevertheless, each year we take another step towards
more conscious planning and a more complete understanding of training as a whole.

2
 This chapter summarizes the two most prevalent views of training
periodization, (a) the traditional approach which has been dominant for a long time,
and (b) block periodization, which has come into widespread use among high-level
athletes during the last decades.

1.1. Traditional theory of periodization, basics and limitations

Training periodization was founded during the 1950s in the former USSR and
was established as a scientific concept by Matveyev in 1964. This theory spread to
Eastern Europe (Ozolin,1970; Harre,1973) and later to Western countries (Dick,
1980; Martin, 1980; Bompa, 1984; Yessis, 1987), and constituted a compulsory part
of training in high-performance sport. In general, periodization exploits the periodic
changes in human biological and social activities. For a long time, this theory was
accepted as the universal basis for training in any sport and for athletes on any level of
competency.

The first criticisms and calls for reform appeared in the early 1980s in elite
sport as the experience of top coaches stood in contrast to the entrenched theories.
New approaches proposed by creative coaches and scientists appeared. Extensive
discussions by sports experts took place in the 1990s in East and West European
sports magazines. Let us first examine the basics of traditional theory and their
limitations from the viewpoint of high-performance sport.

1.1.1. The scope of traditional theory

The cornerstones of periodization are formed by a hierarchical system of

training units that are periodically repeated (Table 1.1). The upper level of the
hierarchy belongs to the Olympic quadrennial cycle, juxtaposed with other great
events in the sports world. The next level of the hierarchy is represented by the
macrocycles. A macrocycle usually lasts one year but can be shortened to half a year
and even less. This flexibility in the annual cycle subdivision is irrelevant to the block
periodization approach. The macrocycles are divided into training periods. The
training periods fulfill a key function in traditional theory because they divide the
macrocycle into two major parts: the first for more generalized and preliminary work

3
(preparatory period); (the second for more event-specific work in the specialized pre
competitive period) and competition (competitive period).

In addition, a third but short period is set aside for active recovery and
rehabilitation. The next two levels of the hierarchy are reserved for the mesocycles
(medium-size training cycles) and microcycles (small-size training cycles). The
bottom of the hierarchy belongs to workouts and exercises, which are the building
elements of the entire training system.

Table 1.1
Hierarchy and duration of the training periods

The training periods provide sufficient freedom in the training design.

External factors, such as the competition calendar and seasonal changes, dictate
peaking phases and restrictions in training. As a result, a coach can select the
sequencing, content and duration of the training cycles and define the specifics of the
means and methods for each training.

The traditional approach points out the general characteristics of the above-
mentioned periods and subdivides them into several stages. The training content of
each stage is very definite with regard to workload volume and intensity (Table 1.2).

4
 Table 1.2
General characteristics of training periodization in the traditional approach
(based on Matveyev, 1981)

Initially the traditional approach assumes one macrocycle a year; a typical design
is presented in Figure 1.1.

5
Figure 1.1. Traditional presentation of annual cycle with one macrocycle (one-peak
annual periodization)

The one-peak annual cycle was particularly suitable for seasonal sports such
as skiing, skating, rowing etc. but did not meet the sports demands when athletes
competed in any and all seasons (fencing, swimming, some dual and team sports).
Later modifications had two and three macrocycles within the annual cycle. Each
macrocyle was subdivided into three periods characterized by specific combinations
of training objectives and workloads (Figure 1.2).

6
Figure 1.2. Annual cycle with two- and three macrocycles (two- and three-peak
annual periodization)

The mesocycles, the medium sized training cycles, have been interpreted in
different ways. The Block Periodization Concept uses a more simplified mesocycle
classification.

7
 The microcycles, as the shortest training cycles, have fewer contradictions.
Despite the lack of unanimity among authors in regard to the names of the different
microcycles, the following summary may help clarify the situation (Table 1.3.)

Table 1.3
Microcycle types based on a summary of many publications

1.1.2. Positives and Negatives of the traditional approach

The traditional theory of training athletes was formulated at a time when there
was limited knowledge and little scientifically proven guidelines for coaching.
Traditional training periodization, which adopted the up-to-date know-how of the
1960s, was a breakthrough for coaching and training science. Many of the elements
postulated then remain valid to this day, including the hierarchical taxonomy and
terminology of training cycles, the differentiation between general and specialized
athletic preparation, changes in exercise volume and intensity, basic approaches to
short-term, medium-term and long-term planning, etc. It would be unrealistic to
expect that all of the ideas proposed more than four decades ago would remain
applicable today. Thus, several of the principles of athletic preparation are not
important in the alternative Training Block approach.

s
 Example. The principle of unity of general and specialized preparation
was postulated in the traditional theory in regard to high level performance.
Training downplayed the importance of event-specific means during long periods
of general preparation, where this specificity could be ignored. Conversely, the
importance of general exercises could be ignored during long competitive periods,
when specific means are predominant.

The principle of continuity was relevant when athletes lost motivation to

train during long periods of monotonous training long before serious competition.
The principle of wave-shape training was important to prevent overloading so
prevalent during prolonged periods of hard workloads typical of traditional
planning.

The traditional design is still appropriate for low-level athletes. It does not
work well for high-performance athletes. Traditional theory also contains a number of
contradictions which dramatically reduce preparation effectiveness. (See table 1.4).

For instance, preparatory period training for high level athletes in endurance
sports, martial arts, dual and team sports and aesthetic sports, assumes the
development of general aerobic abilities, muscle strength and strength endurance,
improvement in general coordination and explosive ability, basic mental and technical
preparation, mastery of the tactical repertory, and treatment of previous injuries. Each
of these factors requires specific physiological, morphological and psychological
adaptation. However many of the workloads are not compatible and create
conflicting responses.

9
 Table 1.4
The main contradictions of the traditional training approach for high-level
athletes (Issurin, 2007)

10
 Study and example. Highly qualified male swimmers were studied during
eight weeks of early season preparation. The athletes performed a strenuous fitness
program combined with extensive swimming, which included resistive exercises and
power drills directed to the development of swimming-specific strength. The total
number of workouts was usually 9-11 per week The training outcomes were
evaluated, maximal force of tethered swimming (F ),
tsw dry-land explosive strength
(Fexp), and dry-land strength endurance (SE). The fitness program resulted in
remarkable improvement in strength endurance, while the swim-specific strength and
explosive strength didn't improve (Figure 1.3). During this entire period the
swimmers improved their swimming preparedness, evaluated mostly by endurance
tests.

Therefore, the global aim of the fitness program was not obtained. Although
the swimmers enhanced their strength endurance, they did not improve their
maximum swim-specific strength, and their explosive strength decreased. Despite a
substantial part of the program devoted to maximal and explosive strength exercises
(about 30% of the time expended in a dry-land program), the expected training effect
was dramatically impaired by the negative interaction of the workloads with the
strength endurance routines and extensive swimming program.

A maximum strength program requires muscles hypertrophy and enhancement

of the neural mechanism of muscular contraction. The latter is of primary importance
for improving explosive strength. The extensive endurance workloads capture the
metabolic energy that is necessary for anabolism during post-exercise recovery. This
suppresses muscle hypertrophy.

Enhancement of the neural mechanism is conditioned by the state of the

central nervous system and the sensitivity of the neuro-motor pool (Klausen, 1990).
The observations of coaches and athletes show that a strenuous high volume training
program causes permanent fatigue. As a result, the central and peripheral neural
factors are far from optimum, which is needed for improvement of the muscular
contraction.

11
Figure 1.3 Key: Maximum force of tethered swimming (F ), explosive strength
tsw

(F ) measured as the force achieved during 0.2 s of isometric effort in

exp

stroke simulation, and strength endurance (SE) measured as the power

output during two minutes of two-arm stroke simulation on an isokinetic
machine by high-level swimmers during an eight-week fitness program.
Bottom half - training time expended for fitness (white boxes) and time
for swimming routines (grey boxes)

Similar situations were experienced by many coaches, but not all of them were
critically assessed. The most prominent coaches decided that developmental programs
for maximum and explosive strength and strength endurance should be separate. They
found that the problem with high-level athletes is that their progress demands large
highly-concentrated workloads, that can not be simultaneously managed to achieve
many different objectives.

An additional drawback of the traditional scheme is its inability to prepare

athletes for successful participation in many competitions. Even the three-peak
annual cycle design does not satisfy the international sport trend towards competitions
throughout the year. The multi-peak tendency that is in obvious contradiction with

12
traditional planning, is very characteristic of modern high-level sport. Let's consider
the above-mentioned multi-peak tendency in the example of the world-class track and
field athletes.

Example. Data on three world class athletes, Marion Jones (USA),

Sergei Bubka (Soviet Union, Ukraine since 1991), and Stefka Kostadinova
(Bulgaria) show that each had pre-season and in-season preparation lasting
about 300-320 days (Table 1.5). As can be seen in the table, the time span
when these athletes competed and reached peak-achievements, and when
they had relatively low results varied between 135 - 265 days. This long
time span can not be subdivided into traditional preparatory and
competitive periods.

On the other hand, the basic abilities of these athletes (maximum

strength, capacity of aerobic regeneration) should be maintained on a
sufficiently high level during the 5 to 8 month span. Therefore, the
appropriate training cycles for basic abilities and recovery should be
incorporated into the program. The traditional scheme doesn't resolve this
problem and is unable to provide such preparation in the basic plan.

13
 Table 1.5
Multi-peak annual preparation of world-class track and field athletes
(based on Suslov, 2001; with modifications)

** A l l the peaks were within 3% of his personal best result, namely -595-612 cm;
*** A l l the peaks were within 3% of her personal best result, namely -200-205 cm

The above noted disadvantage of traditional planning was recognized by many

coaches. They modified the annual chart and inserted relatively short-term training
cycles with highly concentrated workloads to ensure multi-peak preparation. These
were, in fact, the precursors of alternative training periodization. A few decades ago
high-level coaches could be heard lamenting, "We build up massive foundations of
basic abilities, but when we complete at the tower of specific fitness (peak), the
foundations are mired in a bog." This gloomy outlook reflected the practical
observation that prolonged development of basic abilities doesn't guarantee the
maintenance of these abilities at the achieved high level. Unfavorable in-season
changes in physiological and sport-specific variables were noted and commented
upon in many follow-up studies dealing with the preparation of high-level athletes.
The pattern of these typical changes is presented in Figure 1.4.

14
 Study and example. A group of highly qualified kayakers was studied during
their yearly preparation designed on the classical model. The incremental pattern step
test was used to determine velocity at anaerobic threshold ((V-AT) and mean distance
velocity in all-out performance (Vd). Peak Force on the paddle (PF) and Stroke Rate
(SR) were obtained with the help of a portable telemetry system. Anthropometric
measurements made it possible to calculate muscle mass ( M M ) . As can be seen in
Fig.1.3, the long period of general preparation (preparatory period) caused a
substantial increase in aerobic endurance (V-AT), muscle mass and strength (peak
force on the paddle).
During the relatively long period of highly specialized competition, extensive
aerobic workloads were replaced by more intense event-specific exercises. Maximum
strength exercises were reduced and even rejected as harmful for racing technique. As
a result, the velocity at anaerobic threshold and peak force decreased during the
competitive period, and muscle mass diminished prior to competition. It is worth
noting that mean distance velocity reached maximum for the main competition,
obtained by the increased stroke rate despite reduced force application to the paddle.
It is obvious that the timing pattern for developing different abilities was far from
optimal (Issurin et al., 1986).

15
Figure 1.4. Mean distance velocity (Vd), velocity at anaerobic threshold (V-AT),
peak force on the paddle (PF), stroke rate (SR) and muscle mass ( M M ) of
high-level kayakers during one annual macrocycle (based on Issurin et
al.,1986).

1.1.3. Why traditional planning should be revised

As can be inferred from above, the drawbacks to the traditional training

concept were a crucial factor in seeking an alternative approach. These limitations
included:
restrictions created by the simultaneous development of a number of motor
and technical abilities;
the inability to provide multi-peak preparation, i.e. successful participation in
many competitions;
excessively long periods of basic and sport-specific preparation.

Moreover, the tremendous changes in world sport in recent decades are having
a strong influence on the evolution of the training process. While the variety and
uniqueness of each sport makes it difficult to be specific, these changes can be
summarized as follows:

16
 a dramatic increase in the number of competitions and competitive
performances;
a remarkable reduction in the total volume of training workloads;
the appearance of new concepts affecting the planning and designing of
alternative training periodization.

Increase in the number of competitions

In contemporary sport, participation in competition throughout the entire
season and a remarkable increase in the number of competitive days throughout the
year can be seen (Figure 1.5).

Figure 1.5. The number of competitive days for international class athletes in
different sports. Data obtained from internationally recognized experts in
the sports mentioned (Issurin, 2007).

17
 At least three factors have determined the trend in competitive activity. They
are:
1. An increase in the number of competitions in the last two decades in
international and national schedules. International sports federations have
initiated and supported the organization of the traditional series of grand prix,
world and continental cups, memorial trophies etc., which have become
popular among top athletes and the sports media. Also, national federations
have built extensive competition schedules intended to engage a larger
population of sub-elite athletes in ambitious preparatory programs;

2. The financial motivation of top athletes has increased substantially. The

premiums prize-winners can receive have become strong stimuli to reach
peak-performance levels more frequently than proposed in the traditional
periodization scheme. At the same time, second echelon athletes have
modified their competitive strategy to imitate the top athletes' patterns;

3. The contribution of competition to training has increased dramatically.

More frequent competition breaks the training routine and changes the
relationship between loading and recovery. Advanced coaches exploite more
frequent competition to intensify the athlete's preparation.

18
Figure 1.6. Total training time in one year among international class athletes
(data obtained from internationally recognized experts in the sports
mentioned); Gymnastics-R - Rhythmic Gymnastics, Running-MD - Running
middle distance (Issurin, 2007).

4. Reduction in total volume of training workloads among high-performance

athletes. Figure 1.6 illustrates this in different sports from various countries. A
number of circumstances can be cited for this global trend. They are:
a. Remarkable progress in training methods and sports technologies. Up-
to-date knowledge of long-, medium-, and short-term training effects
makes it possible to design training programs that prevent excessive
workloads, which were often the result of insufficient understanding or
critical appraisal. Monitoring technologies for heart rate, blood lactate,
movement rate and technique have been incorporated into training
routines so that acute and immediate training effects are now much
more measurable and predictable. The modern approach to planning
training has made it possible to replace the slogan, "more miles make
champions" to "knowledge gives power". This factor closely interacts
with the next one.

19
b. Worldwide sharing of successful experiences among coaches. It is
obvious that the modern world of elite-sport has become more open
and dynamic. International training centers host athletes from different
countries for training camps and extended preparation. Coaches'
clinics, seminars and courses engage experts of world renown, who
don't hesitate to lay out - for all to see and hear - items that were once
classified as "top secret". Many successful coaches from countries that
regulated experience-sharing by means of strictly enforced sport
policies have taken the world as their stage. These are coaches
possessing long-term experience in the use of extreme and standard
training workloads, from the time when general training volumes were
strictly prescribed. They knew that a substantial part of these excessive
workloads were not useful, if not harmful, and now they share this
knowledge with colleagues from many countries.

c. Increases in the number of competitions and starts. The excessive

training loads were partly superseded by more pronounced competitive
activity.
d. Rejection of illegal pharmacological products. It is no secret that use of
some illegal pharmacologicals facilitated certain athletes'
physiological responses, such as muscular hypertrophy and speed of
recovery, and affected higher workload performance. Doping control —
before, during and after competitions - initiated by the International
Olympic Committee in the mid 1990s has become an indispensable
part of modern sport and has helped prevent the use and sharing of
these harmful technologies in high-performance sport. The end result
was a reduction in the athletes ability to maintain high-load training
programs.

e. Social and political changes in post-communist countries. It is common

knowledge that the highest workload volumes were performed by
athletes of former communist countries where athletic preparation was
strictly centralized. Integrative parameters of the training process (such
as total mileage, total time expended on training, etc.) were imposed on
national teams in the form of planning directives. Very often these
directives proposed excessive training workloads as a tool to attain
more successful athletic performances.

20
 The social and political changes that these countries underwent
were followed by the democratization of elite-sport, a reduction in
administrative pressure and liberation of the coaches. This allowed
them to display individual initiative. On the other hand, the economical
upheavals brought about by the political changes in these countries
exhausted most of the financial resources available to high-level sport.
As a consequence, total workload volumes were substantially reduced.
In a ripple effect, this change influenced training volume trends in
other countries and caused load reductions there as well.

A l l of these circumstances and factors contributed to the search for alternative

training approaches by creative coaches and scientists having a practical orientation.
Not every attempt to reform the traditional system was successful. However,
revisions gradually became bolder and more desirable for preparing high-level
athletes in the new era of more competitions. In addition, a highly developed sports
industry and a more open sports society demanded a revamping of the training
system. As a result, several new concepts were implemented and created the
foundation for alternative periodization and advanced training theory.

1.2. The Block Periodization Concept - general outline

1.2.1. New concepts affecting the rationalize and design of alternative training
periodization.

In the 1980s, the concept that emerged from prominent coaches pertained to
what was called, training blocks. This idea was not conceptualized scientifically and
was open to different interpretations. However, in its most comprehensive meaning,
training block referred to a training cycle of highly concentrated specialized
workloads. This definition corresponds to the common understanding of the block as
an autonomous compact unit of several elements combined for a specific function.
Further consideration of training blocks as a coaching concept led to several logical
consequences:

21
 Highly concentrated training workloads for many qualities cannot be managed
at the same time. Therefore, the training block is an alternative to the
widespread practice of simultaneous complex development of many abilities;
Athletic performance in any sport usually demands the mastery of many
abilities, which, in the case of training blocks, can only be developed
consecutively, not concurrently;

Developing a process that includes morphological, organic and biochemical

changes requires a sufficiently long time period of about 2-6 weeks, which
corresponds to the duration of mesocycles. Hence, training blocks are mostly
mesocycle-blocks.

One of the most successful coaches to achieve great results using this
alternative training system was Anatoly Bondarchuk, who coached the gold-, silver-,
and bronze-medal winners in the hammer throw at the 1988 and other Olympic
Games. He fulfilled the nearly unattainable dream of having the entire Olympic
podium occupied by athletes of the same coach. Based on his own personal athletic
experience (he was Olympic hammer throw champion in 1972) and careful
investigation of throwers' training programs (as part of his doctoral studies in 1988),
Bondarchuk created the original periodization chart that completely reformed the
traditional approaches to training (Bondarchuk, 1986 and 1988).

Dr. Bondarchuk established three types of specialized mesocycle-blocks:

developmental, where workload levels gradually increase to maximum; competitive,
where the load level is stabilized and athletes focus on the competitive performance;
and restorative, where athletes utilize active recovery and prepare for the next
developmental program. The duration of the two first types of mesocycles is usually
four weeks while the third can be shortened to two weeks. The sequencing of these
blocks depends on the competition schedule and on the responses of individual
athletes. The outstanding characteristic of this training program design is alternation
and repetition of the exercise repertory in each mesocycle-block (every four weeks).
The terms of traditional periodization like "preparatory, competitive and transitory
periods" were used, but the author noted that in his concept their essence is very
different.

22
 As already mentioned, the "winds of reformation" became stronger in the
earlier 1980s. At that time elite USSR canoe-kayak paddlers performed an enormous
exercise volume. The prevailing opinion was that this load level was excessive and
that the training design could be made more effective. The idea of training blocks and
mesocycle- sequencing was conceptualized, implemented and proved in practice, and
then published (Issurin & Kaverin, 1985). Three types of mesocycle-blocks were
elucidated: accumulation, which was devoted to developing basic abilities such as
general aerobic endurance, muscle strength, and general patterns of movement
technique; transformation, which focused on developing specific abilities like
combined aerobic-anaerobic or anaerobic endurance, specialized muscle endurance,
and event-specific technique; and realization, which was designed as a pre-
competitive training phase that focused mainly on race model exercises, attaining
maximum speed and recovery prior to the forthcoming competition.

The duration of the mesocycles was established according to physiological and

biochemical prerequisites that usually allowed four weeks for the accumulation and
transformation mesocycles, and two weeks for realization. These three mesocycles
were combined into a separate training stage which ended with competition. A
number of training stages formed the annual macrocycle, which was formally
subdivided into preparatory and competitive periods, but this differentiation was of
minor importance.

The modified training design allowed for about a 10-15% reduction in the
annual training volume. Follow-up testing of the national team during preparation
showed considerable improvement in the main fitness components in all subgroups.
The radically reformed preparation program resulted in outstanding performances in
the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games (three gold and three silver medals) and in the 1989
and 1990 World Championships where eight and nine gold medals, respectively, were
won.

Another concept affecting the clarification and implementation of the

alternative preparation approach is the residual training effect (see glossary), a term
first coined by Brian and James Counsilman (1991). Compared to other types of
training effects (acute, immediate, cumulative and delayed), residual effect remains
relatively new and obscure. The residual training effect refers to the retention of

23
changes induced by systematic workloads beyond a certain time period after the
cessation of training.

The residual training effect phenomenon is closely connected with detraining,

which was previously understood as a loss of "trainedness" when training was
stopped. In fact, detraining in high-performance sport usually occurs selectively,
according to specific abilities when not stimulated by sufficient training. For instance,
maximum oxygen uptake among highly trained endurance athletes decreases when
total weekly volume is reduced below a certain level (Steinacker, 1993; Steinacker et
al., 1998). Similarly, large volumes of highly intense exercises do not prevent
detraining and loss of aerobic endurance during the taper (Mujika, 1999).

When training is designed in the traditional manner and many abilities are
developed simultaneously, the risk of detraining is negligible because each quality
(motor or technical ability) receives some portion of the training stimuli. However, if
these abilities are developed consecutively, as proposed above (Issurin & Kaverin,
1985, Bondarchuk, 1986, 1988), the problem of detraining becomes very important.
If you develop one ability and lose another one at the same time, you have to take into
account the duration of the positive effect of the given training after its cessation and
how fast you will lose the obtained ability level when you stop training it. In other
words, you have to know the residual effect of each type of training. A recent study
presents data summarizing the duration of the training residuals with regard to
different motor abilities (Table 1.6.)

24
 Table 1.6
The duration and physiological background of the residual training effects for
different motor abilities after cessation of training (Issurin & Lustig, 2004)

The rate of loss of the training effects and respective training residuals vary
widely for different motor abilities. Some physiological systems retain increased
levels of adaptation longer than others. For example, improved aerobic capacity is
determined by pronounced morphological and biochemical changes, i.e., increases in
capillary density, glycogen storage and in particular, the amount of aerobic enzymes,
which increase by 40-90% (Volkov,1986; Fox et al.,1993; Wilmore & Costill, 1993).
This is in contrast to the much lesser local adaptations seen in athletes after sprint
training such as increases in phosphocreatine storage (2-5%), peak lactate
accumulation (10-20%) and anaerobic enzymes (2-20 % ) . Consequently, aerobic
ability, which is supported by pronounced morphological and biochemical changes, is
retained for a number of weeks at near-peak level, while anaerobic abilities,

25
particularly maximum sprint speed, retain near-peak levels for much shorter periods
(Table 1.6).

Maximum strength gains in top-level athletes are determined by pronounced

morphological, biochemical and neural changes, such as enlargement of the cross-
sectional area of muscle fibers, increased number of fibers (hyperplasia), recruitment
of previously inactive motor units and synchronization of their activity, and increased
discharge frequency of motor-neurons (Zatsiorsky, 1995). A l l these significant
adaptations create a relatively long training residual for strength training.

Training residuals of strength endurance are dependent on the duration of the

event and the degree of mobilization of anaerobic resources. Strength endurance for
long-duration performance has relatively longer residuals, thanks to pronounced
aerobic adaptation.

The changes induced by training for peak speed are characterized by fewer
gains and shorter residuals. Highly concentrated sprint training causes relatively small
increases in quickly available energy sources such as ATP and phosphocreatine, and
enzymes such as creatine kinase (Thorstensson, 1988). In addition, peak speed is
based on very delicate and highly precise neuro-muscular interactions, which are
relatively unstable and cannot be maintained at the highest level without specially
organized training.

This knowledge about training residuals and the time of detraining is

important when the planning turns from simultaneous to consecutive development of
sport-specific fitness components. When we stop developing a specific ability we
should be able to predict how long this ability will remain at the "sufficient" level.
This information should determine the appropriate sequencing and timing of the
training cycles.

1.2.2. General principles of the Block Periodization Concept

The revised approach, called the Block Periodization Concept (BPC) has been
developed and finalized with general principles and with guidelines for the training
systems.

26
 The general principles of this training system are displayed in Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7. General principles of the Block Periodization Concept and the rationale
for determining their unity and subordination (Issurin, 2007).

Concentration of training workloads is the most decisive and fundamental

principle of the BPC. The rationale behind it is the long-known fact that only highly
concentrated training workloads can produce a sufficient stimulus in high-level
athletes for greater gains in a given motor and/or technical ability. This is the
cornerstone from which the following principles emerge:
1. Highly concentrated training demands a minimum number of abilities that
can be affected simultaneously (the alternative is a complex design where
many abilities are developed simultaneously);
2. Consecutive development is the only possible approach when the number
of sport-specific abilities needed is more than the number of abilities that
can be trained simultaneously (the alternative complex approach has no
hard limitation in regard to this factor, where one mesocycle and
microcycle combine the workloads for many abilities); and
3. The mesocycle-blocks should be specialized and structured to produce one
of three different effects: accumulation (athletes accumulate the basic

27
 motor and technical abilities); transmutation (athletes transmute their
motor potential to event-specific preparedness); and realization (athletes
realize their preparedness as readiness for competition and attain the
planned result).

Therefore, the medium size training cycles, called mesocycle-blocks, are the
most prominent embodiment of the Block Periodization Concept. They are much
more concentrated, more specialized, and more manageable in the training programs.

1.2.3. Structuring the annual cycle

As in the traditional approach, annual cycle planning begins by determining

the target competitions scheduled by international and national sport authorities. The
training program becomes apparent in the subdivision of the annual cycle into a
number of training stages, each of which contains three types of mesocycles:
accumulation, transmutation and realization (Table 1.7).

Table 1.7
The main characteristics of the three types of mesocycle-blocks (Issurin, 2007)

28
 The rational sequencing of the mesocycles within each training stage makes it
possible to carry over optimal residual training effects as shown in Figure 1.8. It
shows how it is possible to have interaction of training residuals to provide high level
competitive performance with the optimal amounts of all motor and technical
abilities. This is based on the fact that training residuals of basic abilities last much
longer than residuals of more specific abilities, with residuals of maximal speed and
event-specific readiness the shortest (Table 1.6).

Figure 1.8. Superimposing of residual training effects induced by sequenced

mesocycle-blocks (Issurin & Shkliar, 2002).

In figure 1.8, the duration of the training stage is determined by the duration of
the training residuals and should be about two months. In actual fact, the training
stages can be shorter as for example, when close to season peaking, or longer, when at
the beginning of the season to meet specific needs. In the second case (longer training
stages), special measures should be used to prolong residual training effects (see
short-term planning). It is worth noting that each training stage gives the appearance
of an annual cycle in miniature. It includes a training block resembling the
preparation period (accumulation), a training block resembling the competition period
(transmutation), and ends with tapering (realization) and competitive performance.

29
 Based on the above, the annual cycle design can be viewed as a sequence of
more or less autonomous stages, in which similar aims are achieved by means of a
partially renewed and qualitatively improved training program. A test battery repeated
at each stage, together with competitive performance results, will help to monitor the
training process and provide feedback that can be used for ongoing evaluation and
program corrections.

Finally, the number of training stages in an annual cycle depends on the

particulars of the given sport and its calendar of important competitions which usually
varies from four to seven. The typical annual cycle following the Block Periodization
Concept is shown in Figure 1.9.

Practical implementation of the BPC has a number of benefits when compared

to the traditional model:
The Block Periodization model allows for a reduction in total mileage and
time expended on training, without substantially changing the total number of
workouts;
Monitoring of trainedness is more purposeful and effective. The reduced
number of targeted abilities requires more appropriate tests and the "dose-
effect" analysis can be easily performed with respect to different training
stages;
Psychological traits are improved since the athletes can focus on fewer
abilities. This allows for more effective maintenance of mental concentration
and motivation levels.
Nutritional aspects can be more carefully taken into account. A high protein
diet can be given to enhance the anabolic effect of strength training while
carbohydrates are particularly important in mesocycles for specialized and
strength- endurance.

30
Figure 1.9. The annual cycle chart based on the Block Periodization
Concept (the transition period is not shown). The upper part refers to the
main competitions, the middle part to mesocycle-blocks and the bottom
part to training stages and preparation periods (Issurin, 2007).

1.3. Consequences of the modern approach

Table 1.8 summarizes the most relevant differences between the traditional
and non-traditional approaches to training periodization and the annual training plan.
The dominant principle focuses on the structure of the training workloads, where the
use of highly concentrated workloads contrasts with the complex administration of
various workloads in the traditional approach. The residual training effect concept is
part of the scientific background for the new approach but plays no part in the classic
plan, which was based exclusively on the cumulative training effect. In addition,
development of a wide range of abilities required simultaneous training in the classic
approach, but is strictly consecutive in the block-structure.

The term "periodization" (preparation periods) itself reflects the most

meaningful component of the classic approach. As mentioned earlier, the most
meaningful component in the alternative approach is the training stage that consists of

31
three sequenced mesocycle-blocks. Unlike the traditional model, the BPC allows for
successful implementation of a multi-peak annual plan. The intermediate peaks can
be planned for mid-season and even for the early part of the season.

The general physiological mechanism of adaptation is very different when the

two training plans are compared. The traditional model exploits mainly adaptation to
concurrent training stimuli affecting many abilities while the non-traditional model
(BPC) assumes superimposition of residual training effects induced by highly
concentrated training stimuli administered consecutively.

Table 1.8
Principal differences in training design between the classic approach and B P C
(Issurin, 2007)

32
Summary

The traditional theory of training periodization was developed as a universal

approach to the planning and preparation of athletes. The tremendous changes in
high-level sport, as well as the dissemination of new training technologies, has led to
an evolution of general theoretical positions and the appearance of several non-
traditional coaching concepts. Training Block Periodization, the alternative to the
traditional preparation approach, reflects the successful experience of many prominent
coaches and the results of long-term studies conducted on top-level athletes.

The general idea behind the alternative approach is the use of sequenced
specialized mesocycle-blocks, where highly concentrated training workloads are
focused on a minimal number of motor and technical abilities. Unlike the traditional
theory of training periodization that uses simultaneous development of many abilities,
the alternative concept provides for consecutive development of the targeted abilities
in successive mesocycle-blocks. The rational sequencing of these blocks is based on
residual training effects, i.e., the retention of changes brought about by the training
that remain after the training ceases. These training residuals are especially important
when athletes improve their abilities consecutively, not concurrently as in the
traditional model.

The Block Periodization Concept utilizes an original taxonomy of mesocycles

that consist of three types of specialized blocks: accumulation, for developing basic
motor and technical abilities (mostly aerobic and muscle strength abilities as well as
basic technical skills); transmutation, for developing event-specific abilities (mostly
anaerobic and/or aerobic-anaerobic abilities, and more specialized technical skills),
and realization, for maximal speed, event-specific tactics and full adaptation prior the
forthcoming trial or competition (this block is very similar to the widely-known
concept of pre-event tapering). These three mesocycle-blocks, taken as a whole, form
the training stage, that is, the most meaningful component of alternative training
periodization. This contrasts to the classical scheme where the most meaningful
component is the training period.

33
 It should be noted that the traditional approach has visible benefits for the
preparation of low- and mid-level athletes. The complex administration of workloads
directed at many abilities makes training more diversified, attractive and lively. The
improvement of relatively lower athletic abilities doesn't require highly concentrated
training workloads because medium-level concentration still provides sufficient
stimulation. The opposite situation is typical for high-level athletes who need high
concentrations of appropriate exercises in order to make progress. Table 1.8 presents
the main differences between the traditional and alternative training models.

The benefits of the Block Periodization Concept, in comparison to the

traditional model, are as follows:
(1) the total volume of training exercises can be greatly reduced, minimizing
the incidence of overtraining,
(2) the multi-peak training design allows for and facilitates successful
participation in multiple competitions over the entire season;
(3) monitoring can be more efficient because of the substantial reduction in the
number of athletic abilities to be evaluated within each mesocycle;
(4) the diet and restorative program can be appropriately modified according
to the predominant type of training and, finally,
(5) a multi-stage annual plan creates more favorable conditions for peaking in
time for the main competition of the season.

34
References to Chapter 1

Bompa, T. (1984). Theory and methodology of training - The key to athletic

performance. Boca Raton, FL: Kendall/Hunt.
th
Bompa, T. (1999). Periodization: Theory and methodology of training (4 ed.).
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Bondarchuk, A. P. (1986). Training of track and field athletes. Kiev: Health
Publisher (Zdorovie).
Bondarchuk, A. P. (1988). Constructing a training system. Track Technique, 102,
3254-269.
Counsilman, B. E., & Counsilman, J.. (1991). The residual effects of training.
Journal of Swimming Research, 7, 5-12.
Dick, F. (1980). Sport training principles. London: Lepus Books.
Harre, D. (Ed.). (1973). Trainingslehre. Berlin: Sportverlag
Fox, L.E., Bowers, R.W., Foss, M . L . (1993). The physiological basis for exercises
and sport. Madison: Brown & Benchmark Publishers.
Issurin, V. (2003). Aspekten der kurzfristigen Planung im Konzept der Blockstruktur
des Training. Leistungsport, 33, 41-44.
Issurin, V. (2007). A modern approach to high-performance training: the Block
Composition concept. In: B.Blumenstein, R.Lidor, and G.Tenenbaum
(Eds.), Psychology of sport training (pp. 216-234). Oxford: Meyer & Meyer
Sport.
Issurin, V., Kaverin, V. (1985). Planning and design of annual preparation cycle in
canoeing. In:"Grebnoj Sport" (Rowing, Canoeing, Kayaking), Moscow:
Fizkultura i Sport, p. 25-29
Issurin, V., Kaverin, V., Nikanorov, A . N . et al. (1986). Specialized
preparation of canoe-kayak paddlers. Moscow: State Committee of
USSR for Physical Culture and Sport
Issurin, V., Shkliar, V. (2002). Zur Konzeption der Blockstuktur im Training von
hochklassifizierten Sportlern. Leistungsport, 6, 42-45.
Issurin, V., Lustig G. (2004). Klassification, Dauer und praktische Komponenten der
Resteffekte von Training. Leistungsport. 34, 55-59
Klausen, K. (1990). Strength and weight-training. In: Reilly T, Secher N., Snell P.
and Williams C. (Eds.), Physiology of sports. London: E.&F.N.Spon, p.41-

70.

35
Martin, D. (1980). Grundlagen der Trainingslehre. Schorndorf: Verlag Karl
Hoffmann.
Matveyev, L.P. (1964). Problem of periodization in sports training. Moscow:
Fizkultura i Sport.
Matveyev, L. (1977). Fundamentals of sport training. Moscow: Progress Publishers.
Ozolin, N. G. (1970). The modern system of sport training. Moscow: Fizkultura i
Sport.
Steinacker, J. M. (1993). Physiological aspects of training in rowing. International
Journal of Sports Medicine, 14, S3-S10.
Steinacker, J. M . , Lormes, W., Lehman, M . , and Altenburg, D. (1998). Training of
rowers before world championships. Medicine and Science in Sports and
Exercise, 30, 1158-63.
Suslov, F.P. (2001). Annual training programmes and the sport specific fitness levels
of world class athletes. In: Annual Training Plans and the Sport Specific
Fitness Levels of World Class Athletes.
http://www.coachr.org/annual training programmes.htm
Thorstensson, A. (1988). Speed and acceleration. In A. Dirix, H. G. Knuttgen, & K.
Tittel (Eds.), The Olympic book of sports medicine. Encyclopedia of sports
medicine (Vol. I). Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, p. 218-229.
Volkov N. (1986). Biochemistry of sport. In: Menshikov V. and Volkov, N. (Eds.),
Biochemistry. Moscow: Fizkultura i sport, p.267-381.
Wilmore J. H., & Costill D. L. (1993). Training for sport and activity. The
physiological basis of the conditioning process. Champaign, I L : Human
Kinetics.
Yessis, M . , with Trubo, R. (1987). Secrets of Soviet Sports Fitness and Training.
New York: Arbor House.
Zatsiorsky, V. M. ( 1995). Science and practice of strength training. Champaign, I L :
Human Kinetics.

36
 Chapter 2

Michael Kolganov
Olympic Bronze Medal Winner
Two-time World Champion in Kayaking
Israel

37
 Chapter 2

The Workout
General concepts and structure
guidelines

Workouts are the smallest complete structural component of a training system.

When joined and sequenced, workouts form the larger training cycles and stages. The
current status of workouts is rather contradictory. On the one hand, coaches and
athletes know how to structure single workouts in their sport. On the other hand,
training approaches and preparatory schemes are constantly changing and improving.
As a result, training workouts are modified as well. Some coaches reach a level of
mastery in their creations, but frequently can not (or do not want to) explain how they
compiled these sessions. The aim of this chapter is to present the most relevant
general approaches to structuring the workout.

2.1 Workout types and classifications.

This section presents three practical and relevant workout classifications that
deal with single training sessions in terms of their: (1) organization, (2) training tasks,
and (3) load level.

38
2.1.1 Workouts according to organization

The many possible forms of organization used in world-wide coaching

practice can be clustered into three basic categories. See Table 2.1.

Table 2.1
Workouts classified according to their organization

As can be seen in Table 2.1, each form of organization and corresponding

workout type has its specific benefits as well as its limitations. Group workouts as an
organizational form, allow coaches to administer maximal workloads. This is the type
most frequently used in training camps and in so-called centralized preparation, where
a number of similarly ranked athletes train together. This is the prevailing form in
team and combat sports. It should be noted that long-term preparation using group
workouts exclusively clearly has psychological and neurophysiological limitations.
When athletes train with high motivation, competitiveness and prolonged emotional
strain, it can lead to excessive and chronic excitation of the central nervous system
and eventually to emotional exhaustion. This is why it is essential to find a
harmonious blend of strictly programmed team workouts here and in other types of
workouts.

39
 Individual workouts are used both for highly ambitious and strictly
programmed training (as with the group training mentioned above) and for more
liberal and less strenuous preparation. The use of individual workouts is greater in
individual sports than in team and combat sports. In several sports like figure skating,
individual workouts form almost the entire preparatory program of highly qualified
athletes. Nevertheless, even in team sports, individual workouts contribute to the
program of preparation as a whole. In soccer, basketball, ice hockey etc. pre-season
preparation of world-class players is their own responsibility. World-class stars have
to find their own facilities, coaching assistance and workout time-tables, which are
usually individualized.

Example. A highly successful, professional soccer player underwent a one-month

specialized mesocycle for maximum speed during the off-season when 30-33
years old. He engaged a highly qualified track and field sprint coach, who
planned, supervised and evaluated his training. The training cycle consisted of
individual workouts managed by the coach and partly by the athlete. The focused
work allowed the athlete to maintain a high level of speed despite difficulties
caused by aging and previous injuries. (Mark Tunis, personal communication)

Mixed workouts are frequently used in many sports. In individual sports the
individual part of the workout is usually used for perfecting technique, restoration and
relaxation; in team and combat sports the individual parts of the workouts are usually
devoted to conditioning training, acquisition of technical skills and relaxation.

Another example. The legendary Edson Arantes Do Nascimento (Pele) said in an

interview for a documentary, "Frequently I remained after the workouts and
perfected shots, passes and playing with the head" ("Pele Forever", Directed by
Anibal Massaini Neto, Brasilia, 2004). It would be fair to say that the combination
of team-work and individual virtuosity was what made this sport genius so
outstanding.

Many factors determine the proportions of the types of workouts to be

employed. This includes sport specificity, training facilities, number of athletes being

40
supervised by the coach, availability of individual instruments for self-supervision
(like the Polar Watch, stoppers etc.), the possibility of combining indoor and outdoor
exercises in one session, and each athlete's characteristics and preferences in terms of
working in groups or individually.

2.1.2 Task related classification of workouts

Sports practice requires that we differentiate workouts in terms of prevalent

tasks. A task related classification is presented in Table 2.2.

Table 2.2
Task related classification of workouts

Conditioning workouts devoted to the development of general and sport-

specific motor abilities form the major part of training programs in many sports. Very
frequently these workouts include technical demands but without particular stress,
Such workouts can be performed in different organizational formats, such as group or
individual workouts managed by the coach or by the athletes themselves.

Technical workouts usually require more attention and organizational effort.

The acquisition of new technical skills such as the perfection of movement technique,
needs real-time evaluation and immediate correction in successive attempts.

41
Certainly, this work should be thoroughly controlled by the coach or specially
engaged experts. However, most coaches in the U.S. are usually not proficient in the
specifics of technique nor are there many experts in this area. Because of this it is
important that they seek out valid sources for this information (Yessis, 2006).
Individual self-managed workouts are not suitable for this purpose.

Thus, an additional factor affecting the complexity of technical workouts is the

use of visual means such as videotapes in order to provide athletes with objective
information about performance quality and meaningful details about proper technique.
It should be emphasized that motor learning such as movement technique perfection,
requires high mobilization of athletes' cognitive and coordinative abilities. Therefore,
this workout type causes a particularly heavy load on the athletes' central nervous
system that should be taken into account during planning.

Tactical or techno-tactical workouts are focused mostly on the acquisition of

new tactical skills and the perfection of individual and/or team tactics. Another
function of these workouts is to link tactical and technical skills, which is extremely
important for successful performance. Several parts of tactical workouts can be
practiced in sessions as part of theoretical and mental preparation. However, the major
part of this work should be planned and thoroughly implemented in sport-specific
conditions where stressful competitive situations can be partially simulated. This type
of workout is more characteristic of team and combat sports, where the importance of
tactics is relatively higher.

Workout tests are intended mainly to evaluate the athletes physical and
technical abilities with regard to specially selected components of preparedness
(sport-specific strength or endurance, etc.) or in artificially designed situations, which
approach conditions in the forthcoming event as closely as possible. As these sessions
demand maximal efforts from athletes, this type of workout should be carefully
arranged and provided with the appropriate equipment in a suitable environment and
with full cooperation of the coaching staff.

Combined workouts are devoted to developing a number of athletic abilities

(e.g., physical and technical or physical and techno-tactical) within one workout. For
example, the first part of a workout can be focused on motor learning while the

42
second part is devoted to conditioning training. Similarly, a workout test can be
followed by a conditioning workout. Another possibility for creating a combined
workout is to link up different training tasks in special sport-specific exercises. This
approach assumes simultaneous development of a sport-specific motor ability and
perfection of appropriate technical skills. These combined training means, having a
two-sided effect, are termed conjugate exercises. Usually such conjugation is
provided in the form of speed resisted and speed assisted exercises (Maglischo, 1992).
They can also be done with specialized strength exercises (Yessis, 2006)

Example . Exercises with additional resistance are widespread and especially

popular in cyclic type sports such as running, swimming, canoeing, rowing etc.
Usually these exercises are directed towards improving force application within a
sport-specific technical skill and enhancing appropriate muscular endurance. The
speed resisted approach can usually be realized with the help of relatively
inexpensive equipment. Speed assisted exercises are supposed to facilitate high
speed regimes and often, to break the so-called "speed barrier". The combined
effect of such drills is the enhancement of sport-specific speed technique and
improvement of maximal speed or event-specific speed endurance.

2.1.3 Load related classifications

From the viewpoint of planning and training analysis, load-related

differentiation of workouts is of particular importance. For practical purposes, it is
necessary to enumerate three general functions of workouts: development, retention
and restoration. The appropriate load level selected should correspond to these aims.
In actual fact, each training plan is a specific combination of these workout types:
some are intended to enhance development, others are necessary to retain certain
capabilities at the previously attained level; and special sessions are planned for
restoration. Therefore, the aim related workout load classification has practical value.
Zatsiorsky's load-related classification (1995), presents quantified workouts on a scale
of 1 to 5 where 1 represents the lowest load and 5 the highest, as seen in Table 2.3.

43
 Table 2.3
Quantification of workouts: Aim related load classification (based on Zatsiorsky,

1995; modified by Issurin, 2003)

The load related aspects of this classification need additional clarification with
regard to the desirable time for full restoration. The main limitation relates to
workouts associated with considerable psychological and neuro-physiological effort.
The classification presented above uses the time needed for full restoration as an
objective indicator of load level. This approach pertains to strength, power,
endurance, speed, etc. exercises. High-level coordination training and workouts that
induce heightened neuro-emotional stress usually require less time for full restoration.

However, it is not always possible to select integrative objective markers and

indicators based exclusively on the duration of restoration. Nevertheless, the generally
approved approach assumes a series of several workouts, which corresponds to the
desired load level according to pedagogical and sport specific estimations. For this
purpose, Borg's widely used scale of perceived exertion (Borg, 1973) can be adapted
to assess workouts according to their load level (Table 2.4).

44
 Table 2.4
Workout load levels using Borg's Rate of Perceived Exertion (author's
modification)

Following both of the above load-related classifications at least two practical

and relevant consequences can be noted:
1) The load level of each workout can be quantified and expressed
numerically. This can give additional planning benefits particularly in
non-measurable sports (team sports, gymnastics etc.) and allow
stronger emphasis on specially selected workouts;
2) Implementation of the load-dependent categories of development,
retention, and restoration workouts allows for better differentiation
between different training sessions and more precise selection of
appropriate workloads.

2.1.4 Key-workouts as the decisive factor in developmental training sessions

The BPC (Block Periodization Concept) pays particular attention to the design
of the training composed of several workouts. The principle of high concentration
demands that training loads be focused on a minimal number of targeted abilities (see
2.2.2). Unlike the traditional training approach, where the total volume of exercises

45
performed are of primary importance, the BPC postulates absolute priority of the total
number of development workouts as the crucial factor.

Example. A highly qualified canoeist needs to develop basic aerobic endurance.

For this purpose he has to perform a 40-45 km weekly volume of exercises at
near- anaerobic threshold level. Following the traditional approach, this mileage
can be divided among nine workouts, where these exercises will be combined
with drills for other training modalities (anaerobic glycolitic endurance, strength
endurance, maximal speed etc.). The athlete performing this program will be
permanently fatigued and the training effect w i l l be small to negligible.

The BPC requires concentration on target-specific exercises mostly within

three-four development workouts that can not be combined with any anaerobic
glycolitic tasks. The athletes will sometimes (but not always) be fatigued after
strenuous development workouts, but the training effect will be more favorable.

According to the BPC, quality of training is determined strictly by the quantity

and placement of development workouts. Moreover, some of the workouts should be
especially stressed and carefully arranged through appropriate planning. The most
important development workouts, which are focused on the current main training
emphasis, are called "key-workouts".

For a long time, leading coaches have selected and emphasized workouts
which create peak points of related training cycles and concentrate the most important
tasks and workloads. Such peak sessions, recently renamed "key-workouts", require
athletes to concentrate mentally and emotionally and to be ready to work harder than
usual.

Example. Tim Noakes (1991), a well known sport physiologist, formulated a

number of training rules based on the experiences of the greatest middle- and
long-distance runners such as Herbert Elliott, Ron Clarke and Frank Shorter. The
first one is: "Alternate hard and easy training days". This is very similar to the
coaching concept of key-workout, which can be expressed as, "alternate
particularly stressful workouts with less hard and easy sessions".

46
 The principle of workload concentration postulated for BPC should be
implemented for several workouts as well. The basic characteristics of the key-
workouts are presented in Table 2.5.

Table 2.5
Basic characteristics and particulars of key-workouts

As can be seen from Table 2.5, key-workouts require special attention in terms
of methodology, organization and psychology. The sessions should contain the most
effective and productive exercises since their results can often be utilized for training
control and for estimating the athletes' work potential.

It is not recommended that key workouts include previously unknown training

means or completely new conditions, which demand preliminary adjustment. Athletes
should be focused on top quality in their work; new means and conditions can divert
the athletes' attention from load-specific details and reduce motivation levels. A l l
performance demands, organizational details and work conditions should be clearly
explained prior the workout. This holds true for any training session but is particularly
important in key-workouts.

47
2.2 Workout structure

Despite the variety and specificity of various sports, there are general rules
about how each single workout should be structured. Knowledge of workout structure
relates to the most comprehensive part of training theory, which all coaches begin to
learn from their initial experiences in their athletic career. Indeed, everyone knows
that a single workout consists of a warm-up (introductory part), basic part where
planned workloads are performed, and cool-down (concluding part). This general
structure pertains to all possible combinations of organizational forms and exercises
and has been described by many authors. Nevertheless, progress in sports science and
practice has led to a more complete understanding of the facts which once seemed
very simple but now appear more sophisticated. Thus, the essence and content of each
workout component can now be elucidated with greater clarity.

2.2.1 Warm-up

The great New Zealand coach Arthur Lydiard included a chapter on warm-up
in his book with Garth Gilmour (2000). He mentioned that world renowned
Australian coach Percy Cerutty, who had worked with multiple world record holder
and Olympic running champion Herbert Elliott, was asked about the role of warm-up.
The authoritative coach answered that rabbits don't warm-up but can run "like the
very devil". The anonymous coach from Abilene College who had asked the question
took this reply seriously and conducted a special study.

Case study. The Abilene coach filmed a rabbit's behavior prior to its
running activity. When rabbit came out from its burrow, it looked around
(moving its head and stretching its neck and back muscles) and trotted forth
and back several times. Afterwards the rabbit started to run across the field.
Thus, the rabbit really performed a warm-up although not as seriously as
human runners (Lydiard & Gilmour, 2000).

It would be fair to say that nowadays, very few coaches or athletes still doubt
the necessity of warming up. However, examples of effective models and
combinations are required. To this end, as is usual in high-performance training, two
major approaches exist: summarizing experiences from around the world, and

48
reviewing the outcomes of well designed studies. The second approach can be
illustrated by the findings of a long-term study conducted with high-level athletes.

Case study. Twelve National division soccer teams (180 players) were
subdivided into two groups. The first one used a modified training program
where warm-ups and cool-downs were carefully conducted, based on the
outcomes of previous studies. This included ball exercises combined with a
stretching program and cool-downs that consisted of jogging and hold-relax
stretching. The preparation was supervised by doctors and physiotherapists.
The second group of six teams trained traditionally and served as the
control. The results of a six month follow up revealed highly significant
superiority for the modified preparation program (Figure 2.1). There was a
four-fold reduction in the number of injuries and a drastic decrease in
workouts and games missed due to musculoskeletal disorders (Ekstrand et
al, 1983).

The above study can be considered atypical because it refers to the complex
effects of warming-up, cooling-down and medical supervision. Usually the scientific
approach deals with the separate effects of several factors and what their outcomes
can contribute to practice. For instance:
- incorporating stretching exercises in the warm-up increases the range of
motion of soccer players' lower extremities (Moller et al., 1985);
- active warm-up without stretching doesn't affect flexibility and is therefore
insufficient (Zakas et al., 2006);
- prior intense exercise substantially stimulates aerobic metabolism in working
muscles during subsequent strenuous performance (Bangsbo et al., 2001).
On the other hand, experiences in advanced sports practice remain a very
valuable source for organizing warm-up in a particular sport.

49
Figure 2.1 Prevention of soccer injuries as a result of a modified training program
that focused on warm-up and cool-down (based on Ekstrand et al., 1983)

The warm-up, as an introductory part of each workout, has three general

functions: metabolic adjustment, technical and coordination adjustments, and mental
readiness (Table 2.6). Metabolic adjustment should be sport-specific.

However, it does not mean that the warm-up is important only for certain
athletes, as for example, runners and not for shooters. In fact, the thermal and energy
changes are absolutely necessary for subsequent serious work even though the
character and content of these actions are sport-specific. The important role of
metabolic adjustment in preventing musculoskeletal damages should also be
mentioned. Interviews with prominent coaches in various sports reveal that at least
half of the musculoskeletal injuries (low-back, shoulders, knees, ankles etc.) are
partially or completely caused by insufficient warm-up. On the other hand, adequate
accommodation of appropriate metabolic systems strongly determines the
effectiveness of subsequent workloads in the main part of a workout.

50
 Table 2.6
The main functions, objectives and expected effects of warm-up
(based on deVries, 1986; McArdle, Katch & Katch, 1991; Powers & Howley, 1994).

Technique and coordination adjustment is an indispensable function of warm-

up in any sport. The role it plays in preventing injuries will be considered below in
detail. A third function of warm-up is also essential and its importance is particularly
high in sports and workouts where mental and cognitive components play the leading
role, such as in team and combat sports. It is acquisition of new technical skills etc.

Warm-up in any sport is subdivided into two parts, general and specific. They
are characterized by a corresponding selection of exercises (Table 2.7).

The general part of warm-up usually starts with setting goals for the
forthcoming workout. This is the time when the most substantial details of workloads
and training organization should be explained. High-performance athletes usually
have their own style of warming-up, hence they perform their standard combination
of exercises. Nevertheless, sometimes several details of the general workout should be
accentuated, as for example, prolonging the general part due to lower external
temperature (simply stated, cool athletes need more time to warm up). It may include
additional exercises because of previously injured muscles or joints, more careful
exercising of specific muscle groups that are still painful after the preceding training

51
session, etc. Indications of the desirable state that should be induced by this part of
workout are increased heart rate (up to 110-130 b/min), slight perspiration, increased
breathing frequency and pulmonary ventilation and improvement of the overall body
state. The general warm-up usually lasts 8-15 min.

Table 2.7
General and special parts of warm-up

The initial part of warm-up should usually include a few low- and medium-
intensity exercises in order to raise blood circulation, increase body temperature and
facilitate the oxidation processes in working muscles. It is commonly believed that
warmed muscles and connective tissues are more easily extended and respond
positively to stretching exercises. Thus, the next step includes stretching exercises
where active dynamic stretching (swings, arm and upper body rotations etc.) precede
passive stretching. The general warm-up continues with moderate effort strength
exercises usually performed without more weight, although exercises with a partner's
resistance can be utilized.

The special part of warm-up is very focused on sport-specific metabolic and/or

technical particulars of the forthcoming workout. The specially selected drills should
activate the coordination mechanisms that are involved in the technical skills used in
the main (basic) part of the workout. In addition, these exercises should assist in
stimulating mental readiness for subsequent motor tasks of higher complexity. These
exercises are important for preventing failure in highly coordinated skills and,
therefore, they contribute to preventing injuries.

52
 Despite the variety of possible warm-up versions, two alternative modes exist
and are practiced by creative coaches in various sports (Table 2.8).

Table 2.8
Two alternative modes of special warm-up prior to the workout

The most frequently used mode is the standard special warm-up comprised of
accustomed to exercises and tasks in a specific sequence. Such a warm-up is a part of
a routine which needs no additional motivation, and is simply organized lasting 8-15
min. Highly qualified athletes usually have their own standardized warm-up and even
a number of appropriate versions for event-specific needs.

Example. Weightlifters perform an individually standardized special warm-up for

the snatch and another for the clean and jerk. The content and duration of these
variants is individually tailored by the athlete and coach. Gymnasts use special
warm-up for each gymnastics event like rings, floor exercise, vault, parallel bars
etc. Of course, the relatively constant content and duration of these warm-ups is
modified depending on external factors (temperature, humidity etc.) and internal
conditions (fatigue, previous injury, anxiety etc.).

A particular special warm-up tends to emphasize the extraordinary character

of further work. This can be a specially arranged workout test where a quasi-
competitive situation is stressed. Correspondingly, the modified pre-event warm-up
can be managed. The extraordinary key-workout can also be preceded by a particular
warm-up that is intended to stress the exclusive character of this session. Similarly,
extraordinary events like local festivals; public presentations etc. can be the reasons

53
for using a particular warm-up. It is worth noting that frequent utilization of a
particular warm-up leads to a loss of its uniqueness and reduces its stimulatory effect.

2.2.2 The basic (main) part of the workout

The basic part of the workout is sometimes called the "loading phase" because
it concentrates all the real workloads planned for the session. Thus, the desired acute
responses from the athletes should be attained here as a result of properly selected and
correctly performed exercises and tasks. These responses can be characterized by
objective indicators of the cardiovascular system (heart rate), metabolic state (blood
lactate), emotional tension (galvanic skin response), performance estimates (speed,
performance time, movement rate etc.), and subjective signs of effort and/or fatigue
(rate of perceived exertion etc.). Each of these indicators can reflect the general
attainment and maintenance of the highest level for this session. The basic part is the
longest one in the workout and usually lasts about 60-90 min. Of course, during this
time interval, the load level should be properly adjusted.

Depending on sport specificity, the basic part of the workout can contain a
large number of exercises (as in track and field, swimming or gymnastics) or just one
task (such as a match in team sports). For a long time, prominent coaches in different
sports strived to structure workouts by selecting and emphasizing the most important
exercise or task. The coaches termed this "the meaningful exercise", "the chief link of
the workout", "the main task", "the highlight of the program" etc.

Example. A few decades ago the great track and field coach Arthur Lydiard
offered a number of weekly programs for different running events and ages
(Lydiard & Gilmour, 2000). These programs offered only one exercise in each
workout. Obviously, a workout program for runners does not contain only one
exercise; what Lydiard did was to pinpoint only the most important one.
Similarly, typical weekly training reports of great running stars display one
exercise in each workout which means that the athletes report only on exercises or
drills of primary importance (Noakes, 1991)

54
 From the viewpoint of block training, the emphasis on key-function
exercises/drills is very characteristic. Following the principle of training workload
concentration (1.2.2) the accentuation of a specially selected exercise is logical and
desirable. Following the principle of a minimum number of targeted abilities, one
selected exercise or task is usually accentuated. Similar to the definition of key-
workout, the main meaningful element of the workout is termed the key-exercise. In
several sports such as team or combat sports, where the key-function frequently
belongs not to a given exercise, but to a sport-specific task (training match, training
fight, etc.) the most important workload is the key-task. The major characteristics and
particulars of key-exercises (tasks) are presented in Table 2.9.

Table 2.9
The major characteristics and particulars of key-exercises (tasks) in a workout

The concept of key-exercise can be illustrated by a case study conducted

during the preparation of Gal Friedman, gold medal winner in the sailing regatta at the
Athens Olympic Games (Figure 2.2).

55
Figure 2.2 Heart Rate workout pattern of Gal Friedman, gold medal winner in the
windsurfing regatta at the Athens Olympic Games.
Key-exercise, 6x1.5min pumping with 1.5min rest (by courtesy of Omrit
Yanilov-Eden, 2005).

Case study. Gal Friedman, a world-leading windsurfer, substantially reformed the

traditional training approach which was based mostly on extensive long-duration
workouts at sea. He initiated highly intense interval workouts, in which high
efforts were produced through forceful pumping movements. In this, the athlete
produced propulsion by frequent flaps of the sail. The typical key-exercise
performed by Gal was as follows: 6 repetitions of speed movements for 1.5
minutes with 1.5 min intervals of low intensity movement (Figure 2.2). The speed
regime of each performance was controlled, and an HR monitor was used to
evaluate the athlete's response. The graph displays repetitive HR peaks at the 178
level with subsequent reduction to 110 b/min, while his personal HR maximum
was 198. Thus, the planned key-exercise was executed at 90% of his personal HR
upper limit. This load level was definitely the highest in the entire workout
(Yanilov-Eden, 2005)

56
 Selection of the key-exercise is of primary importance in structuring a
workout and offers a professional challenge for coaches. Despite the illusory
simplicity of this operation, many mistakes have been made in routine work, even by
experienced coaches.

Example. At a national coaching seminar attended by representatives who had

earned many Olympic, World and Continental medals, participants were asked to
put together a typical workout to develop certain motor abilities. Of the great
variety of answers received, more than 50% were incorrect. Even experienced
coaches confused exercises for maximal speed and speed endurance (anaerobic
glycolitic capacity), exercises for aerobic endurance and aerobic power, etc.
Apparently, it was time to refresh this basic knowledge.

Describing typical key-exercises for use in any sport is an unrealistic task.

Nevertheless, it is possible to characterize the most typical training regimes of key-
exercises to develop major motor abilities (Table 2.10).

Table 2.10
Characteristics of key-exercises for developing major motor abilities
(based on Fox & Mathews,1981 and Viru, 1995 with author's modification)

57
 The format of this chapter and entire book does not allow a thorough
consideration of the above schematic description of key-exercises. In addition, very
important strength exercises for many sports are not touched on here. For these, many
other sources in the literature can be recommended. Nevertheless, the general rules
highlighted here, irrespective of sport, can assist coaches in structuring their own
version of key-exercises and workouts as a whole.

2.2.3 Cooling down

The last, but still compulsory part of each single workout is intended to reduce
load level gradually and normalize basic functions in the body. It is called the cool-
down. Its specific objectives are:
to reduce body temperature, heart rate and blood pressure back to resting
levels;
to remove acid metabolites and other waste products from the muscles to the
circulatory system for further clearance;
to facilitate recovery of the endocrine system first, by reducing adrenaline and
noradrenaline levels in order to prevent restlessness and sleep disorders at
night;
to reduce emotional tension and affect athletes' mental recovery in a positive
way.

Generally speaking, the cool-down is both an influencing factor and a relevant

condition for effective restoration of the athlete. Despite its obvious importance there
have been many cases in which this indispensable part of the workout has been
ignored, even by successful high-performance athletes. Usually a lack of time is cited
as the reason for such mistaken behavior. The previously mentioned study of
professional soccer players (Figure 2.2) has shown the role of rational warm-up and
cool-down in protecting the athletes' health. As further support, the following study
outcomes can be cited.

58
 Case study. Forty-eight adult soccer players were subdivided into three groups
that were tested with respect to range of motion (ROM) in the lower extremities
before, immediately after, and 24 h after different types of workouts. The regular
soccer workout caused a significant decrease in all ROM indices. A similar
workout that included a stretching series in warm-up induced more favorable
responses immediately after the session. The third version, in which the stretching
series was inserted in the cool down, provided significant benefits in ROM
immediately after the workout and 24 h later. The authors stressed that tight
muscles with reduced ROM predisposed the athletes to a higher risk of injuries
(Moller et al., 1985).

In general, the cool-down repertory can be subdivided into three categories:

(1) low intensity exercises, usually slow locomotions like jogging, walking,
swimming etc., (2) breathing and relaxation exercises and (3) stretching exercises.
The particulars of these activities are summarized in Table 2.11.

The common pattern of cool-down usually starts with slow locomotion that
leads to elimination of waste products from the muscles. It has long been known that
such activity facilitates recovery and causes faster lactate removal from the athlete's
muscles (Bonen & Belcastro, 1976). It is known that highly intense and prolonged
exercises cause a decrease in circulating blood volume due to water accumulation in
intra- and extra-cellular compartments of the muscles (Sejersted et al., 1986).
Recovery of the water-electrolyte balance may take a long time. In extreme cases
(marathon running, for instance) it can reach two or more days (Viru, 1995). An
effective cool-down procedure can profoundly accelerate this process.

59
 Table 2.11
Types and expected effects of various cool-down activities

Restoration of the endocrine system is a more prolonged process and takes

varying amounts of time according to each hormone. Exhausting workouts cause
pronounced secretion of catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline), that decrease
rapidly in the restoration period (Hagberg et al., 1979; Jezova et al., 1985).
Nevertheless, in extreme cases like the marathon and triathlon, increased
catecholamine levels can remain for 24 hours and even more (Viru,1995). The
increased post-exercise level of catecholamines can cause a number of negative
effects like restlessness, sleep disorders etc. A rational cool-down can prevent or at
least diminish these unfavorable responses in athletes.

Breathing and relaxation exercises can be performed independently of other

activities or they can be combined with slow jogging, walking or swimming. The
independent option can be done in drills such as breathing deeply with subsequent
relaxation of upper body muscles combined with accentuated expiration. Active arm
and leg relaxation can be performed while sitting or lying with the help of a partner

60
who shakes the relaxed extremity at varied frequencies and amplitudes. The combined
option can be realized by jogging while breathing deeply and shaking the arms or
legs.

Stretching exercises have frequently been indicated as the primary and most
important component of cool-down. Special emphasis has been placed on their role in
eliminating post-exercise muscle stiffness and tightness, and enhancing muscle and
connective tissue elasticity (Shrier & Gossal, 2000). It is commonly believed that
stretching can prevent delayed onset muscle soreness that is especially common
following exercises having strong eccentric muscle contractions (so called plyometric
exercises). This belief is supported by several studies (Hartfield, 1985) and
contradicted by others (High et al., 1989).

In any case, the role of stretching exercises in preventing muscle injuries is

generally considered to be very important. The stretching protocol is varied and sport-
specific. Nevertheless, prominent coaches in different sports recommend performing
static stretching and so called hold-relax exercises (passive muscle lengthening with
subsequent relaxation) first. These can be followed by dynamic ballistic stretching
exercises.

The total duration of cool-down depends on the character and amount of the
preceding workload. For instance, blood lactate removal after a 4-min exhausting time
trial requires about 20 min of restoration (Juel et al., 1990). This time span
corresponds approximately to the cool-down duration. However this time period can
be insufficient when the workout consists of a number of high intensity anaerobic
sets. Cooling down usually lasts about 10-20 minutes which is not enough after
sessions with extreme workloads.

2.3 Guidelines for constructing a workout

How each single workout is put together is up to the coach's creativity. Every
coach develops his/her own style based on personal experiences and accumulated
knowledge. Therefore, there are a variety of versions even within a given sport. At the
same time a number of general guidelines can be offered irrespective of the sport.
They are highlighted below.

61
2.3.1 Sequencing exercises for different training modalities

The BPC postulates a reduction in the number of targeted abilities that can be
developed simultaneously. However, a unidirectional training design is the privilege
of only a few sports where the number of abilities is limited (for instance,
weightlifting does not require the development of many abilities; maximal and
explosive strength are dominant and various modes of endurance are unnecessary). In
other cases, there is a sequencing of different workloads within a single workout.
From this viewpoint it is important to determine which exercises are preferable for the
initial part and which belong in other parts of the workout. The general approach to
this choice is based on the physiological demands of various exercises taking into
account the optimal conditions for best performance (Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.3 The preferred physical states for different training modalities with regard
to fatigue level within a single workout.

As can be seen from the above diagram, several targeted abilities can be
successfully developed when the athlete is well rested or slightly fatigued. These
include motor tasks, that require the central nervous system (CNS) to be in an optimal

62
state. Exercises for maximal speed, explosive strength, acquisition of new technical
skills, and drills to improve neural mechanisms of maximal strength (1-3 RM) require
appropriate excitatory neural outputs that are not available in fatigued athletes. In
addition, fatigued athletes can not respond effectively to these workloads due to
inhibitory output from the CNS. Similarly, highly intense exercises for anaerobic
glycolitic power assume the availability of sufficient energy resources, which are
reduced in fatigued athletes. Exercises for anaerobic glycolitic capacity (speed
endurance) demand sustained fatigue despite pronounced accumulation of acid
metabolites in muscles and blood. Therefore, a certain level of fatigue is expected and
even planned.

The acute effect of aerobic power workloads depends on the total duration of
exercises performed close to maximum oxygen uptake levels. Moderately fatigued
athletes can still sustain this metabolic level and, therefore, such dosages can be
recommended. Similarly, the acute effect of hypertrophy strength training depends on
the total amount of degraded muscle protein (rate of catabolism) and the magnitude of
mechanical work performed (Zatsiorsky, 1995). Hence, a large amount of high
resistance effort is required and, obviously, the last part of these workloads is
performed when athletes are fatigued (but not exhausted).

Example. Imagine an athlete who performs a large volume of endurance exercises

but needs to maintain his level of muscle mass and strength (this is very typical in
endurance sports). The problem is to find appropriate time for the anabolic strength
workout so that it will not interfere with the dominant aerobic work and will not
detract from fine movement technique. It was recommended that the coach planned
this workout after the medium load endurance session and when he did this, he was
very surprised. He knew that maximum strength workouts demand "prime time" of
rested athletes. This is actually correct, but only for strength exercises intended to
enhance neural mechanisms (such as 1-3RM). Another goal of the workout is to
attain muscle hypertrophy (like 8-10RM), where the crucial factor is not the
athlete's state before the workout, but recovery conditions after the workout in
order to provide the anabolic effect. Hence, such sequencing is reasonable and
acceptable in practice.

63
 Exercises for strength endurance and aerobic endurance demand sustained
efforts despite accumulated fatigue and should therefore be continued as long as
possible. The general rule is that motor learning demands an optimal state of the CNS
and energy resources. However, several technical features can be improved in highly
exhausting workloads. For instance, fatigue tolerance of motor skill, movement
economy and technique stability in unfavorable fatigue conditions can be enhanced
only in an appropriate state which should be consciously programmed. Hence, some
part of technique perfection can be performed by fatigued athletes. Similarly,
stretching exercises are recommended for use in any part of the workout. It can be at
the beginning as a part of warm-up, in the middle as active restoration and for
improving flexibility, and at the end as a component of cool-down.

Exercise sequencing within the workout is strongly dependent on a clearly

defined dominant ability targeted for the session. It in turn determines the content and
placement of the key-exercise. Sometimes even small variations in the exercise order
can modify and even suppress the expected acute effect. This can be illustrated using
for example, high-resistance training, an indispensable part of the program for many
sports.

Case study. Nine resistance trained male athletes performed the back squat (4 sets
at 85% of 1RM) following two different protocols on separate days. Protocol " A "
prescribed performing the squat during the initial part of the workout; protocol
" B " required performing this exercise after a whole-body resistance exercise
session (i.e., hang pull). Protocol " A " resulted in a significantly higher number of
repetitions performed (8.0+1.9 compared with 5.4+2.7 in protocol "B"). However
the average power in each set was higher in protocol " B " in comparison to
performing the squats first. The authors attributed this phenomenon to
postactivation potentiation induced by the preceding whole-body power exercise
(Spreuwenberg et al., 2006). Thus, coaches who wish to elicit maximum
hypertrophy should plan this exercise for the initial part of workout. If the main
target is developing maximum power, this key-exercise should be planned after
appropriate whole-body resistance exercises.

64
2.3.2 Compatibility of different exercises

The compatibility of various exercises with different training modalities

within a single workout and within a workout series, is an extremely important factor
that determines acute and immediate training effects. Negative interaction of several
immediate training effects is one of the typical disadvantages of the traditional
periodization system. Indeed, the complex approach to training design assumes the
administration of exercises with different training modalities in a single workout. For
a long time prominent coaches in most sports criticized and refused to implement this
approach for high-performance training. The Block Periodization system utilizes a
selective but not complex approach to each single workout in which carefully selected
training modalities in compatible combinations are planned.

Figure 2.4 displays the main compatible combinations of dominant training

modalities with several additional ones in a single workout.

Figure 2.4 Compatible combinations of the dominant training modality with

additional ones in a single workout (Issurin, 2003).

65
The compatible combinations need to be clarified:
1) According to the BPC, the workout program should contain no more than three
training modalities (usually one dominant, the second one - compatible with the
main purpose, the third one - a modality of technique/tactic improvement or
restoration);
2) It is postulated that 65-70% of the entire training time for the development
workout should be devoted to one or two selected training modalities. This
condition is important for attaining high workload concentration and to produce
sufficient stimulus for a desirable training effect;
3) The typical frequency of workouts in high-performance training (6-12 a week)
dictates certain conditions pertaining to the session subsequent to the key-
workout. In the basic approach to training design there is a significant reduction
in workload after the key-workout. The alternative approach, in which two
consecutive key-workouts are planned, provides very high load concentrations
which can be excessive;
4) Workouts for muscle hypertrophy impose very special demands when planning
consecutive sessions within the restoration period. The use of high workloads
during this period adversely affects the anabolic phase of muscle restoration and
eliminates the hypertrophy process. Thus, to attain the anabolic effect it is
necessary to substantially reduce workloads for at least 20 hours and to utilize
appropriate restoration means;
5) Limiting the number of training modalities is particularly relevant in high-
performance sport. For example, the daily program for juniors may be more
diverse, multilateral and, therefore, more attractive.

It is worth noting that reasonably combined exercises allow coaches to

emphasize the acute effect of the dominant training modality and/or to exploit the
effect of previous exercises in subsequent workloads. A number of these favorable
psycho-physiological interactions is shown in Table 2.12.

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 Table 2.12
Typical compatible combinations of different training modalities and psycho-
physiological factors that create a beneficial interaction of combined workloads

2.3.3 One day workout series

The planning and execution of a number of workouts each day is widely used
and commonly accepted in the preparation of high-performance athletes. Anecdotal
reports by several prominent coaches indicate that four, five and even six daily
workout series are successfully performed. A six daily workout series would be an
exception but a two- and three-workout series is routine in training camp practice.
Practical experiences in training design, control and follow up of daily workout series
are extensive and objective data are available in the scientific literature. Most of the
large amount of empirical data and previously presented scientific background (2.3.2)
about how to construct daily series of workouts, however, are directed to developing
aerobic abilities (Figure 2.5) or anaerobic abilities (Figure 2.6).

67
 Figure 2.5 Daily workout series devoted mostly to aerobic ability development (with
additional compatible training modalities - alactic ability and strength
endurance)

The ultimate purpose of subdividing the total daily amount of exercises into
three, four or more workouts is to increase the quality of training, i.e., the intensity of
exercises and their partial volume, the creation of more favorable conditions for
restoration, and to benefit more from technique improvement in relatively better
restored athletes, etc.

Consider the daily series for aerobic development (Figure 2.5). The first
workout contains gradually increasing workloads. Very often athletes suffer from
stiffness and soreness of muscles and thus, the light early morning workout helps to
reduce these negative consequences of previous workloads and to prepare them for
further serious work. The appropriate technical elements can activate sport-specific
sensations and facilitate motor control.

The second workout provides favorable conditions for sprints, which interact
positively with moderately intense aerobic drills. A one hour break before the third
workout restores the athletes for a more concentrated aerobic program. Three hours of
rest prior to the final session of the day readies them to perform continuous aerobic

68
drills and the aerobic resistance program, despite the fatigue accumulated during
previous work throughout the day. The cool-down program is particularly important
in this workout and usually takes relatively more time.

In highly intense training, the time between the daily exercise sessions
is of particular importance (Figure 2.6).

Figure 2.6. Daily workout series devoted mostly to anaerobic power and anaerobic
capacity development (with an additional compatible training modality -
anaerobic strength endurance)

The first workout in a daily series is similar to the example described

previously except that brief intense efforts can be included. The second workout
contains highly intense aerobic power exercises that produce fast accumulation of
acid metabolites and oxygen debt. The one hour break before the third workout
provides partial restoration during which about 70-80% of the accumulated lactate
can be oxidized (Volkov, 1986). Nevertheless the next session starts when athletes are
slightly fatigued. It is worth noting that the glycolitic pathway and enzymatic pool are
still activated by the preceding workout. This positively affects the second highly
intense workout with its exercises for anaerobic glycolitic capacity (anaerobic
endurance).

69
 The three hour break following the third workout provides the athletes with
partial restoration, although the athletes come to the fourth and final workout
fatigued. Consequently, the warm-up and cool-down parts can be markedly
prolonged. In the basic part of the session, the anaerobic strength endurance
exercises, which entail sustaining progressive fatigue, can be successfully performed.
Hence, the daily workout series facilitates an increase in the total amount of anaerobic
glycolitic exercises and the attainment of a more profound metabolic response.

The one day workout series can be structured with regard to various ability-
targets such as maximum speed, explosive strength or techno-tactical abilities in
combat sports. It should be noted that the four-workout series under consideration is
not as widely practiced as the two a day workout program that is routine in high-
performance training. The most typical compatible combinations of two sequenced
workouts per day are presented in Table 2.13.

Table 2.13
Typical combinations of compatible training modalities in two workouts per day
(key-exercises are noted)

An additional comment should be made with regard to sequencing of

resistance workouts and game practice in dual and team sports. Regular strength
training is an indispensable part of in-season preparation on professional and semi-
professional teams. Extensive data indicate that a long playing season of 20-35 weeks
may result in dramatic losses of lean body mass, and maximum and explosive strength

70
(Baker, 2001; Gamble, 2006). Thus, the necessity for combining high-resistance
workouts with daily game practice is typical and generally approved. Very frequently
game practices are planned for the afternoon hours (mostly because of organizational
restrictions, professional or educational demands for some of the athletes, etc.). The
question is whether the morning hours can be exploited for effective strength training
because high-resistance training produces neuromuscular fatigue that may have a
detrimental impact on techno-tactical game abilities during subsequent game practice.
This important practical issue was thoroughly examined in a special study
(Woolstenhulme et al., 2004)

Case study. Highly trained female basketball players aged 18-22 yr executed an
experimental program on two separate days. On one day they performed a full-
body morning resistance workout that included 7 exercises, 3-6 sets with load
levels ranging from 5 to 12 R M . After six hours of rest they were tested in the
vertical jump, the 30 second anaerobic Wingate bicycle test, and a 60-second
shooting accuracy trial. On another day the same measurement program was
completed but without the preceding resistance training. The statistical analysis
didn't reveal any differences between the athletes' results on the experimental and
control days. Thus, a high-resistance full-body workout of moderate intensity has
no negative impact on the manifestation of sport-specific athletic abilities of
trained basketball players after six hours of rest (Woolstenhulme et al., 2004).

It can be concluded that the one-day workout program, even an extremely

important one, is part of a larger training unit (micro-, mesocycle). Its interaction with
preceding and subsequent workloads is of particular importance both for planning and
performance.

2.4 How to structure a workout

Based on the material presented in this chapter, the general approach to

structuring each single workout seems very comprehensive. Nevertheless, some
summation of the relevant information in the form of an algorithm may be helpful.
Experienced coaches, who perform this work almost automatically, will be able to

71
compare their approach with the formal prescription while young coaches and athletes
should accept the basic standard, which can assist them in developing their own style
(Table 2.14).

Table 2.14
General algorithm for structuring a single workout

It may not be necessary to prepare a full description of each workout with all
the details mentioned in the table, but all details should be taken into account. It is
highly recommended to familiarize the athletes with the upcoming workout plan.
World famous swim coach and sport scientist James Counsilman (1968) used to write
the workout content on a large blackboard in front of the swimming pool. It was his
contention that this definitely increases motivation and affects the consciousness
needed to perform heavy workloads. In general, coaches should be ready to explain to
curious athletes why they selected certain combinations of exercises and not others.

Summary

Workouts often seem to be a trivial and simple component of the training

system that require no special consideration or clarification. But, the Block
Periodization approach emphasizes several aspects of workout structure that were

72
ignored or insufficiently considered previously. For example, the proposed aim-load
related classification offers a distinction among three different workout types:
development, which provides the major training stimuli for progress, retention that is
aimed at maintaining several abilities at the level attained, and restoration, which
facilitates recovery after the preceding high-load sessions. The proposed five-point
scale enables coaches to quantify workouts according to load in any sport, where one
point indicates the minimal level and five points - extreme workloads. Based on the
experience of prominent coaches the term "key-workout" was proposed and
explained. It stresses the most important development workouts that are focused on
the main training objective and help facilitate the key-function.

Warm-up and cool-down are considered indispensable structural elements of a

workout. This chapter stressed the role of warm-up in metabolic and technical
adjustment, mental readiness and prevention of injuries. Similarly, the cool-down was
considered from the viewpoint of restoration and injury prevention. The basic part of
the workout was described with regard to the main content element which was termed
the key-exercise or key-task. The methodological, psycho-physiological and
organizational aspects of the key-exercise are also presented.

Guidelines for putting together the workout are given with respect to
sequencing and reciprocal compatibility of different exercises. Thus, exercises for
maximum speed, explosive strength, acquisition of new technical skills, and exercises
to improve the neural mechanisms of maximal strength (1-3 RM) require appropriate
excitatory neural input and should be performed when athletes are not fatigued.
Exercises for anaerobic glycolitic endurance and maximal oxygen uptake can be
fulfilled by moderately fatigued athletes who can still sustain the desired metabolic
level. Exercises for strength endurance and aerobic endurance demand sustained
efforts despite accumulated fatigue and can therefore be continued till the end of the
workout.

The important point is that the Block Periodization Concept assumes

minimization of training modalities within a workout as follows: one dominant
modality, a second one that is compatible with the main objective, and a third one to
improve technique/tactics or provide restoration. Usually 65-70 % of all training time
in the development workout should be devoted to one-two specific training

73
modalities. Compatible combinations of different training modalities within single
workouts are presented. Special attention is given to the one day workout series that
can embrace two-six sessions. Factors such as load sequencing, exercise compatibility
and athlete restoration are taken into consideration. In addition, general guidelines on
how to structure daily series of workouts are given together with the most typical
compatible combinations of two sequenced workouts in a day.

74
References for Chapter 2

Baker, D. (2001). The effect of an in-season of concurrent training on the

maintenance of maximal strength and power in professional and college-aged
rugby league football players. J Strength Cond Res, 15 (2), 172-177.
Bangsbo, J., Krustrup, P., Gonzalez-Alonso, J., and Saltin, B.( 2001). ATP production
and efficiency of human skeletal muscle during intense exercise: effect of
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Metabolism, 280:E956-964.
Bonen, A., Belcastro,A.N. (1976). Comparison of self-selected recovery methods on
lactic acid removal rates. Med Sci Sports, 8:176-181.
Borg, G. (1973). Perceived exertion: A note of "history" and method.
Medicine and Science in Sports, 5, 90-93.
Counsilman, J. (1968). The science of swimming. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-
Hall, Inc.
Ekstrand, J., Gillquist, J., Moller, M. et al. (1983). Incidence of soccer injuries and
their relation to training and team success. American J Sports Med, 11, 63-
67.
Fox, E.L., and Mathews, D.K. (1981). Physiological basis of physical education and
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athletics. 3 edition. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders.
Gamble, P. (2006). Periodisation of training in team sports athletes. Strength Cond J,
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Hagberg, J.B., Hickson, R., McLane, J.A. et al. (1979). Disappearance of
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on prevention of delayed-onset muscle soreness. Res Quaterly, 60, 357-361.
Issurin, V. (2003). Aspekte der kurzfristigen Planung im Konzept der Blockstruktur
des Trainings.Leistungsport, 33, 41-44.
Jezova, D., Vigas, M . , Tatar, P. et al.(1985). Plasma testosterone and catecholamine
response to physical exercise of different intensities in men. Eur J Appl
Physiol, 54, 62-68.

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Juel, C, Bangsbo, J., Graham, T., and Saltin, B.( 1990). Lactate and potassium fluxes
from human skeletal muscle during and after intense, dynamic knee
extensor. Acta Physiol Scand, 140, 147-156.
Lydiard, A. and Gilmour, G. (2000). Running with Lydiard. Meyer & Meyer Sport.
Maglischo, E.W. (1992). Swimming even faster. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield
Publisher Company.
McArdle,W.D., Katch,F., Katch,V. (1991). Exercise physiology. Philadelphia/
London: Lea & Febiger
Powers, S. and Howley, F.T. (1994). Exercise physiology: theory and application to
fitness and performance. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Company
Publisher.
Moller, M.H., Oberg, B.E., Gildquist J. (1985). Stretching exercises and soccer: effect
of stretching on range of motion in the lower extremity in connection with
soccer training. Int J Sports Med, 6, 50-52.
rd
Noakes, T. (1991). Lore of running. 3 edition. Champaign, I L : Leisure Press.
Shrier, I.,Gossal,K. (2000). Myths and truths on stretching. Individualized
recommendations for healthy muscles. Phys Sportmed, 28, 1-7.
Sejersted, O.M., Villestad, N.K., and Medbo, J.I. (1986). Muscle and electrolyte
balance during and following exercise. Acta Physiol Scand, 128 (Suppl.556),
119-125.
Spreuwenberg, L.P.B., Kraemer, W.J., Spiering, B.A. et al., (2006). Influence of
exercise order in a resistance-training exercise session. J Strength Cond Res,
20 (1), 141-144.
th
deVries, H.A. (1986). Physiology of exercises for physical education and athletics. 4
edition. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Company Publisher.
Viru, A. (1995). Adaptation in sports training. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press
Volkov, N. (1986). Biochemistry of sport. In: Menshikov V. and Volkov, N. (Eds.),
Biochemistry. Moscow: Fizkultura i sport, p.267-381.
Woolstenhulme, M.T., Bailey, B.K., and Alisen, P.E. (2004). Vertical jump, anaerobic
power, and shooting accuracy are not altered 6 hours after strength training in
collegiate women basketball players. J Strength Cond Res, 18 (3), 422-425.
Yanilov-Eden, O. (2005). Gal Friedman - gold medalist. In: Lustig G. and
Khlebovsky E. (Eds.). Summarization, analysis and results of the 2004 Athens
Olympic Games. Nethanya: Elite Sport Department of Israel, p.245-254 (in
Hebrew)

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Yessis, M. (2006) Sports: Is it All B.S. ? Terre Haute, I N : Equilibrium Books.
Zakas, A., Grammatikopoulou, M . , Zakas, N. et al., (2006). The effect of active
warm-up and stretching on the flexibility of adolescent soccer players. J
Sports Med Phys Fitness, 46, 57-61.
Zatsiorsky, V.M.(1995). Science and practice of strength training. Champaign, IL
Human Kinetics.

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 Chapter 3

Gennadi Touretski (Russia, Switzerland - center), and his athletes

Alexander Popov (Russia—left), Five-time Olympic champion,
many times world champion in swimming and
Michael K l i m (Australia-right), two-time Olympic champion,
many times world champion in swimming

78
 Chapter 3

Microcycles, mesocycles
and training stages

The microcycle is the shortest training cycle. It encompasses a number of

workouts and lasts a number of days, most often one week. The mesocycle, a
medium size training cycle, incorporates a number of microcycles. A number of
mesocycles in a specific sequence and with purposeful interaction form a
training stage that is usually directed to competition. This chapter presents and
elucidates the basics, essentials and designs of the various training units.

3.1. Microcycles

As stated above, the microcycle usually lasts one week. This uniformity has no
physiological rationale but rather is based on social life; athletes combine training
with education and professional activity, and their normal desire to spend weekends
with family and friends. However, training camps make it possible to create shorter
and longer microcycles. These possibilities are considered below. Our attention in
this chapter is directed to the types and specifications, load variations, compatibility
of adjacent workouts, and in particular, the content of various microcycles.

79
3.1.1. Types and specifications of microcycles

There are six types of training microcycles, characterized by specific purposes,

load levels, particulars of workload design and duration (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1
Purpose, load level and particulars of different microcycles

As can be seen in Table 3.1 the microcycles differ in purpose, load level,
design, particulars, and duration. For example, the adjustment microcycle at the
beginning of the season usually lasts a whole week. In the middle of the season this
microcycle can be planned at the beginning of a new stage or used to start a training
camp. In both cases its duration can be shorter (3-5 days) and depends on the
circumstances of preparation. Note that gradual increases in load level relate not only
to physiological demands (i.e. magnitude of training stimuli) but also to the mental
load component. This can be particularly important in the training camp, where
athletes simultaneously receive new cognitive and emotional demands. Similarly, the
restoration microcycle varies in duration depending on fatigue level and the demands
of preparation. Usually in mid-season, the restoration microcycle after training camp
and/or after competition lasts 3-4 days.

80
 The loading microcycles encompass mostly routine work and usually last one
week but, this duration is not firmly set. Load administration in this cycle is
considered separately in the next section. The impact microcycle focuses on maximal
loads and can last less than a week. Special requirements should be in place to supply
restorative means that are necessary for such microcycles in order to fulfill their goals.
Proper diet, nutritional supplements, hydrotherapy, massage, mental relaxation, etc.
can be parts of the special restoration program.

A pre-competitive microcycle can be shorter or longer than a week. It

normally has two purposes: to provide mental, physical and techno-tactical tuning for
a forthcoming event, and to provide full (or sometimes partial) recovery of athletes
after serious loads. Consequently, this microcyle is characterized by a remarkable
load reduction. The competitive microcycle is exclusively sport-specific; this
determines its content, particulars and duration which, in extreme cases, can be more
than one week, as in multi-day road cycling competitions. For instance, the world
famous cycling "Tour-de-France" lasts twenty three days including two days off.
Thus, this competition embraces three successive microcycles. The sequencing of
different microcycles is considered in 3.2.

3.1.2. Load variations within the microcycle (wave-shape design)

It is commonly known that the load level should be varied within a

microcycle. The main factors determining load variations are load summation that
causes fatigue accumulation, and restoration, which is affected by the use of reduced
load level workouts and other means of restoration. Previous considerations of load
variability have been based on general categories such as small, medium and high
load levels (Martin, 1980; Starischka, 1988) or in percentages of maximum
(Dick,1980; Platonov,1997; Bompa,1999). Adequate and integrative load description
is a problem, particularly for non-measurable sports like sailing or team and dual
sports. The 5-point load level scale presented in the previous chapter (2.1.3) makes it
possible to formalize workload alterations within several microcycles. For example
see typical load variations in microcycles having one workout per day in Figure 3.1.

Three- and two-peak designs are used most widely because they allow athletes
to perform relatively large amounts of weekly workloads with reduced risk of

81
 excessive fatigue accumulation. The two or three load reductions facilitate athletes'
restoration and stimulate their readiness to effectively perform subsequent high

demand workouts. The key-workouts concentrate the most important workloads of

dominant training modalities.

Figure 3.1. Two (a), three (b), and one-peak (c) load variations within a
training microcycle

The one-peak design can be employed to concentrate a number of developing

workouts in order to attain a more profound and stressful training response. This
result can be used as preparation for further medium- and low-level workouts in
which several technical and/or tactical tasks can be accomplished with gradual
recovery. Such concentration of one-peak development workouts can definitely be
used by sufficiently prepared high-performance athletes but not by novice and less
prepared athletes.

When athletes do two or more workouts per day, the daily point-score is raised
by each workout making the weekly point-score much higher (Figure 3.2). The graph
displays load variations within a microcycle, where each coordinate summarizes the
load values of one or two single workouts for several days. The load value for each

82
single workout is based on a 5-point scale. The first peak is created by two successive
development workouts followed by two medium load supporting workouts. This
makes restoration possible prior to the second mini-block of workloads composed of
three development sessions including two key-workouts. The last session on Saturday
can be devoted to a time-trial or a match in team or dual sports, or in some other
competitive simulation.

Figure 3.2. Two-peak load variation in a training microcycle with ten workouts
(Issurin, 2003)

Additional remarks can be made about a quantification system based on a 5-

point scale. Its utilization offers a number of possible benefits.

First, the graphic presentation of the workload, particularly in non-measurable

sports, gives additional support for coaches to analyze the load level of each workout
and to quantify it more accurately. Also, different microcycles (one-, two- and, three-
peak designs) can be expressed numerically and presented in visual form.

Second, the microcycle graph can be used didactically. Athletes can relate
more consciously to training demands since they can better appreciate the importance
of key-workouts and anticipate restoration after the stressed load peaks.

83
 Third, the total point-score of the whole microcycle can be used for general
load evaluation and for comparing different microcycles. In this manner, planning
technology can be enhanced.

As previously stated, the Block Periodization approach assumes a high

concentration of specialized workloads directed at a minimum number of targeted
abilities (1.3). This in turn determines the special demands of the appropriate
microcycles, which should show mostly separate, not complex, distribution of
workloads taking into account their reciprocal interactions and expected training
residuals.

The next paragraphs consider the most widely used aerobic (or strength-
aerobic) microcycle (3.1.3), anaerobic glycolitic microcycle (3.1.4), microcycle for
explosive strength in highly coordinated exercises (3.1.5), and the pre-competitive
microcycle (3.1.6).

3.1.3. Microcycle to develop aerobic (strength-aerobic) abilities.

Aerobic and so called strength-aerobic microcycles make up a large part of the

overall general preparation in many sports. They develop the aerobic endurance and
muscular strength that is needed for performance in all endurance, combat, team and
dual sports, several aesthetic sports like synchronized swimming and figure skating,
and others. Combined aerobic and strength exercises needs special clarification. On
the one hand, this combination reduces strength increases in comparison to strength
training alone (Zatsiorsky, 1985). On the other hand, strength training by itself
increases muscle mass that has a relatively low oxidative capability (Wilmore &
Costill, 1993 and others). Hence, enlarged muscle mass that is not supported by a
proportional increase in aerobic enzymes and mitochondrial mass will not benefit
athletic performance in many of the above mentioned sports. Of course, the
proportion of aerobic and strength exercises within a microcycle can vary, depending
on athletic demands and/or individual desires. Let's consider the particulars of the
strength-aerobic microcycle of multi World and Olympic swimming champion
Alexander Popov (Russia).

84
 Example. Alexander Popov, one of the greatest swimmers specializing in 50 and
100m Freestyle sprint events, has drawn a lot of attention to aerobic and strength
workloads. Aerobic microcycles formed the essence of his training in the
preparatory phase, corresponding to the accumulation mesocycle in Block
Periodization terms. Figure 3.3 displays the training modalities of exercises
performed in ten full workouts. Popov's typical strength-aerobic microcycle
highlights the large amount of exercises at the Anaerobic Threshold (AT) level
and technical drills (Tech) directed at stroke perfection. These technical drills
were performed while counting strokes and targeting a number of movement
cycles for each speed regime which affected both technique and swim-specific
strength effectively. Maximal Speed (MS) exercises (anaerobic alactic) were
performed each day in medium proportions, while Aerobic Power (AP) exercises
were done in only three workouts. Strength Endurance (SE) drills, i.e. aerobic
speed resistance exercises, were another large contributor to the program.
Anaerobic Glycolitic (AnG) exercises were employed once in the 200m time trial
on the stepwise incremental all-out test (courtesy of Gennadi Touretski, personal
communication).

The above example is evidence that:

a) even in the training of a prominent sprinter, the contribution of aerobic
endurance exercises is very high;
b) strength abilities can be effectively developed by means of force
accentuation in sport-specific drills and;
c) despite the high contribution of anaerobic glycolitic power and capacity in
the metabolic profile of 100m Freestyle swimmers, the use of anaerobic glycolitic
exercises in the strength-aerobic microcycle program is negligible. This last
circumstance is particularly important in light of Block Periodization.
The athlete's body can not respond effectively to training stimuli that
simultaneously affect very different physiological systems. Highly intense glycolitic
workloads cause a profound metabolic response and hormonal shift that can last two-
three days (Viru, 1995). Superimposed training responses beyond aerobic and
glycolitic-anaerobic exercises leads to conflict in the adaptation process. Moreover,
highly accentuated aerobic exercises are intended to create profound physiological
changes like muscle capillarization, increased aerobic enzymes, myoglobin and
mitochondrial volume. A l l of these changes take place during post-exercise recovery.

85
 The addition of anaerobic glycolitic workloads, however, leads to a disruption in
metabolic adaptation and dramatically decreases the cumulative training effect.

Figure 3.3. The sequencing of training modalities in the aerobic microcycle of multi
Olympic champion Alexander Popov (courtesy of Gennadi Touretski,
personal communication)

As previously stated, the Block Periodization approach postulates minimizing

the number of targeted abilities within one mesocycle and consequently, in the
microcycle as well. Compatible training modalities in the aerobic microcycle include:
maximum strength (first priority), anaerobic alactic abilities (maximum speed),
aerobic strength-endurance as a part of aerobic potential, and movement technique
(Table 3.2).

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 Table 3.2
Aerobic microcycle with compatible training modalities in regard to training
design and methodical background

In planning strength workouts in the aerobic microcycle, it is important to

remember that its effectiveness depends on the testosterone/cortisol ratio that affects
protein synthesis in skeletal muscles. After endurance workloads this ratio remains
decreased for many hours, an unfavorable time for carrying out strength workouts
(Viru, Karelson & Smirnova, 1992). On the other hand, high-resistance workouts
increase the rate of protein turnover, which persists for at least 24 hours (Chesley et
al., 1992). Therefore, developing workouts for maximal strength should not be
performed in the shadow of the preceding exhaustive aerobic training. There must be
24 hours of recovery during which time only low-level loads can be managed.

Anaerobic alactic exercises do not have primary importance in the aerobic

microcycle but their contribution is far from negligible. Sprints used in alternating
exercises (like fartlek) recruit the fast motor units that are normally inactive in drills
of moderate intensity (Komi, 1989). The short-term oxygen debt caused by the sprint
should be compensated for during subsequent aerobic work. Thus additional stimuli
for oxidation are received by both low and fast muscle fibers. A break in monotony
and elevation of emotional intensity in the aerobic workout are also valuable
contributions of sprint exercises.

87
 A large number of moderately intense exercises is needed to carry out many
technical drills directed at enhancing basic technique details and elements. This
includes features such as automatization, biomechanical economy, full range of
motion, accentuation of force application and enhancement of relaxation and in power
phases, effective variability following changed conditions, and fatigue tolerance all of
which can be successfully affected during prolonged aerobic exercise.

The chart of a typical strength-aerobic microcycle (Figure 3.4) presents the

general approach to training design taking into account the above mentioned demands
of high-resistance workouts.

Figure 3.4. General presentation of aerobic microcycle consisting of ten workouts;

- key-workout; AE - aerobic endurance, MS - maximum strength,
A L A - alactic abilities, Tech -technique perfection

88
3.1.4. Microcycle of high intensity anaerobic workloads.

Microcycles of high intensity anaerobic workloads form the content of the

most specific and exhaustive transmutation mesocycle. As already mentioned (1.2.3)
the cumulative training effect of such training is highly dependent on the selection of
compatible training modalities that make it possible to reinforce and produce the
dominant workload effect (Table 3.3).

Table 3.3
Anaerobic glycolitic microcycle—compatible training modalities with respect to
training design and methodical background

A few remarks must be made with regard to Table 3.3. First, the development
workloads in this microcycle are performed at a load level higher than anaerobic
threshold. Nevertheless, the extent of anaerobic resource mobilization may vary and
depend on many factors. Normally the intensity level over the microcycle gradually
increases as the target competition approaches. Hence, the utilization of workloads

89
inducing lactate accumulation in the 5-8 mM range makes it possible to improve
maximal aerobic power and aerobic-anaerobic interactions. Such workouts can be
prevalent in early- to mid-season. The workloads that elicit lactate accumulation over
8 mM are directed to enhancing anaerobic glycolitic power and capacity. They
contribute greatly in the final stages prior to the target-competition.

Second, high-resistance intensity exercises can comprise the main part of a

training program. Typical drills such as uphill running, series jumping, resistance
swimming, rowing, paddling, etc. activate the entire spectrum of muscle fibers. The
recruitment of fast motor units leads to a rapid increase in lactate production and as a
result, the extent of anaerobiosis in such workloads is relatively higher but the
duration for sustaining the given load level is shorter. Thus, the intense strength
endurance workout is an important contributor to the anaerobic microcycle of a
training program.

Third, anaerobic alactic exercises are compatible with an anaerobic glycolitic

program, with restrictions. They require proper metabolic, enzymatic and neural
adjustment that can not be sufficiently provided for within an exhausting and strictly
managed microcycle. However, the specific demands of several sports (in particular
team and dual sports and combat sports) dictate involvement of short-duration bouts
(alactic) and more prolonged efforts (glycolitic). In addition, the use of short-duration
sprints makes it possible to diversify the training routine but without attempting to
enhance maximal speed.

Fourth, the metabolic stress typical of high intensity anaerobic exercises

makes it more difficult to perform proper technique and techno-tactical skills.
However, similar (or even more pronounced) aggravation occurs during competitive
performance. Hence, these skills should be properly enhanced with respect to extreme
physical and emotional exertions, i.e. within the framework of highly intense
workload microcycles.

As was stated and emphasized, the principal salient features of the anaerobic
microcycle are fatigue accumulation and insufficient restoration. Indeed, Block
Periodization postulates a high concentration of training on a reduced number of
targeted abilities. Highly intense glycolitic workloads cause the most pronounced

90
training reactions. This occurs mainly in the cardiovascular system with attainment of
maximal heart rate and cardiac output (Noakes, 2000), in energy supply with maximal
oxygen deficit and debt and a maximal increase and accumulation of blood lactate
(Saltin, 1986; Astrand et al., 2003). In addition, there is a rapid increase in adrenalin,
noradrenalin and Cortisol while testosterone levels decrease for a period of 24 or more
hours (Viru, 1995). Taking into account workout frequency (6-12 per week) and post-
exercise recovery duration, fatigue accumulation over an entire microcycle is
inevitable. To reduce the negative consequences of insufficient restoration the
following guidelines are proposed:
a) the sequencing of development workouts should be thoroughly examined from
the viewpoint of expected fatigue accumulation;
b) restoration workouts are a very important part of a training plan and should be
distributed reasonably;
c) the inclusion of restoration entails appropriate exercises (stretching, relaxation,
low intensity drills etc), massage, physiotherapy and nutritional supplements
are strongly recommended;
d) monitoring the training response has particular importance here.

Based on the above and taking into account the optimal timing for different
training modalities (Figure 3.3), many versions of the microcycle plan can be
compiled. The general chart of an anaerobic microcycle containing ten workouts is
presented in Figure 3.5.

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Figure 3.5. General presentation of a microcycle of highly intense anaerobic
workloads; A L A - alactate abilities, AGP -anaerobic glycolitic power,
AGC - anaerobic glycolitic capacity, SE - strength endurance, Rest -
restoration.

A number of essential details must be mentioned with regard to the proposed design:
a) A microcycle contains six development workouts directed at anaerobic
glycolitic power and capacity and strength endurance with an anaerobic
component. Three key-workouts are focused on these three training modalities;
b) The key-workouts are ensured by preceding them with medium load sessions or
a restoration "window" on Wednesday evening. Subsequent restorative
workouts are intended to prevent excessive fatigue accumulation until the
microcycle ends;
c) Anaerobic alactic abilities are stressed in two medium load workouts intended to
maintain the upper limit of speed. Both restoration workouts are structured with
low intensity drills that are also intended to support or enhance the sport-specific
technical skills;
d) It should be noted that load variation in the chart corresponds to a three-peak
design. Most likely two- and three-peak variations are best suited for high
intensity anaerobic workload microcycles.

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3.1.5. Microcycle for explosive strength in highly coordinated exercises.

Unlike so called metabolic sports, where energy production plays a decisive

role in athletic performance, highly coordinated power sports have very specific
demands in regard to fatigue accumulation. The neuro-muscular specificity of these
sports and the salient manifestations of explosive strength, assume a suitable
background for development workouts and, consequently, for high workload
microcycles. This includes sufficient sensitivity and reactivity of the central nervous
system (Zatsiorsky, 1995), rapid replenishment of energy resources (Wilmore, Costill,
1993), and an appropriate hormonal state, i.e., a beneficial testosterone/cortisol ratio
(Viru, 1995). Therefore, a microcycle of highly specific workloads that is typical for
the transmutation mesocycle, substantially differs from the equivalent microcycle in
endurance sports. The typical disciplines in the power sports category are the throws
(discus, javelin, hammer, shot put) and jumps (high, long, triple and pole vault). Let's
consider the typical microcycle for developing explosive strength in a highly
coordinated discipline using the hammer throw as an example.

Example. The microcycle under consideration is taken from the preparation of

two-time Olympic champion and Olympic silver medal winner for the hammer
throw Yuri Sedykh (USSR). The microcycle contains a total of eleven workouts in
which all development sessions are directed exclusively to explosive strength,
event-specific technique and maximal strength. The content of the microcycle was
reported by the athlete's personal coach (Bondarchuk, 1986). See Table 3.4.

A study of this microcycle reveals a number of essential details that can be

considered characteristic of this type of training:

a) Event-specific explosive strength exercises, which are of primary importance,

are placed exclusively in morning sessions and always in the initial part of the
workout. This approach assures the most favorable phases of the athlete's
physical state for performing the most important key-exercises;
b) The maximum strength exercises, which play an important supporting role in
event-specific power and the athlete's conditioning, were employed in five
sessions: four times separately in special evening workouts and once in the
second part of the morning session;

93
 c) Additional explosive strength exercises (standing jumps) were performed three
times but not when the athlete was in his best condition;
d) Restorative exercises (playing basketball, swimming, stretching) were
organically involved in the training program and even the day off included a
recovery session.

Table 3.4
Microcycle of highly specific workloads in the preparation of Olympic champion
Y u r i Sedyhk for the hammer throw (Bondarchuk, 1986)

Key: Exp S - explosive strength, Tech - technical (technique), MS -

maximum strength

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 Based on the training program in this table, it is possible to reconstruct the
typical microcycle for developing explosive strength in a highly coordinated throwing
discipline (Figure 3.6). The key factor in creating or using specialized exercises for
development of special strength or explosive strength in highly coordinated sports
events is that the coach understand technique of the skill and then couple it with the
exercise. In other words, the strength or explosive exercise duplicates (simulates) the
technique so that both technique and strength are improved simultaneously as used in
competition (Yessis, 2006).

Figure 3.6. General presentation of a microcycle for developing explosive strength in

a highly coordinated throws event based on a typical microcycle of Yuri Sedykh -
Olympic hammer throw champion
Key, same as Table 3.4.

It is worth noting that the corresponding microcycle in the jump events has
many specific features like sprint exercises, etc. Nevertheless, the above mentioned
particulars (Figure 3.6) remain relevant for other explosive strength disciplines.

When considering microcycle design in explosive strength (power) sports,

special attention should be given to the suppressive impact of excessive fatigue
accumulation. This detrimental effect appears most particularly in the neural and
hormonal spheres among athletes. It is well known that explosive strength depends on

95
sensitivity and reactivity of the neuro-muscular system and that excessive fatigue
disrupts the subtle regulation of neural input and muscle contraction. The hormonal
effect also plays a decisive role in training responses to explosive strength sessions.
Testosterone as the primary male sex hormone, determines the anabolic effect of
strength training. In addition, its variations during athletic training indicate the level
of induced physical stress (Viru and Viru, 2000). For example, the influence of
testosterone on explosive performance was examined in a special study (Cardinale
and Stone, 2006)

Case study. Seventy elite athletes in track and field (sprinters), handball,
volleyball and soccer players (a total of 22 women and 48 men) participated.
Resting testosterone levels in blood and height of a countermovement vertical
jump were examined after 10 hours of fasting and one day of rest. A significant
positive relationship was found between testosterone levels and jump performance
(r = 0.61, p <0.001). Thus, testosterone levels strongly affect power output in
muscular efforts having short contraction times (Cardinale and Stone, 2006).

The study findings lead to at least two conclusions for explosive strength
training:
1) persons with relatively high testosterone levels (both male and female athletes)
have an inherited predisposition for explosive strength performance;
2) the training design in microcycles for explosive strength development should
avoid excessive fatigue that suppresses the testosterone level and sharply
reduces the effect of maximal power exercises.

3.1.6. Pre-competitive microcycle

The pre-competitive microcycle forms the content of the realization mesocycle

(1.2.2) and should satisfy the following demands:
a) That it have sport-specific exercises and tasks that simulate forthcoming
competitive activity and it develops mental readiness and toughness;
b) That it develops maximal speed (power) abilities and sport-specific quickness;
c) That it offers full restoration after highly fatiguing workloads in the preceding
transmutation mesocycle.

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There is one more demand that relates to mental readiness for forthcoming
competition. Its importance increases as the competition approaches, although mental
preparation is incorporated into the training process at earlier stages as well.

Because the pre-competitive microcycle is part of the realization mesocycle,

also called the taper, its methodological clarification and interpretation is quite
different. Basically, it is intended to reduce the total workloads but the ways of
attaining this goal vary. It is generally believed that total training volume should be
decreased but many contradictions exist regarding workout duration and frequency of
high intensity exercises (Kubukeli et al., 2002). The Block Periodization concept
makes it possible to propose general approaches that can assist in designing the pre-
competitive microcycle in several sports (Table 3.5).

Table 3.5
The major characteristics and particulars of pre-competitive microcycles

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 Reduction of workload volume is a principal condition for full restoration in
order to attain and then exploit, the state of supercompensation. In other words,
reduction of the workload level is of primary importance but how it is done is based
on different circumstances. The main factors in workload decrease are (1) a reduction
in total training volume and (2) a reduction in partial volume of the intense exercises.
The proportions are sport-specific and depend on the individual, but the outcome is
always similar - restoration and improvement of the athlete's general state. This
improved condition forms the background for the successful employment of two
groups of exercises:

maximal speed drills (recall that their effect depends on the reactivity of the
central nervous system and the availability of energy resources), and
sport-specific tasks simulating forthcoming techno-tactical competitive
situations (well restored athletes can better approach model competitive
regimes and adjust better to expected stressors).

Workout frequency, as a component of microcycle design, is neither simple

nor unequivocal. On the one hand, reduced frequency can be considered as a way to
decrease total workloads and to find more time for restoration. On the other hand, the
division of daily workloads into two sessions makes it possible to increase the quality
of highly intense exercises. Additional free time, particularly in the pre-competitive
training camp, can be a serious disadvantage to the daily program. Thus, the preferred
solution is to maintain the usual daily schedule for these athletes. In qualified athletes,
particularly during the pre-competitive training camp, this means performing eight-ten
workouts per week.

Workout organization in the pre-competitive microcycle is strongly dependent

on the specificity of the sport and individual characteristics of the athletes. Of course,
in team sports and team events such as rhythmic gymnastics or events in rowing and
canoeing, group workouts are dominant. Nevertheless, the general tendency is toward
a relative increase in individual workouts, where athletes can better concentrate on
personal technical details, feelings, responses and proper ways of self-regulation.
Also, proper contact with the coach affects the athletes' self-confidence.

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 The restorative workouts contribute more in this training plan than in other
microcycles. This is explained, first of all, by the importance of the restorative process
in the entire taper program and in attaining the supercompensation state for the
competition period. In addition, because the time allocation is more liberal in the pre-
competitive microcycle, there is better exploitation of restorative workouts and the
use of exercises as tools to increase the quality of the most important sport-specific
sessions.

Special attention should be given to the proper timing of workouts with regard
to the expected schedule of competitions. In general, the daily biological rhythms
should be adjusted to the schedule of the forthcoming competition, i.e., the most
important workouts should be planned for the time of competitive peak-performance.

Example. The canoe-kayak and rowing regatta programs at the Olympic Games
from 1984-2004 were scheduled exclusively for the morning hours. This is in
contrast to the program of world and continental championships in which races are
held both in the morning and afternoon hours. Consequently, pre-Olympic
preparation of world-class rowers and paddlers is planned in keeping with the
expected time of maximal effort. This is especially typical of pre-competitive
microcycles, where athletes perform sport specific simulative exercises in time for
the forthcoming events.

The general chart of the pre-competitive microcycle presented here was

compiled for training camp conditions and for expected competitive peak-
performance times in the morning hours (Figure 3.7).

99
Figure 3.7. General presentation of a pre-competitive microcycle oriented to peak-
performance in the morning hours;
Key: SSS - sport-specific simulation task; A L A - alactate; Tech - technical;
MS - maximum strength; ExpS - Explosive strength

It is worth noting the particular role of strength exercises in the design of pre-
competitive microcycles. On the one hand, many athletes report that high-resistance
exercises prior to competition negatively affect fine technical skills and the number of
such exercises should be diminished or even excluded. This stance is especially
typical among swimmers (Platonov, Fesenko, 1990) but also appears among
volleyball and tennis players. On the other hand, the use of sport-specific exercises for
maximal or/and explosive strength allows athletes to maintain the technical force
component at the desired level (Bompa, Carrera, 2003). In addition, proper exercises
for muscular hypertrophy prevent the uncontrolled reduction of muscle mass induced
by stress hormones prior to and during competition.

3.1.7. Microcycle for sport-specific fitness maintenance in dual and team

sports.

In-season preparation of high-performance team and dual sport athletes

has very specific demands when applying the BP approach to training design.
The sports season in soccer, American football, rugby, volleyball, etc. lasts 20-35

100
 weeks where the possibility of inserting highly concentrated training blocks is
very limited. In the typical situation, players maintain their strength abilities near
pre-season levels for 14-16 weeks; afterwards, strength variables decrease
dramatically (Fleck and Kraemer, 1997). The normal time span between the
games (one week) doesn't allow effective work on the many disparate training
targets such as metabolic conditioning, maximal and explosive strength, injury
prevention, techno-tactical skills, game-specific endurance and active restoration.
Thus, training priorities should be strictly determined and based on them, several
approaches of BP can be incorporated:
high concentration of specialized workloads within mini-blocks;
separation of mini-blocks directed at different training modalities;
determination of key-workouts.
The diagram in Figure 3.8 presents the proposed microcycle design.

Figure 3.8. General presentation of a microcycle to maintain sport-specific

fitness during in-season preparation in team and dual sports:
Key: AR - active recovery, TP - team practice, Cond - general conditioning
Tech - technical; MS - maximum strength; ExpS - Explosive strength
(the microcycle content of is based on Baker, 2001).

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In the microcycle chart in Figure 3.8, the following particulars are worth noting:

st
1) The 1 mini-block (Monday- Wednesday) is devoted to mainly development
of sport-specific strength abilities, i.e., maximal and explosive strength as the
dominant training target. The mini-block begins with a workout for active
recovery using medium or low load levels of aerobic and general conditioning
exercises. The dominant target should be achieved in two key-workouts,
which are combined with medium load level team practice (Tuesday
afternoon) and a conditioning restorative workout (Wednesday afternoon).
Thus, strength exercises as the important component of key-workouts, are
followed by 28-30 hours of recovery that facilitates the anabolic process and
nd
restoration prior to the 2 mini-block.

nd
2) The 2 mini-block (Thursday- Saturday) targets sport-specific team practice
and immediate preparation for the forthcoming game. It includes two
obligatory team-practices. One of them precedes the day off and is intended to
produce a pronounced game-specific training stimulus. The second workout
immediately precedes the game, but with a restricted load level. Its content is
usually connected with the expected particulars of the forthcoming match and
as such, contains mostly techno-tactical drills.

Several highly motivated players and teams perform the in-season

training microcycle without a day off. In this case the optional conditioning or
techno-tactical workout can be executed on Friday morning (this optional
session is not indicated on the figure). The possible merits of such planning
are obvious. They facilitate the perfection of individual and/or collective
techno-tactical skills and maintain the general conditioning level. The
negatives of such a microcycle design are obvious as well - usually the
players demand an entire day for their personal needs and mental recovery.

3) The microcycle chart presented above gives priority to maximal strength

development whereas explosive-type performances belong to the secondary
target. Such an emphasis on a maximum strength program is based on the
need for maintaining a favorable somatic, functional and anabolic status.
Nevertheless there are examples of sequencing classic high-resistance training

102
 with microcycles of ballistic explosive-type exercises that help to enhance
jump performance (Newton et al., 2006).

The short time span and the emotional and physical stress associated with
weekly competition, restrict the benefits of utilizing BP mesocycle sequencing.
However, the benefits of accentuating dominant training targets, in a mini-block
structure, and designing key-workouts can be attained despite variations in sports and
local conditions.

3.1.8. How to construct a microcycle

The Block Periodization approach entails several specific considerations concerning

microcycle construction. They relate to the function and importance of key-workouts.
This includes: determination and compilation of key-workouts, facilitation of
workload performance in key-workouts, monitoring the training etc. The restorative
process also takes on greater importance because of the preparation involved in highly
concentrated workloads and restoration after their execution. In general, the entire
process of microcycle construction can be presented in a sequence of specific
operations (Table 3.6).

Table 3.6
The sequence of operations for compiling the training microcycle

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 In addition to the above schematic, a number of general rules can be proposed
to facilitate microcycle training design.

The first rule - priority of key-workouts. The content and training modality of
the key-workouts determine the main effect and direction of the whole microcycle.
Thus, when the targeted abilities of a microcycle are clearly defined, the training
design should start by structuring the key-workouts.

The second rule - arrangement of key-workouts. When structuring the

sessions adjacent to key-workouts, their interaction should be taken into account. The
preceding workout affects the athlete's sensitivity to developing workloads while the
subsequent session determines fatigue accumulation and the restorative process.

The third rule - sharing restorative means. The restorative means, i.e.,
restorative workouts, restorative exercises (low intensity aerobic exercises, stretching,
relaxation, shaking, breathing exercises), and restorative procedures (massage, sauna,
hydro- and physiotherapy, mental training) form an indispensable component of
training design. These means should be expertly planned in the framework of each
microcycle.

The fourth rule - workload initiation and workload peaks. Usually a day-off
decreases the athletes readiness for high workloads. Thus, the first session of the
microcycle should not be a key-workout. The number and placement of the key-
workouts determine where the peak occurs and how many there are in the microcycle,
i.e., one-peak, two-peak and three-peak designs.

The fifth rule - monitoring the training. The data from key-workout execution
provide the best indication of the athletes' current state. This includes his current
achievements, technical variables being performed at the required level, his responses,
i.e., heart rate, blood lactate concentration, rate of perceived exertion, etc.

104
3.2. Mesocycles

The Block Periodization concept proposes three types of mesocycles (Table

1.7). As explained in Chapter 1, their general assessment and interpretation differ
considerably from traditional training theory. Indeed, mesocycle-blocks form the
essence of this alternative approach. They encompass both the extensive experience of
prominent coaches in different sports and new concepts that clarify modem training.
Thus, accumulation, transmutation and realization mesocycles will be considered in
light of Block Periodization.

3.2.1. Accumulation mesocycle

In comparison to other mesocycles, this type is characterized by relatively

high volumes of workloads at relatively reduced intensity. As the accumulation
mesocycle is intended to develop basic athletic abilities, its duration, content and
monitoring are of particular interest.

Duration. In general, two major factors impact the length of this mesocycle:
sufficient time to attain the desired cumulative training effect in the targeted
motor abilities;
the time limitation dictated by the competitive calendar.

It has already been noted that the basic motor abilities developed in the
majority of sports are aerobic endurance and maximal muscle strength. Progress in
both of these abilities demands profound morphological and even organic changes.
Therefore, sufficient time is needed for the physiological adaptation to take place.
However, among qualified athletes having high levels of general fitness, relatively
short periods of accentuated workloads provide substantial improvement in these
abilities. Thus, it is important to determine the optimal duration for the mesocycle-
block that will be sufficient to attain the desired changes but not excessively long so
that the next mesocycle can start on time. This can be illustrated by the outcomes of a
relevant case study.

105
 Case study. Eight highly qualified female kayakers were monitored during a
twenty week training program aimed at improving maximal strength abilities and
aerobic endurance. High-resistance training lasted 4-5 hr/week; monitored by the
measurement of maximal isometric force in kayak-specific body positions. The gain
in maximal strength and the improvement rate differed greatly at the beginning,
middle and end of the program (Figure 3.9). The initial three weeks induced average
strength increases equal to 5.9%, i.e., an improvement rate of 1.93% per week; the
next three weeks showed additional improvement of 1.6% and an improvement rate of
0.53%. Continuation of the program had a very modest impact, where the
improvement rate decreased to 0.25 and 0.13% per week. Therefore, the entire fitness
program was very effective at the beginning, reasonably effective through the first six
weeks and had only a minor effect for the next 14 weeks (based on Sharobajko,
1984).

Figure 3.9. Gain in maximum strength and its improvement rate during a twenty
week fitness program for highly qualified female kayakers (based on
Sharobajko, 1984)

106
 Similar trends have been noted during prolonged programs to improve aerobic
endurance. This corresponds to the general biological concept that the adaptive
response induced by long-term training declines with time (Bouchard, 1986). A l l of
the above further supports the general idea underlying Block Periodization—that
training should be divided into shorter periods and use higher improvement rates for
developing different abilities.

The cumulative training effect is characterized not only by gains in specific

motor abilities but also by profound changes in physiological systems. This is
particularly relevant in early season preparation when enhancement of basic abilities
and functions is of special importance. Therefore, the accumulation mesocycle can be
longer (up to six weeks) when training is intended to elicit more profound
physiological changes, or shorter (three weeks or less) when training is intended to
stimulate basic abilities and refresh general responses.

The time limits imposed by the competition calendar have a strong impact on
mesocycle planning. Early in the season, athletes are usually less dependent on
competition scheduling. In such cases the mesocycle duration can be based
exclusively on coaching concepts. At mid-season, the timing of important
competitions dictates the sequence and duration of training stages. Consequently, the
accumulation mesocycle can be shortened to three-four weeks while at the end of the
season, important competitions can come at relatively short intervals and the length of
the accumulation mesocycle can be reduced to 10-14 days.

Content. The selection and sequence of appropriate microcycles substantially

determine mesocycle content in terms of load variation (Table 3.7).

107
 Table 3.7
Selection and sequence of different microcycles (McC) when structuring an
accumulation mesocycle

In general, the load level should be gradually increased in the initial part of the
mesocycle and the maximal load level should be achieved and maintained in the mid
part. However, at the end, it is better to reduce the load level in order to start the next
mesocycle without excessive fatigue. In special cases, the restorative microcycle
(usually lasting three-four days) can be inserted towards the end of the accumulation
block in order to start the next transmutation mesocycle in good condition.

Monitoring the training. The main purpose of monitoring is to assess the

planned workloads and to evaluate current changes in targeted abilities and the
athletes' training responses. The general approach to implementing the monitoring is
presented in Table 3.8

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 Table 3.8
Major characteristics and indicators for monitoring the training in the
accumulation mesocycle

With regard to Block Periodization, the importance of developmental and

particularly key-workouts, should once again be emphasized. Comparison of key-
workouts performed in successive microcycles can be done with respect to exercise
volume (mileage, repetitions, sum of the lifted weight, etc.), performance results
(average time of series, average movement rate), and measurable training responses
(HR, blood lactate etc.).

In addition, the strength training that affects muscle hypertrophy causes an

increase in muscle mass and perhaps body weight as well. However, the accentuated
aerobic endurance training can reduce the fat component. Therefore, athletes'
anthropometric changes can be measurable outcomes when evaluating mesocycle
training. In sports where changes in body mass are undesirable (i.e. gymnastics or
sports with weight categories) this information is of special interest and draws much
attention. Such changes should be carefully monitored in order to provide the coach
and athletes with valuable information.

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3.2.2. Transmutation mesocycle

According to Block Periodization, the transmutation mesocycle contains the

most stressful sport-specific workloads. The general idea behind this mesocycle is to
transmute the accumulated basic abilities into specific physical and techno-tactical
fitness. As compared with other types, this mesocycle is characterized by the
following:
a) The targeted abilities are more specialized; the key-exercises are tightly
connected with competitive activity;
b) The intensity of developmental workloads is relatively higher and the volume
of exercises with increased intensity is higher as well;
c) This is the most fatiguing mesocycle. Consequently, use of restorative means
and stress monitoring are of paramount importance.
These features of the transmutation mesocycle determine its duration and content as
well as the particulars for monitoring the training.

Duration of this type mesocycle is determined by various factors, summarized

in Table 3.9.

Table 3.9
Factors influencing duration of the transmutation mesocycle

As can be seen in Table 3.9, the transmutation mesocycle, as a training block

of highly specialized intense workloads, usually lasts no more than four weeks. The

110
dominant factors limiting its duration differ, depending on the proximity of important
competitions. In early season, duration is affected most by accumulation of fatigue,
while at end-season, mesocycle duration is determined by the calendar of important
events. In mid-season both of these factors affect duration in varying proportions.

The duration of training residuals induced by the previous accumulation

mesocycle has a rather complicated, complex influence. On the one hand, basic motor
ability (aerobic endurance, maximal muscle strength) decreases and approaches the
critical level over four weeks. Consequently, if the transmutation mesocycle and
subsequent realization mesocycle last six weeks the athletes will come to competition
with attenuated aerobic and strength potential. On the other hand, many sports events
require that a large amount of anaerobic glycolitic workloads be managed over a more
prolonged period. This methodic contradiction can be surmounted by including a
short-term aerobic mini-block within a prolonged anaerobic mesocycle (see 3.3.3).

Content of the transmutation mesocycle is formed by a number of sequenced

microcycles, which are characterized in Table 3.10.

Table 3.10
Selection and sequence of different microcycles (McC) to structure a
transmutation mesocycle

As can be seen from Table 3.10, the transmutation mesocycle is made up

mostly of loading microcycles and the impact microcycle can be moderate as well.
Inclusion of some competition can vary the program. Often the competitive workload

111
is lower than in the usual training routine. Because of this, athletes consider this to be
load reduction. In addition, athletes are aware that nobody expects their personal best
in such events that diversify hard training work. Inclusion of the restorative
microcycle can be planned in advance or administered individually for athletes as they
approach their upper limits of adaptation. Inclusion of a contrast aerobic (or strength-
aerobic) mini-block makes it possible to prolong the attenuated training residuals and
partly restore athletes for subsequent high intensity training.

Monitoring the training is intended mainly to prevent excessive fatigue

accumulation and overtraining. It is important to monitor performance in the training
program and to evaluate current achievements in sport-specific exercises. The general
approach to this is presented in Table 3.11.

Table 3.11
Major characteristics and indicators when monitoring the training in the
transmutation mesocycle

It should be emphasized that dosage and the upper limits of adaptation are the
biggest problems in the transmutation mesocycle. In this training cycle the highest
sport-specific workloads are concentrated. Execution of these workloads substantially

112
determines each athlete's individual progress. However, it is very difficult to
determine the upper limit of adaptation that athletes should not exceed. Even
evaluation of the hormonal state and other blood markers does not unequivocally
guarantee a timely diagnosis of overtraining.

One of the most comprehensive definitions of overtraining was given by ex-

world record holder and Olympic champion runner and sport physiologist, Peter
Snell. He stated that, "Overtraining may be regarded as a state in which performance
diminishes while the level of training is maintained or increased" (Snell, 1990).
According to this explanation, the person who makes decisions about overtraining is
the coach. From the coach's viewpoint, it is very important to recognize the generally
accepted warning signals of the early phases of overtraining such as: (1) an increase in
resting HR of more than 5 beats/min over a three-five day period; (2) persistent or
rapid decrease of body mass; (3) persistent increased rate of general fatigue; (4)
persistent increased rate of muscle soreness; (5) persistent increased rate of sleep
disturbances (Burke et al., 1990; Hooper et al., 1995).

Case study. Nineteen elite swimmers were monitored during a 6-month period
of preparation using a large battery of blood and urine markers, hormones, CPK,
resting blood pressure and HR, and event-specific all-out tests with blood lactate
determination. In addition, all swimmers made daily entries in their log-books of
swim volume, time of dry-land workout and subjective ratings of stress, fatigue,
sleep quality and muscle soreness on a scale of 1 (very, very low or good) to 7
(very, very high or bad). During the study three athletes were diagnosed as
overtrained. However, the difference between stale and non-stale swimmers was
not reflected in any blood, urine or other markers during mid- or late-season.
Nevertheless, the differences were revealed quite significantly through fatigue
and muscle soreness ratings. Moreover, the multi-component statistical model
embracing the mean ratings of stress, fatigue, sleep quality and muscle soreness
was able to predict changes in competitive performance. Interestingly, the use of
a larger battery of indicators did not increase the accuracy of prediction (Hooper
et al., 1995)

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 This example shows that sometimes even simple inexpensive methods (i.e.
subjective ratings of stress, fatigue, sleep quality and muscle soreness), if used
systematically and responsibly, provide effective monitoring of training that is
particularly desirable in the high-load transmutation mesocycle.

3.2.3. Realization mesocycle

Traditionally, the realization mesocycle is termed the taper. In traditional

periodization the taper is used prior to important competitions and is intended to
stimulate better performance. According to the Block Periodization concept, the
realization mesocycle forms the concluding phase of each training stage and,
therefore, its function is broader. It is directed to attaining peak-performance and thus
does not differ from the usual tapering technique. However, this mesocycle also
concludes a carefully designed program consisting of several training stages in which
all the important components are intentionally developed (see Figure 1.8).

The training stages in early- mid- and late season are not identical.
Correspondingly, the realization mesocycles also differ depending on the level and
importance of the forthcoming competition. This determines the essential
characteristics of the mesocycle such as its duration, reduction of workloads,
emotional tension of athletes, etc. These particulars are summarized in Table 3.12 and
are considered briefly.

The transmutation mesocycle, in which maximal amounts of workloads are

performed leads into the realization mesocycle. Consequently, athletes start the
mesocycle when they are fatigued. Because of this the first objective is to provide and
facilitate restoration and ultimately to attain the supercompensation state at the time of
competition. It is important to remember that the targeted abilities, which should be
the focus of the mesocycle program, demand high sensitivity and reactivity of the
central and peripheral nervous systems, availability of energy resources and mental
concentration. These prerequisites for proper development are seen in well rested
athletes. Therefore, reduction of workload level is of paramount importance at the
initiation of the realization program.

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 Table 3.12
Major characteristics and particulars of the realization mesocycle

There are different approaches as to how the workloads can be reduced. The
salient factor that affects the rate of workload reduction is duration of the mesocycle.
A short mesocycle demands a fast workload decrease, a more prolonged mesocycle
can be planned with a gradual reduction of workload level. The duration itself, is
extremely important and sensitive. A long-duration mesocycle can lead athletes to
detraining while an excessively short mesocycle may not be sufficient to restore and
develop event-specific abilities. This contradiction was specifically noted (Mujika et
al., 2004).

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 Simulation and enhancement of techno-tactical competitive behavior is an
obligatory component of the realization mesocycle in many sports. Despite the
striking specificity of various sports, the general idea of techno-tactical simulation is
very similar - adjusting athletes to the planned or expected competitive behavior.
Consequently, techno-tactical simulation programs should meet the following
demands: (1) the competitive situation (race pattern, tactical combination, techno-
tactical task etc.) should as closely reproduced as possible in the exercise; (2) the
level of athletes' concentration should approximate competitive levels; and (3) the
number of simulations should be sufficient to attain stable and reliable techno-tactical
skills. The typical techno-tactical tasks and their dosage in the realization mesocycle
for qualified kayakers are presented in Table 3.13

Table 3.13
Techno-tactical race simulation in a two-week realization
mesocycle for qualified kayakers

Emotional tension and anxiety are attributes of pre-event preparation. Their

occurrence is seen mostly later in the season, when the importance of the competitions
and the need to do well in them is greatest. Keep in mind the contradictory impact of
pre-event tapering on the emotional state of athletes. There is considerable evidence
that workload reduction during the taper causes a remarkable improvement in mood
associated mainly with improved recovery (see review by Mujika et al., 2004).
However, pre-competition anxiety can change this trend dramatically at least in terms
of two general factors: (1) a moderate level of anxiety facilitates performance and
positively affects athletes' behavior, while excessive anxiety detracts from
performance; (2) the effects of such emotional stimulation depend on the athletes'

116
level, that is elite athletes benefit more than sub-elite from increased anxiety, whereas
mid-class athletes can be sharpened by emotional tension (Raglin & Wilson, 2000).

Monitoring the training has a number of mesocycle-specific features that

are associated with the dominant training modalities and the particulars of pre-
competition preparation (See Table 3.14).

Table 3.14
Major characteristics and indicators for use in monitoring the training in the
realization mesocycle

Although the realization mesocycles contained in the annual cycle are not
identical, the similarity of the monitoring programs provides a number of visible
benefits for athlete preparation:
The coach can select, check and validate the entire set of tests and indicators;
Individual norms for each athlete can be established;
Athletes can learn about their individual responses in order to better adjust to
more stressful situations as the target competition approaches;
Methods of self-regulation, mental training and body mass reduction (if
necessary) can be determined in advance and adjusted individually.

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 Nutrition during the realization mesocycle should be given special attention
especially in regard to balancing dietary intake and energy expenditure. As was
emphasized, workload reduction is characteristic of this mesocycle. Correspondingly,
energy expenditure decreases significantly while athletes' nutritional habits often
remain unchanged. As a result, energy intake can surpass energy expenditure causing
a noticeable increase in the fat component.

Case study. Twenty highly qualified male long-distance triathletes were

monitored during a four-week mesocycle with high workloads and a subsequent
two-week taper mesocycle with reduced workloads. Body mass, body fat, energy
intake and expenditure were evaluated. It was found that the average energy
intake remained at the same level, but energy expenditure decreased during the
taper mesocycle by up to 69.3% (Figure 3.10). Mean body mass of the group
didn't change but body fat mass increased by 4.3%. The imbalance of dietary
intake and energy expenditure caused remarkable fat accumulation. However, it is
also possible that their muscle mass decreased as well while body mass remained
at the previous level. Therefore, body mass as an indicator of the anthropometric
state, is not always reliable. The pre-competition reduction of training workloads
requires attention to nutrition, which should correspond to the decreased energy
expenditure (based on Margaritis et al., 2003).

118
Figure 3.10. Changes in energy intake and expenditure, body mass and fat caused by
pre-competition reduction of training workloads in qualified triathletes
(based on Margaritis et al., 2003).

In conclusion, the realization mesocycle definitely has the lowest level of

workloads but the level of emotional tension can be much higher than during the usual
training routine. Consequently, this emotional factor can substantially modify both the
athletes' behavior and training responses.

3.3. Training stage

According to Block Periodization, three consecutive mesocycle-blocks form a

single training stage. Its length depends on the duration of each mesocycle and varies
from 4-10 weeks. As was already noted (1.2.3), the training stage reconstructs the
entire annual cycle in miniature. This allows for the consecutive development of
basic abilities (as in the preparatory period), specific abilities (as in the competitive
period), and integrative readiness for event-specific performance. The most favorable
carry-over of residual training effects makes it possible to attain the optimal
combination of basic, special and event-specific abilities as needed at the moment of
competition (Figure 1.8). However, if the training design is based solely on the length
of training residuals, it will be extremely rigid and inflexible. There are also other
factors influencing training residuals and additional methods to prolong them.

119
3.3.1. Competition in the training stage.

It is well known that not all competitions are planned for peak performance.
Some of them include extraordinarily high workloads to break the training routine and
to add emotional diversity to the preparation. With this aim in mind, competition can
be included in the accumulation and transmutation mesocycles. However, their
influence is unequivocal. Highly intense competitions produce profound physical and
emotional stress. The secretion of stress hormones like catecholamines and Cortisol,
modulate the athletes' metabolic response and reinforce the catabolic process (Viru &
Viru, 2001). As a result, muscle mass and maximum strength can decrease.

Moreover, the highly intense anaerobic glycolitic efforts typical in competition

suppress the activity of aerobic enzymes and the oxidative process in the
mitochondria (Volkov, 1986). This impairment of aerobic fitness has been noted for
some time by prominent coaches rather intuitively. They added special aerobic
workloads to restore and revitalize the athletes after competition. A recent publication
elucidates this negative effect of competition because of the shortened training
residuals (Issurin & Lustig, 2004).

Case study. The preparation of multi- Olympic and World swimming

champion Alexandre Popov was monitored using an incremental stepwise
swimming test. His anaerobic threshold speed was determined at a blood lactate
level of 4 mM and a speed producing 8 m M , as the lower limit of highly intense
glycolitic workloads. These indicators were evaluated at the beginning of the
mesocycle with highly concentrated aerobic workloads, ten days after this
evaluation, and a few days after the competition in which Alexandre performed
several times (Figure 3.11). In the initial stage of this study the remarkable gain
in both anaerobic threshold speed and speed corresponding to 8 mM was noted.
However, upon measurement of these factors again after competition, a
substantial decrease was seen. This can be attributed to shortened training
residuals, induced by the previous program (adapted from Pyne &
Touretski, 1993).

120
 Figure 3.11 The changes in anaerobic threshold (V-AT) and speed (velocity) at a
lactate level of 8 mM (V-La 8 mM) induced by the aerobic mesocycle and
participation in competition by Olympic champion Alexandre Popov
(based on data from Pyne and Touretski, 1993, published by Issurin & Lustig, 2004)

To conclude this section, the following relevant factors are worth noting:
1) Incorporating mid- and low-level competitions in the training stage is an
important and meaningful component of the entire preparation;
2) Competitive performances elicit superior and profound athletes' responses that
enrich the spectrum of adaptation to the training routine. However;
3) Highly intense competitive efforts bring about secretion of stress hormones
that modulate metabolic and hormonal responses and shorten the residual
training effects of the preceding mesocycle. This should be taken into account
in the subsequent program.

3.3.2. How to prolong the residual training effects

Inasmuch as the training stage is a sequence of three mesocycle-blocks, the

crucial factor that restricts the length of a particular stage is the duration of the
residual training effects after the first accumulation mesocycle which lasts about 30
days (Table 1.6). This timing determines the total duration of the second and third
mesocycles, which should not be longer than the training residuals of the aerobic and
strength workloads, i.e., one month. However, in many sports the transmutation

121
mesocycle is directed at reinforcing anaerobic glycolitic abilities, which takes three-
four weeks. In addition, the duration of the realization mesocycle (taper) can last
about two weeks. The duration of both of these mesocycles (about five weeks)
exceeds the time of the strength-aerobic training residuals that may cause the athletes
to approach the targeted competition at a reduced level of basic abilities.

It is obvious that some special measures should be undertaken to prolong the

training residuals of the strength-aerobic program. This prolongation can be attained
by additional supporting workouts for aerobic endurance and/or muscular strength.
But, such additions are not successful. The highly intense transmutation mesocycle
strongly suppresses the immediate effect of aerobic training and the anabolic strength
exercises require sufficient recovery that cannot be provided. Apparently, what should
be inserted in the mesocycle is not several additional workouts but a special compact
mini-block (short microcycle), in order to prolong training residuals. This principal
approach is displayed in Figure 3.12.

Figure 3.12. Prolongation of the residual training effects by means of appropriate

mini-block inclusions (Issurin & Lustig, 2004)

122
 Example. Imagine a situation in which two targeted competitions have a
five-week interval between them (this situation is very typical for kayaking
where the European and World championships are separated by an interval of
five-six weeks). In this case of inflexible time limits, you can plan 10-14 days for
accumulation, 10-14 days for transmutation, and 8-10 days for the realization
mesocycles. Here you need not include mini-blocks because the training
residuals following the accumulation mesocycle surpass the competition.
Another situation occurs when you are forced to plan a training stage for a period
of 7-9 weeks (this situation is very typical of pre-Olympic preparation in several
sports where the international calendar has no competitions scheduled before the
major event). In this case, it is reasonable to plan longer mesocycles and the
inclusion of mini-blocks would be necessary.

Summary
Microcycles, as the shortest training cycles, are differentiated in three
principle ways, loading, competing and recovery. The microcycles devoted to loading
differ according to load level. There is adjustment that serves to adapt athletes to
increasing workloads, loading that is used to develop athletic abilities, and impact that
employs extreme training stimuli. The competing microcycle contains the pre-
competitive microcycle, which prepares the athlete for forthcoming competitions and
the competitive microcycle, where the athlete takes part in the competition. The
recovery microcycle consists of a special restoration microcycle. The microcycles can
be managed with respect to different load variations. More specifically, one-, two-,
and three-peak designs can be executed.

Presented in this chapter are microcycles focusing on (a) aerobic (strength-

aerobic) abilities, (b) highly intense anaerobic workloads, (c) explosive strength in
highly coordinated exercises, and (d) pre-competitive training. These microcycles
have guidelines for structuring the microcycle. A number of general rules for
constructing the microcycle are as follows: (1) priority of the most meaningful key-
workouts (2) interaction of successive workouts (3) sharing of restoration means (4)
initiating and peaking training workloads, and (5) monitoring the training.

123
 The three types of mesocycles proposed by the Block Periodization Concept
are considered with respect to duration, content and monitoring of training.
Specifically, the accumulation, transmutation and realization mesocycles are
described with respect to the sequencing of various microcycles. Also covered is
fatigue accumulation that is particularly pronounced in the transmutation mesocycle,
the selection of appropriate tasks and exercises, and determination of the most
adequate means of monitoring several mesocycles. It is important to remember that
athletes' self-estimation of training response in their log-book can provide valuable
information for preventing excessive fatigue and even overtraining. Subjective ratings
of stress, fatigue, quality of sleep and muscle soreness on a scale of 1 (very, very low
or good) to 7 (very, very high or bad) are recommended for systematic use.

The training stage, consisting of three sequenced mesocycles, reconstructs the

annual cycle in miniature, where training stimuli are focused first on basic abilities,
second on more specific abilities, and third on integrative readiness for event-specific
performance. It is essential to remember that competitive performances and emotional
strain can shorten the training residuals of the preceding mesocycle. This
phenomenon was considered through a case-study example of multi- Olympic
champion Alexander Popov, whose anaerobic threshold speed decreased significantly
after competition. Inclusion of special compact mini-blocks (short microcycles) can
prolong the residual training effects of the preceding mesocycle. Thus, aerobic mini-
blocks can be inserted in the transmutation mesocycle and a highly intense anaerobic
mini-block can be incorporated within the realization mesocycle.

124
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physiology: Physiological bases of exercise. 4 Ed. New York: McGraw-
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Baker, D. (2001). The effects of an in-season of concurrent training on the
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Bompa, T. (1999) Periodization: Theory and methodology of training (4 ed.).
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Dick, F. (1980). Sport training principles. London: Lepus Books.
nd
Fleck, S.J. and Kraemer, W.J. (1997). Designing resistance training programs ( 2
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Hooper, S.L., Mackinnon, L.T., Howard, A. et al., (1995). Markers for monitoring
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Mujika, I . , Padilla,S., Pyne, D.,and Busso, T. (2004). Physiological changes
associated with the pre-event taper in athletes. Sports Med, 34, 891-927.
Noakes, T. (2000). Physiological models to understand exercise fatigue and the
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the Encyclopaedia of Sports Medicine. Oxford: Blackwell Science, p. 211-
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Biochemistry. Moscow: Fizkultura i sport, p.267-381.
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 Chapter 4

Ivan Klementiev
Olympic champion, seven-time world champion in canoe,
member of national parliament of Latvia

128
 Chapter 4

Long-term preparation

Long-term preparation concerns periods lasting one year and more. From this
viewpoint three major aspects of long-term preparation demand proper consideration.
They are the annual cycle, multi-year preparation of qualified athletes, including the
quadrennial cycle, and multi-year preparation of juniors. This chapter will present and
clarify the basic positions and planning guidelines pertaining to these three aspects.

4.1 The annual cycle

The planning of the annual cycle in terms of Block Periodization was

previously described in general terms. Special attention should be given to the
technology of planning and guidelines for training design.

4.1.1 Goals, objectives and basic directions of the annual plan

When dealing with experienced athletes, annual goal setting and establishing
objectives frequently seem superfluous. Even a brief analysis, however, will show that
they are important. Goal setting for annual preparation demonstrates the coach's
responsibility and stimulates athletes to undertake serious obligations. Concrete

129
training objectives indicate the gains in technique, motor fitness, mental toughness
etc. that should be made in order to attain the main goal. The motivation and
confidence of the athletes will be higher and more stable when they can clearly see
the ways in which the annual preparation can be made more effective (use of new
training methods, enhanced monitoring, employment of new equipment etc.). And
finally, the coach and athlete should discover the athlete's hidden reserves, which
when liberated, w i l l facilitate better performance (Table 4.1).

Table 4.1
The content and sequencing of goal setting in annual cycle planning

Unfortunately not every season ends successfully. In such cases the coach
starts planning for the next year by analyzing the failures that occurred. The simplest
way of conducting such an analysis is by seeking the external fatal factors affecting
the athletes' performance. The array of possible fatal reasons is large: bad draw, low
judgment, sudden wind or rain, earthquake etc. A tactic employed by a great coach, is
to explain to unsuccessful athletes that the training program was excellent and that
they (the athletes) were completely responsible for the failure. The correct approach
to analysis assumes mutual responsibility of coach and athlete for both successful and
unsuccessful seasons. This is important in order for the athletes to develop a confident
attitude in regard to goal setting for the next season.

130
4.1.2 Constructing the annual program

Coaches put together annual programs based on their own experience,

knowledge and common sense. However, the Block Periodization approach implies
specific demands to planning that can be described as sequencing certain steps (Table
4.2).
Table 4.2
Step sequence in constructing an annual training program

As can be seen in Table 4.2, the initial step requires determination of the most
important competitions (Figure 4.1). These events determine the division of the
season into stages and periods. The optimal design assumes planning for peak-
performance at the end of the training stage (see example in Figure 4.2). The
subdivision of the annual cycle into periods follows general logic and is less
important than in traditional periodization.

131
Figure 4.1. Compilation of the annual plan:
st
1 step - determination of targeted (level A) and mandatory competitions
(Levels B and C); NCh - national championship, NCup - national Cup,
RT - regional trials, WC - winter cup

Figure 4.2. Compilation of the annual plan:

nd
2 step - determination of terms and duration of training stages and
periods. In the optimal design, important competitions are scheduled at
the end of the stage.

132
 The next two steps contain a division of training stages into several meso- and
microcycles, and the scheduling of additional competitions, which are planned for
early- and mid-season (Figure 4.3).

Figure 4.3. Compilation of the annual plan:

th
3rd and 4 steps - division of training stages into several meso- and
microcycles, planning of additional competitions and trials.

th
The 5 step prescribes the planning of training camps to better realize the
specific objectives of certain block mesocycles. This also relates to the use of altitude
preparation (chapter 5).

133
Figure 4.4. Compilation of the annual plan:
th th
5 and 6 steps - planning of training camps and medical examinations
(sport-specific tests are not displayed).

The next step in annual planning is the calculation of integrative monthly

workload characteristics. Parameters such as total number of workouts, total mileage,
number of bouts and matches, number of quasi-competitive performances etc. can be
successfully planned per month. The summation of all the monthly characteristics
yields the integrative annual workloads, which can then be compared with previous
years and the data of other athletes. Usually this whole planning process does not lead
to the final version of annual program. It must first be reviewed by the administration,
colleagues and athletes and with repeated analysis, will lead to corrections in specific
details such as the timing and duration of training camps, cancellation of competitions
etc. The corrected program then receives the final version status that is used for
realization.

4.1.3 General trends in workload planning within the annual cycle of

preparation

The general tendency in annual planning is to reserve the most specialized and
rigorous workloads for the training period preceding the most important competition.
The Block Periodization approach with its multi-peak preparation does not contradict
this position although it exploits it in its own way.

134
 Despite the variety of training conditions and specificity of different sports,
several common trends in program compilation can be seen (Table 4.3).

Table 4.3
Seasonal trends in compilation of the annual cycle training program

The general tendency is to gradually increase workload specialization and

mobilization of hidden reserves towards the target competition. The general rule in
Block Periodization is that the training stages within the annual cycle should be
similar but not identical. The mid season and particularly late season stages should be
more rigorous, more strictly programmed and better managed. It is highly desirable
that the most effective training and restorative means and drill combinations be
reserved for the crucial periods in annual preparation. Physiologically, this gives the
benefit of higher training responses prior to the most important events.
Psychologically, it heightens the athletes' self-confidence as they know that they have
additional reserves during the most stressful phase of their preparation.

135
 Special attention should be given to the competitive component of annual
preparation. Block Periodization gives great importance to competitions even in the
early phase of the annual cycle for the following reasons:
1) competition completes each training stage and is a compulsory component of
the training program;
2) the competition breaks the usual routine and brings out the very important
element of athlete spirit;
3) the competition provides athletes with extraordinary training stimuli that can
not be obtained from regular workloads.

It is worth noting that the competitive program varies during the season. It is
good to diversify the competitions in early season, to bring the competition to event-
specific standards in mid season, and to adhere to event-specific standards in late
season. The reasons for such changes are two-fold. The competitions are a
compulsory component of the annual program in early-, mid- and late season and a
varied program of competition helps to diversify the training routine and restore
athletes after the habitual event-specific format.

4.2 Quadrennial cycle of athletic preparation

Completion of the Olympic quadrennial cycle is usually followed by serious

and detailed analysis of the Olympic performance including successes and failures. It
is natural for great success to elicit enthusiasm and inspiration and for failure to cause
dissatisfaction, criticism and a tendency to reform. Irrespective of sport-specificity
and nationality, the challenge of post-Olympic analysis is to internalize positive
experiences and reveal the reasons for sub-par performances. Based on the findings, a
new preparatory plan is worked out. It is good when clear and concrete general
objectives are determined for each stage of the quadrennial plan. An example of
setting objectives can be found in the preparation of one of the most successful
gymnastics team of Russia (Arkajev & Suchilin, 2004).

136
 Example. The quadrennial cycle of the Russian gymnastics national team is
subdivided into eight half-year stages. Each stage is directed to a specific general
objective:
1. Enhancement of sport-specific motor fitness
2. Acquisition of new, highly complex technical skills and their hybrids
3. Updating of combinations used in competition
4. Further increases in sport-specific motor fitness
5. Enhancement of technical mastery and attaining stable (reliable) performances
6. Increase in performance quality, stability and stress tolerance.
7. Final compilation of competition combinations, development of endurance for
an entire program and selection of a duplicate Olympic squad
8. Modeling of expected competitive conditions, attaining high competitive
reliability and final selection of the Olympic National team.
Each of the above stages encompasses a complex evaluation of the cumulative
training effect induced by the completed program.

This example shows that dividing the quadrennial cycle into separate stages is
a matter of professional competence and depends on sport-specific conditions.
Nevertheless, the division of the quadrennial cycle into four annual cycles is the most
popular. In general, the main directions of quadrennial preparation, irrespective of
sport, are presented in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4
Athletic preparation within a quadrennial cycle

137
 Let's consider the above directions with respect to training designed for
athletes of different ages and levels of experience. Highly experienced top-level
athletes require special attention during Olympic preparation both on national teams
of leading sports countries, where coaches enjoy a large number of potential athletes,
and on relatively small national teams, where the possibility of adding new successful
team-members is very limited. The advantages of older and experienced athletes are
obvious as they have a remarkable advantage in terms of basic and sport-specific
knowledge, emotional control, stability of technical, techno-tactical skills and
competitive behavior. They are usually high-authority persons who positively affect
social climate and team spirit.

The disadvantages of having such athletes are also clear as they are
approaching their biological limits in regard to training responses, i.e., they have less
reactivity to training stimuli, they usually follow habitual training programs and do
not like to change their training style and repertory. Older athletes perform with a
lower training volume and need longer transition periods for physical and mental
rehabilitation. In the first annual cycle of the quadrennial plan these athletes have a
substantially lower total volume of exercises - about 15-20% less - than in the
previous Olympic year (Figure 4.5).

Figure 4.5. Quadrennial trend of total workloads in experienced athletes who took
part in previous Olympics, and younger athletes preparing for the next
Olympics. OG - Olympic Games

138
 Experienced, more aged athletes continue the quadrennial cycle with a gradual
increase in training volume, which in any case is usually less than that for their
younger counterparts. The model for the third annual cycle is based on the Olympic
year for each category of athletes. Both aged and younger athletes increase the level
of their training workloads and approach their maximum. Generally speaking, the
third and fourth annual cycles should be very similar since coaches simulate the
annual pre-Olympic training design one year before in order to provide the highest
quality preparation at the end stage of the quadrennial cycle. In fact, the training
workload level in the pre-Olympic season is usually higher than the year before for
various reasons. This includes greater motivation, better conditions for training and
restoration, greater budgets etc.

Younger athletes, who have not participated in the Olympic Games have
typical characteristics. After being involved in Olympic preparations, their athletic
motivation is greatly stimulated and they usually enjoy better training conditions that
include more training camps, more qualified training partners, sometimes more
experienced coaches etc. As a result, these athletes substantially increase their training
workloads in comparison to the previous year. In the second and third annual cycles
the training workloads continue to rise although at a smaller rate of increase.

From a methodological point of view, it is important to predict and plan

development of the most relevant motor, technical and tactical abilities. For this, it is
necessary to expand the corresponding model characteristics of these components of
preparedness with respect to improvement rates during the quadrennial cycle.

4.3 Sport longevity of highly qualified athletes

Contemporary sport has many examples of highly successful athletes who

continue their careers up to and past age thirty. This athletic longevity has been
affected by many factors, such as high and stable motivation, proper style of behavior,
improved training methodology, social support, financial stimulation, etc. In regard to
the training itself, a number of age-related characteristics can be pinpointed
irrespective of the sport involved (Table 4.5).

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 Table 4.5
Preparation particulars for older and experienced high-performance athletes in
comparison to their younger counterparts

Of course, a number of additional social factors affect the preparation and

behavior of aged athletes. Very often they combine their athletic preparation with
professional activity and some older athletes have families which substantially
changes their mentality and life priorities. The preparation particulars can be
illustrated using examples of two outstanding athletes who attained great results
during their long athletic careers.

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Case study of long-term training workloads. The world-famous canoeist,
Olympic Champion Ivan Klementiev represented the USSR and from 1991,
Latvia during four Olympic cycles. He earned one gold and two silver
Olympic medals and seven World Championship gold medals. During a
period of 19 years many aspects of his training were well documented with
the most informative being total annual paddling volume (Figure 4.6).
Analysis of the multi-year annual training volume reveals a number of salient
points:
—Maximal training volume was attained at age 21 when he trained with the
USSR national squad. Annual training volume tended to decrease despite
periodic deviations in the following years;
— Quantitative analysis of the average annual volume over quadrennial cycles
when he took part in the Olympic Games reveals the following: ages 21-24
- 100%; ages 25-28 -88.2%; ages 29-32 - 77.4%, and ages 33-36 - 61%;
— Analysis of periodic oscillations reveals a remarkable increase in training
volume in the final years of the Olympic cycles with one exception. In
1984, because of political, not methodological circumstances - instead of
competing in the Los Angeles Olympics that was held in August, the athlete
competed in a substitute regatta of socialist countries held in July. As a
result, the season was cut short by one month;
— Reduction of the annual training volume is partly conditioned by longer
transition periods that increased from one to three months during his career.

141
Figure 4.6. Long-term trend of annual paddling volume and personal achievements of
Olympic and seven-time canoeing World Champion Ivan Klementiev
(USSR, Latvia);
Key: OG - Olympic Games, WCh - World Championships, G - gold,
S - silver, B - bronze medals, at age 24 the athlete competed in a regatta
of socialist countries as an alternative to the Los Angeles Olympic Games

It should be emphasized that despite the constant decrease in total workloads,

Ivan Klementiev continued to have extremely successful performances and after age
30 won four gold medals at the World Championships and two Olympic silver
medals. Apparently, workload reduction was effectively compensated for by a higher
quality of training. This training enhancement was associated with better preparation
exploiting Block Periodization, a more conscious and effective selection of exercises,
avoidance of non-compatible workload combinations, constant attention to
restoration, and the use of a logical program of competition (Klementiev, 1994). This
great athlete earned a Ph.D. degree, and has been a highly successful coach, serving
on the national canoe squads of Poland and Spain.

As already stated, long-term preparation is characterized by a cumulative

training effect, in which physiological evaluations are of special interest.
Unfortunately, such data for multi-year training among elite athletes are very limited.

142
Therefore, the case study of legendary cyclist Lance Armstrong is unique and
extremely interesting (Coyle, 2005).

Case study of physiological changes during long-term preparation. Lance

Armstrong, world famous cyclist, became World Champion and seven-time Grand
Champion of the Tour de France, the most famous and prestigious road race in the
world. From ages 21 to 28 he was examined in a physiology laboratory for body
composition, maximal oxygen uptake, maximal blood lactate and mechanical
efficiency of pedaling. At age 24 he was diagnosed with testicular cancer and
during a two year period he came through surgery and treatment that included
chemotherapy. From ages 27-32 Lance Armstrong was victorious six times in the
Tour de France, undoubtedly an incredible success in world sport.
During a seven year period, starting from age 21, the athlete's body weight
increased slightly by 0.8 kg while lean body weight increased by 1.1 kg. The
multi-year trend of physiological variables showed the following (Figure 4.7):
the maximum oxygen uptake reached peak value at age 23, declined after
medical treatment and did not reach the highest level until age 28 when he won
the Tour de France;
maximum heart rate decreased by 6 beat/min;
mechanical efficiency, as the ratio of mechanical work to energy expended,
increased by 8.8%;
mechanical power obtained at an oxygen uptake of 5.0 1/min displayed a
substantial increase of 18%.
It is worth noting that the final estimate of maximum oxygen uptake, 71
ml/kg/min, is inferior to the data of elite cyclists which approaches the level of 80
ml/kg/min (Padilla et al., 2000). It can be speculated that when Lance reduced his
body weight prior to the races, the real level of maximum oxygen uptake per body
weight became higher than previously. Nevertheless the study findings indicate
that the individual progress of this great athlete was determined not by
enlargement of his physiological potential but by its more efficient utilization. The
physiological mechanism of this improved muscular efficiency is still unclear.
The hypothetical contributors to such improvement can be associated with
pronounced hypertrophy and improved contractility of slow muscle fibers,
alteration in myosin ATPase activity, increased cycling efficiency induced by
altitude training and enhanced pedaling technique.

143
 It should be noted that Lance Armstrong attained enormous success after
extremely serious surgery and medical treatment. His autobiography is an example of
magnificent athletic and human fortitude (Armstrong, 2000). Of course, his athletic
career and individual data are unique. In any case, the tendencies revealed in the study
of Armstrong's progress are highly typical. Indeed, many highly qualified athletes
approach their biological limits but continue to attain their best performances and
even improve their athletic results. The main source of such individual progress is
usually better utilization of their motor and physiological capabilities. This improved
utilization can be conditioned by physiological, biomechanical and psychological
factors, where individual creativity, self-confidence and athletic wisdom play a great
role.

144
4.4 Long-term preparation of young athletes

The athletic career of both world-class and less successful athletes is highly
dependent on the earlier period of long-term preparation that usually begins in
childhood. The purview of this chapter restricts consideration of this matter, which is
worthy of its own book. Nevertheless, the most relevant and generalized aspects of
young athletes' long-term preparation will be presented. This includes the content
and sequencing of different stages, the concept of sensitive periods in long-term
preparation, and the basics for identifying gifted youngsters.

4.4.1 Stages and details of long-term preparation

The common approach to long-term preparation of athletes assumes that there

are four separate stages (Table 4.6).

Table 4.6.
Stages of long-term preparation and their general characteristics
(based on Issurin, 1994)

The stage of preliminary preparation varies from one to three years depending
on sport-specific demands and the age at which the athlete begins systematic training.
Apparently the favorable ages for starting vary widely in different sports (Figure 4.8).

145
 Figure 4.8. Favorable ages to start systematic preparation in different sports
(adapted from Platonov & Sakhnovsky, 1988; the limits were updated on the
basis of interviews with international experts in the respective sports).
Note: Ball games refers to team and dual sports.

The common tendency in contemporary sport is a reduction in age for children

to begin preparation for specific sports. Various reasons explain this trend, such as the
availability of high quality equipment designed for children (barbells, boats, paddles
etc.), enhanced training conditions, popularization of sports activities for children by
the media, and examples of world-known stars who started their sport preparation
very early. This reduction in the starting age of training and competition has greatly
affected the international and national sport organizations.

For instance, a few decades ago it was generally agreed that boys should begin
weightlifting training no younger than age 14. Now the general practice worldwide is
for schoolboys to take part in international weightlifting competitions at age 11 and
even earlier. Of course, sport-specific demands strongly affect when newcomers can
begin and the duration of their preliminary preparation. For example, many juniors
with previous serious experience in swimming may start systematic triathlon training

146
early. Thus, the duration of their preliminary preparation depends on how long it will
take them to acquire cycling and running skills. This can take about one year.
Therefore, the data presented in Figure 4.8 reflect worldwide practice but do not
include special situations in which youngsters begin their training earlier or later.

The initial preliminary preparation stage is characterized mainly by all-round

(multilateral), mostly attractive but not excessive workloads, where harmony between
basic technical and fitness exercises is of utmost importance (Table 4.7). It is
generally agreed that children with higher level motor abilities have visible benefits in
acquiring new sport-specific skills. On the other hand, children with lower initial
fitness levels may possess higher sensitivity to training stimuli and within a given
time may equal or even surpass the leaders.

Therefore, a period of about one-two years of preliminary preparation is

needed both to strengthen, interest, motivate, instill willingness to continue training in
a selected sport, and to evaluate the predisposition and innate abilities of newcomers
for a specific sport. Participation in competition is strongly recommended at this stage
but in reasonable quantities and using a diversified competitive program. The training
program as a whole is of great importance for forming and developing proper mental
abilities that can decisively determine whether long-term preparation will continue.

Table 4.7
Main training directions in the preliminary stage of preparing athletes

The second stage of long-term athletic preparation, known as initial

specialization, is devoted to further development of sport-specific technical skills and

147
motor abilities (Table 4.8). To be successful in these objectives it is critical that the
coach fully comprehend technique of the skills and related physical abilities (Yessis,
2006). This is the period in which young athletes make their conscious selection of
the most appropriate disciplines and events as the program of technical and physical
preparation become more specialized. It is important at this time to adapt athletes to
the training workloads typical of this sport. Participation in competition is an
indispensable part of the overall preparation as it also provides an opportunity for
coaches and athletes to assess levels of tactical and mental abilities, which need much
attention.

Table 4.8
Main training directions in the initial specialization stage for preparing athletes

The third stage of long-term preparation, termed advanced specialization,

encompasses the period in which athletes attain the real bases of mastery. Usually it
corresponds to the age at which athletes complete their junior preparation and join the
adult athletes. Consequently, their technical and physical abilities should approach the
level of qualified adults (Table 4.9). Concomitantly, training workloads increase
substantially and may approach those of adult athletes.

It is worth noting that despite increased technical and motor abilities, juniors
at this stage are still not completely mature and the use of maximal workloads should
be restricted. In particular, administration of highly intense anaerobic glycolitic
exercises requires complete control because highly qualified juniors can be overly
ambitious in their training routines but not experienced enough in self-regulation of

148
metabolic and muscular reactions. Nevertheless, participation in competition is of
particular importance at this stage both as a part of the overall program and as an
indispensable activity for strengthening motivation to achieve sports excellence and to
acquire the extremely useful skills of emotional control and mental regulation. In
addition, personal traits such as self-confidence and will power are no less important
for successful athletic careers than proper techno-tactical and sport-specific motor
abilities.

Table 4.9
Main training directions in the advanced specialization stage

The fourth stage of long-term preparation, if an athlete achieves it, is the most
variable in duration. For world-class stars such as Ivan Klementiev and Lance
Armstrong this stage lasts almost twenty years. For the majority of high-performance
athletes it encompasses four-seven years. During this time they enhance their
preparedness and compete with high ambition. This stage is definitely the period of
highest individual creativity. It is when experienced athletes can consciously
contribute to their programs in terms of movement technique, motor fitness, tactics
and strategy, and mental functioning (Table 4.10). Of course, the improvement rate in
motor and technical abilities is much lower at this stage than previously. As was
brought out in Table 4.5, the motor potential of aged and experienced athletes is
enhanced mostly through better utilization.

149
 Table 4.10
Main training directions in the sports perfection stage

It is commonly agreed that outstanding athletes usually have striking and

brilliant personalities. The individual traits of outstanding athletes have been
subjected to thorough investigation.

Studies. Gould and others (2002) interviewed 10 Olympic champions and

persons who knew them very well as for example, parents, coaches and
colleagues. It was found that each outstanding athlete had the following
personality traits: high level of confidence, optimism, adaptive perfectionism,
sports intelligence and mental toughness. They had also the ability to cope with
and control anxiety and to set and achieve real goals. The comparison of medal
winning Olympians with less successful participants in the Olympic Games
reveal additional important factors of sports excellence: the ability to react
positively to unexpected events and numerous distractions, adhere to
performance routines, team unity and cohesion, and support of family and
friends (Gould & Carson, 2007).

In conclusion, it is worth noting that personality traits like confidence,

optimism and sports intelligence, and factors such as social support, which contribute
to an Olympians' success, are also relevant in early preparation, although to a lesser
extent.

150
4.4.2 Sensitive periods in the development of different motor abilities

Both researchers and practitioners have remarked that during certain periods in
an individuals life they are more trainable for certain motor abilities than in other
times. These time periods have been termed "sensitive periods" and are based on the
following physiological facts:

a) The natural development of physical (motor) abilities and physiological

functions in children and youth is non-uniform. The sensitive periods
make it possible to make more progress and have the most favorable rate
of improvement in certain abilities;
b) The periods of acceleration and deceleration of motor development for
different abilities do not coincide chronologically. Some of them occur
earlier, others - later.

Non-uniformity and chronological heterogeneity in the development of

various motor abilities are widely known phenomena. However, chronological
determination of the sensitive periods with regard to specific motor abilities remains
open to dispute. Each fitness component can be characterized by various indices,
which can give different (and at times contradictory) chronological trends. This
explains the variance in data from different sources. Other approaches entail
comparing training-induced effects achieved at different ages. Using this approach,
the sensitive periods were determined and are shown in Figure 4.9.

In general, the sensitive periods are determined by growth, maturation and

natural trends in the development of the motor system. Physical activity and specially
organized training are integrative factors that stimulate and augment the natural
physical trend. For instance, the most favorable period for improvement of general
motor coordination is between ages 9-12. Coordinated ability increases at an older
age as well, but its improvement rate is lower. Similarly, flexibility increases
considerably more at ages 7-10 when the high elasticity of tendons, ligaments and
joints is beneficial for making progress. The elementary forms of speed also develop
non-uniformly. The highest improvement rate for maximal movement speed occurs
at ages 11-13 in both girls and boys while reaction time improves most at 9-11 years
of age.

151
Figure 4.9. Sensitive periods in the natural development of different motor abilities
(based on Meinel and Schnabel, 1976; Martin, 1980; Volkov, 1986)

The influence of growth and maturation is especially pronounced with regard

to strength abilities. Achievements in the high- and long jump depends on powerful
muscular contractions and body mass. The latter component increases most noticeably
in mid-puberty girls aged 13-15; and their maximal improvement rate occurs at 11-13.

Boys perform better in the high- and long jumps at ages 13-17. The
improvement in maximal strength attained in mid-puberty and late-puberty is directly
affected by hormonal changes (maturation) and an increase in muscle mass (growth).
It is well known that improvement in muscle strength is a result of better neural
regulation as well as muscular hypertrophy. It is worth noting that training-induced
hypertrophy is much more pronounced in adults in comparison to mid-pubertal or
late-pubertal children. Therefore, improvement in neural regulation is the main source
of increased explosive and maximal strength. Improvement in neural adaptation also
contributes to gains in strength endurance. Other contributors relate to metabolic
factors (aerobic and anaerobic energy supply) and hormonal aspects. More
specifically, the androgenic hormones (e.g., testosterone) affect anaerobic power

152
production and muscle hypertrophy but their concentration is low in children and only
starts to increase at ages 12-13 in girls, and 13-14 in boys.

Practice has been shown to improve aerobic development greatly in children

aged 9-12. However, the most favorable periods for aerobic endurance increases
appear in mid-pubertal children, from age 14 in girls and 15 in boys. The most
influential factors affecting this sensitive period are increased body size, and in
particular, muscle mass, increased heart volume, total blood volume, and a higher
hemoglobin concentration.

The sensitive periods are exploited in training systems with young athletes
although commensurate pedagogical precautions are necessary. The higher sensitivity
of children and youth can lead to overload and even injury. This is particularly
relevant in training for maximum strength and in power exercises.

4.4.3 Identifying gifted athletes

In general, giftedness can be characterized as a predisposition to and a higher

trainability for a given activity. These are considered to be genetically transmitted
properties of an individual. In sports, properly developing giftedness implies attaining
sports excellence. Apparently, the earlier this giftedness is identified, the more
effectively the individual's athletic preparation can be managed and the greater is the
probability of developing an elite athlete. Thus, a gifted child is potentially a talented
athlete and, therefore, identification of giftedness can be based on unchangeable
inherited predictors of talent.

According to the current approach (Williams & Franks, 1998; Williams &
Reilly, 2000), sport talent is determined by four generalized factors: anthropometrical,
physiological, psychological and sociological. Each of them contains numerous
characteristics that can serve as predictors of potential talent. Some anthropometrical
and physiological variables are highly dependent on heredity and as such, can not be
compensated for by other personal traits. Thus, they can restrict progress in a given
sport. Several psychological personality traits are somewhat inherited (Plomin et al.,
1994; Saudino, 1997) and therefore can be altered during preparation. Sociological

153
conditions are not heredity-dependent. This doesn't mean, however, that they can be
changed easily if necessary (Table 4.11).

Table 4.11
Factors determining athletic talent, their characteristics and
dependence on heredity

The identification of gifted, that is, potentially talented athletes, can be based
on unchangeable predictors, most often associated with anthropometric and
physiological factors. This approach led to the development of so-called model
characteristics, which describe favorable combinations of anthropometric and
physiological measurements for different age categories (Bulgakova, 1986). The
characteristics were used for identifying candidates with the best prospects for
benefiting from more specialized training. The main limitation of this evaluation is in
the differing levels of maturity of children that are examined to determine giftedness.
Children with slower rates of maturation may be found inferior to more mature
teammates but may have greater potential for further progress.

154
 Special attention should be given to determining the most favorable
combinations of anthropometric and physiological estimates for different ages. Such
age related models can be created through longitudinal study of a large group of
athletes, where one sub-group attains the elite level. Data for the athletes recorded in
the different periods can be used as model characteristics for corresponding age
categories. It is obvious that such a study, which would take a number of years,
appears difficult and has organizational problems, but such long-term research
projects have been conducted (Vorontsov et al. 1999; Falk et al., 2003). Much more
common are so-called cross-sectional studies that compare less successful and more
successful youngsters. The results are used to reveal some specifics about
hypothetically gifted athletes.

Case study and example. 320 swimmers aged 11-18, participated in the USA
Select Program and were examined with respect to biological age,
anthropometric status, muscle strength and power, swim-specific abilities and
performance time. The results showed that the best athletes at younger ages
are usually more mature than their less successful counterparts while the best
athletes in the older ages are mostly on-time maturers (80% of the US
National team) or late maturers (18% of the team). The authors suggest that
high performing late maturers have better chances of remaining involved with
the sport for longer periods (Troup et al., 1991)

Another approach to considering this problem is through retrospective studies,

in which the development of outstanding athletes is carefully analyzed with respect to
performance trend, changes in body size etc. The number of available characteristics
for retrospective analysis is usually limited but the benefits of such studies are
obvious since this is only way to reconstruct the unique progress of Olympic and
world champions from childhood to the podium.

155
 Case study. 35 world leading canoe-kayak paddlers who took part in the USSR
National team and earned medals in the Olympic Games and World
Championships within eight years prior to the study, were interviewed with
respect to their official performance results from ages 14-15. This corresponded
to the end of their first year of long-term preparation (respondents who began
their preparation later were excluded from the analysis). The collected data were
subjected to statistical analysis and the performance trends of elite paddlers
were calculated (Figure 4.10). Despite the substantial improvement of paddles
and boats in the two decades since this study was conducted, the results
achieved by outstanding athletes in the earlier stages of their preparation remain
relevant to this day for evaluation of giftedness in today's young athletes (Sozin,
1986).

Figure 4.10. Performance times of extremely successful canoe-kayak paddlers that

can be used for identifying giftedness in today's youngsters (adapted
from Sozin, 1986)

In recent decades many research projects have been conducted in order to

develop multidimensional models of gifted athletes in different sports. Such models
encompass many characteristics of bodybuild, motor fitness etc. and make it possible
to compare real children with virtual candidates for future excellence in a given sport.

156
See, for instance, the publications of Arnot & Gaines, 1986, and Brown, 2001, in
which such data can be found.

Another general approach can be recommended to coaches in any of several

sports as a part of the initial preparation of youngsters. This approach is based on the
assumption that giftedness is comprised of two major components, a predisposition to
a certain sport activity and trainability in related workloads (Figure 4.11). These
components determine the effect of initial preparation. For example, a predisposition
to a certain sport affects the initial level of relevant motor fitness (speed, endurance,
agility etc.) while trainability, determines the development improvement rate during
initial preparation. This assumption has several restrictions since a predisposition to a
certain sport is not the only determining factor of the motor fitness level that can be
examined. Previous experience in this activity (preliminary training, acquaintance
with tests, etc.) also has a strong effect on the outcome of the initial tests.

Figure 4.11. Giftedness as a general but not the only factor determining the initial
level and improvement rate during beginning athletic preparation

157
 Example. Examine the swimming fitness of a group of eight year old children.
A few members of the group already have some aquatic experience (practice
with parents or older relatives, games in shallow water etc.), others have had a
few lessons and are more or less accustomed to movement in water, and the rest
have no experience at all. Because of this, the behavior of these children in
water will be very different and previous experiences will affect the results
much more strongly than the children's real predisposition to competitive
swimming.

The second problem relates to the improvement rate during initial preparation
that depends not only on an individual's trainability but also on the quality of the
preparation. This becomes evident when comparing the progress of athletes who train
under different conditions with different coaches. However, for athletes training in
one group with the same coach, improvement rate adequately reflects trainability.

Based on this so-called dual approach to giftedness, identification is limited to

evaluation of the initial level of sport-specific fitness and its improvement rate during
initial preparation. This method of diagnosis was first implemented in team and dual
sports mostly because of practical needs (Bril, 1980). The general logic of the dual
approach is presented in Figure 4.12.

158
Figure 4.12. Dual approach to identification of gifted children based on evaluation of
the initial level of sport-specific fitness and its improvement rate during
initial preparation (based on Bril, 1980, and the author's modifications)

One more remark must be made concerning the optimal duration of

preparation necessary to evaluate improvement rate, i.e., the trainability of young
athletes. There is no simple unequivocal answer to this question since the following
circumstances must be considered:
1) The absolute unsuitability of certain individuals for specific sports can be
recognized quickly (tall and heavy candidates in gymnastics; small children in
basketball etc.);
2) Non-gifted candidates can usually be recognized during short-term
preliminary preparation lasting about three-four months;
3) Diagnosing giftedness in maximal speed and power sports needs a relatively
short period and usually lasts up to one year;
4) Identification of gifted children in highly coordinated sports (gymnastics,
figure skating etc.) is limited by the initial preparation, which is usually earlier
than in other sports (Figure 4.8). Also, the evaluation process takes between
1-2 years;
5) In team and dual sports, where children start systematic preparation relatively
later (Figure 7.8), very gifted athletes can be identified faster (two-three
months) but this process usually takes about one year;

159
 6) Perhaps the longest period for giftedness identification is needed in endurance
sports, where many world-level athletes are recognized as potential elite
athletes after three-four years of systematic preparation.

Evidence of genetics. Based on the outcomes of studies with young adult twins,
it has been found that the contribution of heredity related factors to training
response in an endurance program is different for earlier and later stages of
preparation. The initial preparation is less dependent on heredity. However, as
athletes progress and approach higher workloads, the genetic control of their
training response becomes much stronger (Bouchard et al., 2000). This
characteristic of training responses partly explains why some gifted endurance
athletes cannot be effectively recognized at an earlier stage of their preparation.

A final remark relates to the genetic component of athletic giftedness that

cannot be underestimated. It relates to a coach's interest in the athletic history of the
family and the achievements of the older relatives that is both reasonable and
desirable. Only a few outstanding athletes had great champions among their parents.
Most of them were born and grew up in families with physically active and sport
oriented persons.

Summary

Long-term athletic preparation has been considered with respect to designing

relatively prolonged training cycles (annual and quadrennial), multi-year preparation
of adult, and multi-year preparation of young athletes. The basics of annual cycle
construction included goals and objectives, sequencing the main steps in the annual
plan, and general tendencies in workload compilation. A l l these items are considered
in light of the Block Periodization concept.

Special attention was given to seasonal trends in training workloads within the
annual cycle of preparation (Table 4.3). Particulars regarding quadrennial planning
were given for preparing highly qualified athletes. Special attention was given to
workload trends in preparing older and experienced athletes and their younger
counterparts. Also, the problem of athletic longevity was briefly analyzed with respect
to the characteristics of the older experienced athletes (Table 4.5).

160
 The typical trend in annual training workloads was presented together with a
case study of many-time world and Olympic canoeing champion Ivan Klementiev
(Latvia), while physiological changes during long-term preparation were considered
on the basis of a case study of World Champion and seven-time Tour de France
champion, Lance Armstrong (USA). It was seen that many older athletes approach
their biological limits but continue to attain outstanding performances, and even
improve their athletic results. The source of such individual progress can be attributed
to better utilization of their motor and physiological capabilities, where individual
creativity, self-confidence and athletic wisdom play a big role.

The common approach to long-term athletic preparation assumes there are

four separate stages. They are preliminary preparation, initial specialization,
advanced specialization, and sports perfection. Each of these is characterized by the
proper combination of stage length, frequency and duration of workouts, yearly
training volume and other sport-specific variables. The physical, technical, tactical
and mental characteristics of each stage were summarized and considered in general
(Tables 4.7-4.10).

In terms of biological maturation, the concept of sensitive periods is of special

importance. It assumes there are the periods in an individuals life when they are more
trainable for certain motor abilities than at other times. Consequently, the periods of
most favorable training responses can be exploited for more conscientious and
beneficial development (Figure 4.9). Special attention was given to the identification
of gifted young athletes, because early identification of giftedness permits more
effective management of preparation in talented athletes with great potential.
Prospective and retrospective approaches for determining valid and informative
indicators of giftedness were considered. For practical purposes and general
evaluation of giftedness, it is highly recommended that the initial level of sport-
specific fitness characteristics be evaluated as a predisposition to a given sport. The
improvement rate of athletic abilities during initial preparation should be evaluated as
an indicator of trainability. The comprehensive scheme presented in Figure 4.12
makes it possible to estimate athletic giftedness in general.

161
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 Chapter 5

Oreste Perri
-time world champion, personal coach of a number of Olympic champions,
Head coach of Italian canoe-kayak national team

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 Chapter 5

Altitude training

Altitude training has been a greatly disputed topic in sports science and of
much interest to researchers and coaches for over three decades. Generally speaking,
the present situation is paradoxical. Publications written for coaches consider altitude
training to be an efficacious and proven tool for enhancing high-level performance
(Fuchs & Reiss, 1990; Dick, 1992; Suslov et al., 1999) while exercise physiology
textbooks and professional reviews state that altitude training provides no extra
benefits for sea level performance than conventional training (Jensen & Fisher, 1979;
McArdle et al., 1991; Wilmore & Costill, 1993; Saltin, 1996, inter alia).

From a practical viewpoint, the positive experiences of prominent coaches,

great athletes and several national teams, offer strong arguments for employing
altitude training. Many successful national teams, particularly in the endurance
sports, incorporate altitude training as part of their preparation. This chapter
summarizes the current body of physiological and methodological data concerning
altitude training with respect to training program design. The scientific background
presented here is limited and readers are advised to refer to other sources (see reviews
of Boring etal, J 1997; Rusko et al., 2004; Wilber, 2004 and others).

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5.1. Scientific background

As is well known, sport related scientific studies were initiated as a result of

world-level competitions at altitude: the 1955 Pan-American Games held in Mexico
City (elevation 2200-2300m); the 1960 Winter Olympic Games in Squaw Valley
(elevation 2000m); and in particular, the 1968 Summer Olympic Games in Mexico
City. At that time, earlier studies and pilot investigations concentrated on elaborate
training programs at altitude in order to succeed in altitude performances. Later, when
the basic knowledge had been accumulated and various altitude training facilities
became available, training at altitude to enhance performance at sea-level was
introduced. Since then, the amount of scientific information on altitude training has
constantly increased. Some of the relevant data are reviewed below.

5.1.1. General factors affecting altitude performance

Two general factors affect athletic performance at altitude, aerodynamics and

physiology. As is well known, sea level air density diminishes with increased altitude.
Thus, air density at 2300m (the altitude of Mexico City) is about 20% less than at sea
level. Certainly, the reduction of air density and the corresponding decrease in
aerodynamic resistance allow higher velocities to be attained. The results of the
Mexico City Olympics in sprint events were related to this theoretical position.
Winning Olympic sprinters attained their personal best results in spite of the more
difficult physiological conditions of performance. In addition, Bob Beamon's new
Olympic and world record for the long jump bettered the previous one by 55cm (!) -
an unheard of accomplishment.

Unlike the aerodynamic factor, the physiological impact of altitude is very

negative, mainly because of the decreased partial pressure of oxygen in ambient air.
This lower oxygen content immediately reduces the athletes' aerobic abilities during
the initial period of altitude acclimatization. The general explanation for this is that
the decreased oxygen content in the atmosphere reduces oxygen blood saturation and
delivery to the muscle cells. Hence, in the long distance events, where oxygen supply

166
is of great importance, athletic performance tends to decrease. This was clearly
demonstrated by the results in the Mexico City Olympics (Figure 5.1).

The above graph clearly shows the advantageous zone - sprints including the
long and triple jumps, and the disadvantageous zone - endurance events, where
performance decreased as distance increased. Of course, adaptation to altitude
conditions was extremely important in medium- and long-duration events. Residents
and especially natives living at high altitude, enjoy big benefits in terms of oxygen
delivery and utilization. It is noteworthy that in the Mexico City Olympics, the gold
and silver medals in the 5000m, 10000m, marathon and 3000m steeplechase events
were won by natives of high altitude countries: Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tunisia. It was
obvious, even before the Mexico City Olympics, that altitude performances aside
from the short-duration events, require preliminary altitude training. However, after
these Olympics both scientists and coaches focused their attention on another

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problem, how to better employ altitude training in preparing athletes for sea level
performances.

5.1.2. Basics of altitude adaptation

Besides reduced air density and decreased oxygen content in ambient air, a
number of environmental factors affect athletes' responses at altitude, namely:
increased sun and ultra-violet radiation, reduced temperatures and humidity,
delightful landscapes and mountainous beauty. Traditionally, consideration of altitude
exposure and training is focused on the hypoxia factor, but in fact, many
environmental factors are also at play and help determine the athletes' response. It is
known that significant effects from altitude exposure start at an elevation of 1600m,
and altitudes higher than 2600m are usually not used for training camps.

The responses that occur during initial exposure are acute responses lasting
from a few hours to a few days, and long-term responses that last two-five weeks or
even more (Table 5.1).

Examination of the physiological changes induced by exposure to and training

at medium level altitude shows that arrival at altitude and breathing air with lower
oxygen content causes an excitation of chemoreceptors and a reflexive increase in
pulmonary ventilation. This increase is a compensatory mechanism to bring the same
amount of oxygen into the lungs as at sea level. Such hyperventilation occurs both at
rest and during exercise. The blood plasma volume decreases immediately after
arrival at altitude. After a week or more it returns to pre-altitude levels and even
increases above sea-level values (Saltin, 1996). Heart rate at rest and during moderate
workloads increases proportionally to the decrease of partial pressure of oxygen. An
additional reason for the heart rate increase could be catecholamine excretion (mostly
adrenalin) that occurs in particular at initial exposure.

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 Table 5.1
Acute and long-term responses of athletes to altitude exposure and training
(based on McArdle et al., 1991; Brooks et al., 1996; Wilber, 2004)

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 Stroke volume at rest and during moderate and high intensity workloads,
decreases substantially within the initial two days. After a number of days stroke
volume returns to pre-altitude levels. Nevertheless, heart rate increases markedly, and
cardiac output remains decreased at rest and during various workloads for several
days (Wilber, 2004).

One of the important outcomes of hypoxia is reduction of kidney oxygenation

that stimulates synthesis of erythropoietin (EPO), a hormone that regulates production
of erythrocytes and hemoglobin. The increased concentration of EPO elicits synthesis
of additional erythrocytes and hemoglobin, a process that takes approximately five-
seven days. After that, the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood increases markedly
as does aerobic ability. These changes explain the dramatic reduction of maximal
oxygen uptake during acute exposure and its gradual increase during acclimatization.
In the initial days, the hypoxic environment accelerates glycolitic reactions and
glycogen breakdown. At this time anaerobic threshold decreases dramatically and
corresponding speed regimes decrease as well. In line with these changes, the
metabolic response to habitual exercise also changes. As athletes approach their
previously comfortable speed regime there is a sharp increase in blood lactate. Further
acclimatization follows to increase muscle buffering capacity that prevents excessive
acidosis (pH reduction) during severe workloads.

Serious altitude training for a week or a little more, leads to increased

secretion of Cortisol that stimulates catabolic reactions and possible reduction of
muscle mass. Indeed, remarkable decreases in muscle mass and body weight have
been noted among top-level athletes (Issurin, Kaverin, 1990). Another consequence of
increased Cortisol is suppression of the immune function with an increased risk of
upper respiratory infections, a concern for sport physicians. Immediately after arrival
at altitude increased respiratory and urinary loss of water may cause dehydration.
Therefore, during the entire altitude exposure, fluid intake should be increased by
four-five liters per day.

For a long time, the potential benefits of altitude training were associated with
hematological changes, i.e., increased oxygen delivery to muscles. In fact these
changes are transient and very soon erythrocytes and hemoglobin return to pre-
altitude levels after returning at sea level (a few days to one week). Another

170
contributor to the post-altitude ergogenic effect is enhancement of anaerobic abilities
due to the increased buffering capacity of muscles and blood. Additionally, there may
be enhanced cellular adaptation of muscles. This factor has been studied less and is
rarely considered. Nevertheless, it is known that training at altitude (or altitude-
simulated conditions) leads to increased muscle capillarity, which facilitates oxygen
extraction from the blood (Mizuno et al., 1990). Other favorable changes can also
occur in the muscle microstructure (Terrados et al., 1990).

Study and example. Ten male subjects trained for four weeks on a cycle-
ergometer with one leg. The training protocol consisted of exercising one leg
under normobaric (sea-level) conditions, and another leg under hypoxic
conditions corresponding to an altitude of 2300 m. The test battery included
endurance trials and needle biopsy with subsequent evaluation of muscle
enzymes and myoglobin in the extracted sample. Comparison of the altitude-
trained leg with the non-altitude trained one allowed researchers to assess the
effect of altitude-simulated training. It resulted in significantly superior
endurance, significantly increased activity of oxidative enzymes and a higher
concentration of myoglobin (Terrados et al., 1990).

In summary, even a simplified consideration of acute and long-term responses

to altitude exposure indicates many difficulties related to the athletes' preparation.
The potential benefits still look complicated and dubious.

5.1.3. Does altitude training provide benefits?

Although this question is not relevant for many coaches, it remains very
tangible for many physiologists. Generally speaking, the existing situation is
paradoxical since exercise physiology textbooks state that altitude training provides
no benefits for sea level performance in comparison to appropriate training at sea
level (Jensen & Fisher,1979: McArdle et al., 1991; Wilmore & Costill, 1993; Brooks
et al., 1996). Nevertheless, the number of athletes practicing at altitude camps, as well
as the number of altitude training centers, is constantly increasing. Many great
athletes from different sports like Alexander Popov (swimming) and Lance
Armstrong (cycling) systematically used altitude camps. Frederick (1974) showed
that all gold medals in the running events, from 1500m through the marathon at the

171
1972 Munich Olympics, were won by athletes who used altitude training. Despite the
scientific contradictions and theoretical disputes, altitude training has become a
component of the preparatory program among many successful national teams.

Case study. During the 1999 European swimming championship, the head
coaches of leading national teams (Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy,
Russia, Spain and Sweden) were questioned by this author on the use of
altitude training. A l l respondents reported that their teams practiced in altitude
training camps as part of their annual preparation. However, each of them
noted that several athletes, usually the older and more experienced members
of the team, did not take part in altitude camps. The reasons offered by the
different coaches were very similar - an unfavorable response by the athletes
to altitude training

The above example demonstrates that prominent coaches, supported by

qualified sport experts and physicians, make a conscious choice to incorporate altitude
training in their preparatory programs. It is hard to imagine that they didn't find
sufficient arguments for incorporating altitude training programs over the decades.
However, not all members of a national team participated in the altitude program.
Exceptions were noted in each team. The coaches resolved the problem by dividing
athletes into "responders" and "non-responders" and then releasing the latter from
altitude programs. This practical approach is consistent with scientific data showing
that "responders" and "non-responders" are recognizable on the basis of
hematological responses and rate of performance gains (Chapman et al., 1998).
Additional support of this concept can be found in human genetics studies.

Genetic evidence. Scientists have long investigated common genetic markers to

determine whether there are differences in the frequency of genotypes between
th
top-level athletes and control populations (de Garay et al., 1974). The 14
human chromosome was found to contain the so-called Hypoxia-Inducible
Factor 1 a that serves as a genetic regulator of EPO synthesis and release during
altitude exposure and training (Vogt et al., 2001; Wilber, 2004). Athletes with a
genetic predisposition to a favorable response to hypoxia, release much higher
concentrations of EPO at altitude (Witkovski et al., 2002). Apparently these
athletes manifest beneficial hematological changes induced by altitude training.

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 It should be noted that investigation of altitude training effects have resulted in
very different outcomes. Several research groups found no post-altitude improvement
in physiological variables (hematological changes, maximal oxygen consumption) or
in athletic performance (Hahn et al., 1992; Telford et a l , 1996; Bailey et al., 1998).
Other studies reported significant gains both in maximal oxygen consumption and
athletic performance (Chung et al., 1995; Levine & Stray-Gundersen, 1997). These
contradictions can be partly explained by the "responders vs. non-responders"
concept. From this viewpoint it is interesting to consider the findings, which were
obtained in a group consisting of "responders" only.

Study and example. Seven highly qualified middle- and long-distance runners
underwent a three week training camp at altitude (1850 m). Each of them
systematically used altitude training over a number of years and their positive
responses were confirmed by distinct performance gains. Maximal oxygen
consumption was determined prior to altitude camp and on the third week of sea
level re-acclimatization (Figure 5.2). A l l runners improved their pre-altitude
aerobic ability and the average gain for the entire group was significant
(P<0.05): 7.4% (Suslov et al., 1999).

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Figure 5.2. Gain in maximum oxygen consumption after three weeks of
altitude training in a group of highly qualified middle- and
long-distance runners (based on Suslov et al., 1999).

Summarizing the preceding section, it can be said that athletes belonging to

the "responders" category can benefit from well designed altitude training. The
physiological factors that contribute to the so-called the post-altitude ergogenic effect
can be found in a review of current world literature. There are three potential benefits
of altitude training (Table 5.2).

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 Table 5.2
Potential benefits of altitude training on performance
enhancement at sea level

Further consideration of the benefits listed requires some critical evaluation.

Increased erythrocyte numbers and hemoglobin mass fall quickly after returning to
sea-level (Wilmore & Costill, 1993), although larger blood volume takes 2-4 weeks
before it gradually normalizes (Saltin, 1996). It has been suggested that the blood of
some athletes retains increased oxygen carrying capacity for longer periods while in
other athletes this benefit is lost faster. Improved cellular adaptation of muscles
caused by altitude training appears to have potential benefits but at present there is
little to support this hypothesis. Increased anaerobic capacity seems to be a benefit for
sea level performance as it helps explain why many top-level sprinters (400 m
runners, 100 m swimmers, etc.) have continued to use altitude training camps over the
last three decades.

5.2. Training fundamentals

Apparently, the physiological responses to altitude training are very different

from training at sea level. Consequently, training programs at altitude should reflect
these differences. They must correspond to physiological demands and not exceed the
limits of biological adaptation. However, they should also produce the planned for

175
cumulative training effect. Therefore, appropriate general principles, basic
methodology and practical guidelines are required. They are presented below.

5.2.1. General principles and basic positions of altitude training

The following four general principles are of primary importance in training

and coaching.
1) The general goal. One of three options should be selected:
- Is altitude training intended to prepare athletes for altitude performance?
- Is altitude training supposed to exploit post-altitude effects in sea level
competitions?
- Is altitude training intended to diversify and activate annual preparation?
2) Selecting the athletes who respond positively to altitude training.
The decision to include an athlete in the altitude program should be made with
respect to his/her individual responses, previous altitude experience and data
from relevant medical examinations.
3) Structuring the training program according to phases of altitude
acclimatization. Pre-altitude training, altitude conditions (elevation, climate,
weather etc.) and individual particulars of the athletes (previous experience at
altitude, age, bodyweight and muscle mass, aerobic capacity etc.) affect the
duration of each phase.
4) Structuring the post-altitude training program with respect to phases of sea
level re-acclimatization. This principle also involves participation in
competition and the utilization of the post-altitude ergogenic effect.

The first principle relates to preparation strategy when coaches and sport
administrators decide to incorporate altitude training. There are at least three general
purposes of altitude training and each of them determines the proper features of
annual preparation (Table 5.3).

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 Table 5.3
Purposes and general features of altitude training in the athletes' annual
preparation cycle

The use of altitude training for improving sea level performance assumes
several physiological benefits considered previously (Table 5.2). From both the
physiological and methodological points of view, it is important to individually check
the athlete's responses and adapt him/her to unusual workloads and reactions in
advance. It can be hypothesized that utilizing physiological benefits provides definite
and predictable training responses in repeated altitude camps. In any case, the training
used to exploit the post-altitude effect, which were developed in the USSR (Suslov,
1983) and the GDR (Reiss, 1988), entailed strict adherence to two or three repeated
altitude camps.

The second principle refers to the concept of "responders" and "non-

responders" (Chapman et al., 1998). This differentiation can be made by using
objective scientific methods or with the help of practical sport-specific indicators. In
any case, evaluation requires one-two altitude camps where individual training
responses can be checked. Practical experience shows that the majority of high-level
athletes, particularly in endurance sports, respond positively to altitude training.
Nevertheless, even among responders the variability of individual reactions is very
high.

The most influential factor in adaptation is the accumulated experience from

previous camps. It has been noted that athletes with more experience at altitude
overcome initial acclimatization problems better and faster. This accelerated
adaptation is achieved because of physiological factors such as more favorable

177
hormonal reactions, better hematological response, etc. and more effective behavior
during training and restoration. During the first camp young athletes (18-21 yr)
usually respond more beneficially. Additional advantages in initial adaptation include
smaller muscle mass and higher aerobic capacity, which usually creates more
economical and favorable responses.

The third and fourth principles require special considerations that are
presented in sections 5.2.2 and 5.2.3. First, additional remarks are needed with regard
to the usefulness of altitude training in different sports and the employment of altitude
training as part of Block Periodization.

Traditionally, altitude training has been considered especially suitable for the
endurance sports (Saltin, 1996; Reiss, 1998; Rusko, 2004). However, the spectrum of
sports for which altitude training has been used is much wider. Objectives such as
active recovery and general conditioning make reasonable use of altitude training in
any sport. For instance, Soviet astronauts systematically used training camps in the
altitude athletic center in Armenia. Athletes from combat and team and dual sports
used altitude training to improve general and sport-specific endurance. In addition,
potential benefits like enhanced anaerobic capacity (Table 5.2) can provide better
speed endurance which expands the range of athletic events for which altitude training
is applicable. The power sports are also thought to benefit from altitude training
(Suslov et al., 1999) as the positive effects relate mostly to general environmental
factors and breaking the routine of habitual workouts. Nevertheless, the largest group
of altitude training proponents is formed by the endurance sports where the amount of
scientific and empirical findings is extremely great.

It should be emphasized that many years before the first publications about
Block Periodization appeared, the idea of highly concentrated workloads directed at
developing a minimal number of motor abilities was proposed with regard to altitude
training. These altitude mesocycles were termed "blocks of aerobic workloads at
altitude". Coaches creatively combined these blocks with subsequent mesocycles
having highly intense workloads in a manner very similar to the contemporary
practice of Block Periodization. The most widely used mesocycle at altitude is
accumulation. More prolonged exposure at altitude makes it possible to conduct a

178
part or even an entire transmutation mesocycle. In very special cases, in preparation
for altitude performance, the realization mesocycle precedes competition (Table 5.4).

Table 5.4
Proposed workloads and types of mesocycles used at altitude training

5.2.2. Phases of altitude acclimatization and training program design

Altitude acclimatization is a highly complex process that is affected by

environmental and physiological factors, training methodology and individual factors.
Despite the complexity of this process and variety of individual responses, three
separate phases of acclimatization can be pinpointed (Table 5.5).

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 Table 5.5
Phases of altitude acclimatization and their general characteristics
(Issurin & Vrijens, 1995)

The acute phase of acclimatization is most restricted in terms of training

capacity. For inexperienced athletes, this period can elicit poor behavior reactions as
for example, when excited athletes show excessive effort and provoke exaggerated
responses. These disorders can be associated with increased catecholamine secretion
and reduced self-control. The duration of this phase depends on the individual traits of
each athlete but is usually shorter for athletes who have experienced a number of
altitude camps.

The transition phase is characterized by more favorable but unstable and less
predictable responses. In this phase, the athlete can feel excessive fatigue after a
relatively small load and movement technique may become less controlled. The
duration of this phase varies according to the individual. Also, the period during
which athletes must train at reduced workloads varies from 6-12 days. Precautions are
necessary when using highly intense glycolitic exercises since employing them
prematurely may adversely affect the athletes' adaptation. When the stabilization

180
phase is established, athletes are able to execute large workloads almost without
limitation (Table 5.6).

Table 5.6
General approach to structuring a training program according to phases of
altitude acclimatization (Issurin & Vrijens, 1995)

As shown in Table 5.6 the initial microcycle program greatly differs from the
pre-altitude standard. Attempts to start an altitude program with the usual training
regimes used at sea level have been made in various sports resulting in the athletes
inability to sustain the training program in the next microcycle. As a rule, such
athletes did not succeed in the re-acclimatization period and did not improve their sea
level performance. Thus, the initial microcycle performed with a slightly reduced total
exercise volume, should exploit more economical workloads of reduced intensity and
lower coordination complexity.

During the transition phase, exercise volume achieves its normal level but
exercise intensity still remains lower. The stabilization phase allows, and even
requires, the use of large workloads which ultimately determine the cumulative and
residual effects of the altitude program. This high workload level is sustained almost
until the end of altitude camp. Nevertheless, during the last one-two days workload
levels should be reduced in order to facilitate the initial re-acclimatization at sea level.

181
 The last aspect concerns the duration of the altitude training camp. The
general approach to determining the required duration of altitude exposure is
presented in Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.3. Duration of altitude camp when training is intended for sea level or
altitude performance (based on Issurin & Vrijens, 1995)

If the training is intended to ensure success in altitude competition, the effect

of altitude camp will be determined mainly by the gain in the preparedness attained in
the stabilization phase. Consequently, it is reasonable to prolong work in this phase up
to three or even four weeks. In this case, the total duration of altitude camp can be one
month or more. If the program is intended to prepare athletes for sea level
competition, its purpose is to attain a sufficient level of physiological adaptation.
Thus, the camp duration can vary from 20-25 days, which corresponds to
recommendations given by several training experts (Suslov, 1983; Fuchs & Reiss,
1990).

In conclusion, two typical mistakes can be noted:

Ignoring altitude specificity (or not giving it sufficient attention) when
designing the training program and,
Forgoing strenuous workloads when athletes are already adapted to altitude
conditions.

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5.2.3. Post-altitude re-acclimatization and athletic performance

The state of the capacity and sport-specific performance athlete training during
the period of re-acclimatization varies widely and is determined by at least three
factors:
phases of fitness and physiological changes during this period;
workload deviations during post-altitude training;
individual traits of athletes.
Periodic deviations in maximal performance and the physiological state during post-
altitude re-acclimatization were found and analyzed (Table 5.7).

Table 5.7
Periodic deviations of the athletes' state and maximal performance during post-
altitude re-acclimatization

From the data presented in Table 5.7, three positive phases of post-altitude re-
acclimatization can be identified: the first two days after returning to sea level, the
th th th
period between the 12 and 28 days, and a more delayed interval between the 37
th
and 46 days following altitude camp. The occurrence of the first and second positive
phases is supported by many practical observations and is consistent with the findings
of several well controlled studies (Figure 5.4).

183
Figure 5.4. Dependence of performance enhancement on duration of post-altitude
acclimatization—summary of studies in different sports

The graph (Figure 5.4.) summarizes the findings recorded after altitude
training camps lasting 12-28 days at elevations of 1640-2500m. It shows that positive
gains were obtained mostly during the initial two days and 16-20 days after returning
th
to sea level. The majority of impaired performances were recorded between the 5
th
and 10 days of re-acclimatization. In general, the data reviewed from numerous
studies support the existence of two positive phases in the post-altitude period.

Concerning the third delayed phase, its occurrence deserves special attention.
There are very few well-documented studies in which the athletes' state and
performance were monitored for long periods after altitude training. One such study
was carried out during preparation of the USSR national swim team.

184
 Case study. Post-altitude performance changes were studied during preparation of
the USSR national swim team. The annual plan contained three altitude training
camps lasting 20-22 days. During re-acclimatization after the last altitude camp,
the swimmers took part in a series of competitions within a 52 day period. The
athletes competed in different events and their results were compared to their
season best performances and expressed in percentages (Figure 5.5). The best
nd th
performances were obtained between the 4 2 and 47 days and this period was
considered as most favorable and recommended for participation in targeted
competition (Vaitsekhovsky & Suslov; cited in Suslov et al., 1999).

In view of the above findings, the post-altitude ergogenic effect can last much
longer than previously expected. There is no evidence that hematological, enzymatic
and cellular changes induced by altitude training can be maintained for such long
periods. However, post-altitude benefits could have contributed to attainment of
superior training effects, which led to the delayed best performances. It should be also
noted that these impressive performance gains were attained after a series of camps,

185
not from a single training camp. It can therefore be suggested that they are the result
of training responses produced by a series of altitude camps. We can also assume that
swimmers with unfavorable responses to altitude training were identified in the earlier
stages of preparation and did not take part in the final altitude camp. This means that
the observed delayed ergogenic effect was achieved by the group of "responders",
which could have contributed to the progress attained.

High-performance sport offers many examples of successful preparation

exploiting the post-altitude ergogenic effect. Most prominently, endurance athletes of
the former GDR attained many outstanding results at the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games
using properly timed altitude camps (Table 5.8).

Table 5.8
Timing of altitude training camps of G D R national teams prior the 1988 Seoul
Olympic Games (based on Fuchs & Reiss, 1990)

* the rowing team had a preliminary 6 days of training in a hypoxic chamber before
the altitude camp

In conclusion, it can be said that during the last three decades many athletes
and several teams from around the world have exploited the post-altitude ergogenic
effect and succeeded at sea-level competitions. Presumably, they belong to the
category of "responders" while their coaches belong to the category of "proponents of
altitude training". Success in sea-level performance after altitude training programs
can be attributed to three general factors:

186
 selection of athletes who respond positively to altitude training;
utilization of positive phases of re-acclimatization in planning sea-level
performances, and
- designing and creatively implementing a rational training program taking into
account the positive and negative phases of re-acclimatization and the
individual traits of each athlete

5.2.4. Training stage with the altitude camp

There are three different approaches to the design of the training stage
containing an altitude camp when preparation is directed toward sea-level
performance (Figure 5.6).

Figure 5.6. Three general approaches for designing the training stage containing an
altitude camp: A - altitude camp for general conditioning, diversification
and active recovery; B - altitude camp for sea-level performance in the
second positive phase of re-acclimatization; C - altitude camp for sea-level
performance in the third delayed positive phase of re-acclimatization.
Key: AC - altitude camp, AGCW - aerobic and general conditioning
workloads, AASW - special aerobic-anaerobic workloads, EST - event-
specific tapering, ASW - aerobic specific workloads.

187
 Let us consider the above diagram with respect to the particulars of each
approach.

Variant A - Altitude camp for general conditioning, diversification and active

recovery.
In this case, the training stage can be started with an altitude camp containing
non-specific and semi-specific exercises for aerobic and general strength abilities.
The following training at sea level is devoted to developing these abilities using
sport-specific training means. The next transmutation mesocycle can exploit the
positive phase of post-altitude re-acclimatization and the realization mesocycle
concludes the training stage.

Variant B - Altitude camp for sea-level performance in the second positive phase
of re-acclimatization.
The training stage is started with a pre-altitude training block lasting one-two
weeks. It continues with an altitude camp consisting of "soft" aerobic work (acute
and transition phases) and "hard" work (stabilization phase). The post-altitude
program continues with sport-specific preparation in the transmutation mesocycle,
pre-competitive taper and competition.

Variant C - Altitude camp for sea-level performance in the third delayed positive
phase (36-46 days after altitude camp). In this case, post-altitude preparation is
different. The athletes undergo post-altitude re-acclimatization and take part in
th th
competition immediately after the depressive phase (11 -14 days after returning to
sea-level) or even a bit earlier. Afterwards, the shortened accumulation and
transmutation mesocycles precede the realization mesocycle of optimal duration prior
to the targeted-competition.

Interestingly, variant B is the most widely used and discussed in the literature
(Reiss & Zansler, 1987; Fuchs & Reiss, 1990), while variant C is less known and less
popular. Let us now consider the separate components of variants B and C, namely,
pre-altitude and post-altitude preparation.

188
 Pre-altitude preparation is intended to improve the athletes' adaptation to
hypoxic conditions and the planned aerobic workloads. There are two basic
approaches, pedagogical and physiological.

The pedagogical approach assumes doing a sea-level block of aerobic

workloads (one-three microcycles) focused on extensive use of exercises performed at
aerobic and anaerobic threshold levels combined with general conditioning. Two-
three days before the altitude camp the workload level is reduced in order to facilitate
acute acclimatization during the initial days of altitude camp. This approach is
supported by several experts in training athletes (Pfeifer, 1987; Reiss & Zansler,
1987).

The physiological approach employs special techniques to create hypoxic

conditions during performance of the exercises at sea-level. This hypoxic training is
intended to attain pre-acclimatization before arrival at altitude. Widely used
techniques for such training are hypoxic chambers (Wilber, 2004) or special masks
for inhaling hypoxic air (Bulgakova et al., 1999). Pre-acclimatization training usually
takes one-two weeks and can be completed immediately prior to or a few days before
departure (Fuchs & Reiss, 1990). The number of workouts varies from three-six per
week with a workout duration of 30-90 min. Various other training regimes have
been used although the most widely accepted seems to be continuous and intermittent
exercises of moderate intensity.

Example. German elite walkers Ronald Weigel and Hartwig Gauder, who won two
silver and one bronze medal in the Seoul 1988 Olympics practiced at three altitude
training camps lasting three-four weeks at elevations of 2400m (Addis Abeba),
2700m (Toluka) and 2000m (Belmeken) with the last one finished 19 days prior to
his Olympic performance. Pre-altitude training in a hypoxic chamber lasted one-two
weeks prior to each altitude camp (source - Fuchs & Reiss, 1990).

Post-altitude preparation is based on previously considered phases of sea

level re-acclimatization and changes in the athletes' state following altitude training
camp (Figure 5.7).

189
 Figure 5.7. Positive and negative phases of the athletes' state following altitude
training, There is insufficient information on the athletes' state between
th th
the 28 and 36 days after returning to sea level.

The first positive phase lasting two-three days, has been exploited in athletic
performances (sometimes successfully) but still remains problematic in terms of
training design. Despite increased work capabilities, this phase includes profound
physiological changes caused by drastic changes in environmental conditions. Many
experts suggest that this phase should be spent on moderate workloads focused on
special conditioning, "soft" predominantly aerobic exercises and technical drills.

Example. World-renowned swimming authority Gennady Touretski, who

coached a number of world and Olympic winners including the legendary
Alexander Popov, notes that the first two days after returning to sea level can be
used for competition and be rather successful. However, the high competitive
efforts usually aggravate the athletes' state in the subsequent period of re-
acclimatization. He is convinced that this early favorable state for athletes should
be used to facilitate acute sea-level re-acclimatization. Maximal competitive
efforts are not recommended during this phase.

The general approach to training in negative post-altitude phases assumes the

use of aerobic and anaerobic threshold level exercises with a gradual increase in the
aerobic-anaerobic workloads. This is important during this period to prevent
excessive lactate accumulation and to execute sport-specific tasks with increased

190
speed. A compromise between these contradictory demands can be attained with the
help of interval series. Alactic bouts at submaximal power can be performed with a
focus on "quality", not on movement frequency. Athletes usually do not experience
significant problems in techno-tactical drills and attention can be given to accentuated
force application in continuous exercises with moderate intensity. After cessation of
the negative phase, workouts becomes more economical with medium and moderate
intensity (lower heart rate and lactate accumulation) and athletes experience enhanced
feelings and better movement control. Highly intense sport-specific exercises can be
used without any limitations. As already stated, successful athletic performance can
th th
be planned for the period between the 14 and 28 days.

There is very little data on the athletes' state after the second positive post-
altitude phase. If the post-altitude training program is focused on a target-competition
between days 36-46, the preceding period is devoted to pre-competition preparation.
Consequently, the condition of the athlete during this period is determined mostly by
current workloads, training residuals of previous work and, to a lesser extent, by the
delayed consequences of altitude adaptation. It can be theorized that the benefits of
cellular adaptation, such as increased aerobic enzymes, myoglobin, and muscle
capillarization, can be maintained for a relatively long period.

There is evidence that additional training in hypoxic chambers is a successful

approach during this period (Fuchs & Reiss, 1990). Such altitude-simulated
workloads could prolong the previously attained effects including the hypothetical
enlargement of the oxygen capacity of blood. In any case, the visible benefit of the
third post-altitude positive phase is that it allows more active exploitation of
competitive workloads within the Final Stage Preparation for the targeted event.

5.2.5. Non-conventional approaches to altitude training and exposure

It has been noted that since the 1968 Mexico City Olympics, the popularity of
altitude training has continually increased. Hence, this preparation mode can now be
termed conventional. In recent years, modifications of altitude training have appeared
and they can be considered non-conventional approaches to athlete preparation (Table
5.9).

191
 Table 5.9
Recent non-conventional approaches to altitude training

Study and example. Twenty-two elite male and female runners lived and
performed basic continuous training at altitude 2500m for 28 days. Intense
interval workloads were performed at altitude 1250m. This design resulted in a
high increase in EPO concentration and significant increments of hemoglobin
(8%) and erythrocyte mass (4%). After returning to sea level the athletes
improved their running performance in 3000m (1%) and maximum oxygen uptake
(3%). (Stray-Gundersen et al., 2001).

Despite the complexity of this approach it has been applied by several groups
of athletes (mostly swimmers and runners), who found it practical, acceptable and
promising.

The L H T L approach in artificial conditions assumes use of specially created

hypoxic living quarters (room, tent or even apartment), where lower oxygen content is
combined with normal barometric pressure (normobaric hypoxia). The greatest
expectations from this approach pertain to the hematological factor. For example,
living at simulated altitude produces increased synthesis of EPO, hemoglobin and
erythrocytes, which cause an increase in maximum oxygen consumption and aerobic
performance. These suppositions have been supported in several studies (Mattila &
Rusko, 1996; Rusko et al., 1999) but contradict the findings of other researchers (Piel-
Aulin et al., 1998; Ashenden et al., 1999, inter alia).

192
 Other promising data relate to the potential benefits of simulated altitude
exposure in anaerobic performance. A well-controlled study of high-level male 400m
sprinters has shown the significant superiority of ten days of simulated altitude
exposure (16-17 hr a day) in comparison to conventional preparation program
(Nummela & Rusko, 2000). These outcomes are consistent with the data of trained
cyclists, who spent 8-10 hr at a simulated altitude of 2650 m, performed their usual
training program and markedly improved their performance and maximal anaerobic
ability (Roberts et al., 2003).

Study and example. Nineteen trained cyclists divided into three groups
underwent a preparation program at L H T L and at sea level for 5, 10, and 15
days. They spent 8-10 hr at a simulated altitude 2650 m and performed the usual
training program. Performance gains were evaluated in a 4-min maximal cycling
trial. The benefit of L H T L mode was confirmed by remarkable gains in Mean
Maximal Power Output (4%) and particularly in Maximal Accumulated Oxygen
Deficit (10%) compared to the no gains induced by a conventional program.
Interestingly, no differences were noted between the changes after 5, 10, and 15
days of training and exposure (Roberts et al., 2003).

These data demonstrate the beneficial development of anaerobic ability which

is attributed to enhanced muscular buffering capacity. This was confirmed in another
study of L H T L at simulated altitude (3000 m) with an exposure duration of 23 days
(Gore et al., 2001). At the same time the weaknesses of the artificial L H T L mode
should also be considered. One can assume that living in a restricted artificial space
may negatively affect the athletes' emotional state, and the hematological benefits still
seem dubious. However, even if these benefits are obtained, it is hard to imagine that
they can be maintained for two-three weeks until competition.

Training in a hypoxic chamber can be evaluated in two ways: 1) from the

outcomes of numerous studies conducted over the last two decades and 2) from
practical experiences of supplemental hypoxic training accumulated mostly in
Germany.

193
 The first aspect can be illustrated by the findings of several studies that
indicated positive training outcomes. The previously described evidence of cellular
adaptation was obtained by training one leg in a hypoxic chamber while the second
leg was trained at sea level conditions (Terrados et al., 1990). A number of studies
were conducted with high-level athletes, who trained for different periods in a
hypoxic chamber and didn't register any superior results when compared with the
control sea level groups in terms of hematological status and maximum oxygen
consumption. However, they did record significant benefits in maximum power
output and anaerobic capacity (Terrados et al., 1988; Meeuwsen et al., 2001;
Hendriksen & Meeuwsen , 2003).

In contrast to these, a number of other studies were carried out in which

simulated altitude training did not elicit positive outcomes in aerobic endurance trials.
These well-controlled studies did not reveal any benefits from training in hypoxic
conditions, either in long-duration performance or in terms of hematological
responses and maximum oxygen consumption (Hahn et al., 1992; Vallier et al., 1996;
Karlsen et al., 2002). Apparently, altitude simulated training enables athletes to
enhance anaerobic capacity but fails to improve aerobic long-distance endurance.

The second aspect refers to the practical experience of altitude-simulated

training approved during the multi-year preparation of elite German athletes (Fuchs &
Reiss, 1990; Reiss, 1998). The supplemental training in a hypoxic chamber was
incorporated in the annual preparation for various purposes. This included (1) to
provide rational pre-altitude preparation (see 5.2.4); (2) to maintain the positive
changes induced by a previous altitude training camps and (3) as a rehabilitation
program after illness or injury. Correspondingly different training protocols were
developed in which the repertory of training means included specific and semi-
specific exercises performed running on a treadmill, cycling, rowing and paddling on
an ergometer; various simulative exercises and workloads for strength endurance and
general conditioning. The integration of altitude-simulated training in the framework
of annual preparation is discussed in 5.2.6.

The following summary gives consideration to the potential benefits and

particulars of non-conventional approaches to altitude training (Table 5.10).

194
 Table 5.10
Summary of different factors and their expected effects using non-conventional
approaches to altitude training

The general ecological influence of altitude exposure refers to its' influence on

the emotional and neuro-physiological spheres that is multilateral and, as a rule,
highly positive. The exciting and magnificent beauty of mountains, clean, fresh, cool
air, lack of typical urban stressors like noise, transportation pollution, endless bustle
etc. all positively affect recovery and behavior as a whole. A l l these benefits increase
the effectiveness of L H T L under natural conditions. In contrast, L H T L under artificial
conditions has the obvious disadvantage of prolonged exposure to a closed-in and
limited living space.

A l l of the non-conventional approaches considered have visible benefits when

compared to traditional altitude camps with regard to unlimited (or less limited)
employment of intense exercises. Indeed, this is one of the important reasons why
these approaches and techniques were developed.

195
 The hematological factor seems to be relevant in each of the approaches. In
fact, its effect in L H T L in artificial conditions was not supported by the outcomes of
several studies, and wasn't found with regard to training in a hypoxic chamber. The
latter has promising benefits for muscular cellular adaptation, which can hardly be
expected following training in normo-baric conditions ( L H T L modes). A stimulating
effect on anaerobic capacity can be expected after each of the above non-conventional
approaches.

5.2.6. Altitude training as a part of the annual preparation cycle

If attitude training is incorporated in a preparation program its placement in

the annual plan is very important. Following the first general principle of altitude
training (5.2.1), planning is very different for altitude and for sea level performances.
The annual preparation plan for a targeted competition at altitude is characterized by a
longer total duration of altitude exposure, relatively more prolonged altitude camps
and scheduling the last altitude camp to immediately precede the target competition
(Figure 5.8).

Figure 5.8. Exemplary annual plan of preparation directed to targeted competitions at

altitude (based on Issurin & Vrijens, 1995): AC - altitude camp

196
 It is worth noting that altitude camps encompass a part of the accumulation
mesocycle when the training program is extensive and does not exceed the anaerobic
threshold level. The second part of altitude exposure can include intense and even
severe exercises and belongs to the transmutation mesocycle.

Annual plans directed to target-competition at sea level can be structured with

two different designs: (a) when the Final Stage Preparation (FSP) is relatively short
and exploits the second positive phase of re-acclimatization after the last altitude
camp, (b) when the FSP is more prolonged and exploits the more delayed
consequences of the altitude training (Figure 5.9).

Figure 5.9. Annual preparation plans that include altitude training camps directed to
the targeted competition at sea level: A - FSP exploits the second positive
phase of post-altitude re-acclimatization; B - FSP exploits the third
positive phase of post-altitude re-acclimatization.

Plan A is more popular and was widely used in the preparation of world-
leading athletes from the former GDR (Pfeifer, 1987; Fuchs & Reiss, 1990) and the
USSR (Suslov, 1983; Kaverin & Issurin, 1990). Plan B is less known and is not
discussed in the available literature although it was successfully used many times in
the preparation of top-level athletes as for example, GDR road cyclists, USSR canoe-
kayak paddlers, and others. The benefits of plan B are mostly in methodology, the use

197
of highly intense workloads in a favorable re-acclimatization phase and participation
in prior competition raises self-confidence levels and facilitates techno-tactical
innovations. However, there is no evidence that potential physiological post-altitude
benefits can be prolonged for a period of 36-45 days.

For a long time, training experts have strived to rationalize annual preparation
so that it combines traditional and non-conventional altitude training approaches. An
example of such a creative approach is the annual preparation of German 50 km
walkers, who won silver and bronze medals in the 1988 Seoul Olympics (Figure
5.10).

Figure 5.10. Chart of annual altitude training program of German 50 km walkers

before the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games (based on Fuchs & Reiss, 1990)

The above diagram illustrates the annual training program in which each of
three altitude camps was combined with altitude-simulated training blocks in pre- and
post-altitude periods. It was hypothesized that such a combination makes it possible
to:
(a) facilitate acute adaptation at the beginning of each altitude camp because the
athletes experience a pre-acclimatization program in a hypoxic chamber;
(b) prolong the ergogenic altitude effect of the preceding camp using altitude-
simulated workloads and;

198
 (c) diversify the sea level training program and attain higher training responses.

Interestingly, these successful German walkers took part in Olympic

competition 19 days after the last altitude camp and this post-altitude program
contained a thoroughly designed altitude-simulated training block. It is believed that
further progress in altitude programs will include rational sequencing and a
combination of traditional and non-conventional approaches to altitude preparation.

5.2.7 Guidelines for structuring an altitude preparation program

Despite the specificity and properties of different sports, general guidelines for
structuring a preparation program containing altitude training can be established
(Table 5.11). These guidelines refer to general principles (5.2.1), phases of altitude
acclimatization (5.2.2), post-altitude re-acclimatization (5.2.3), characteristics of
several training stages containing an altitude camp (5.2.4) and design for the entire
annual cycle (5.2.6).

The guidelines do not address non-conventional approaches to altitude training

that are still not widely used. It is obvious that they can enrich the traditional repertory
but it should be kept in mind that utilizing them demands sophisticated conditions and
extensive knowledge.

199
 Table 5.11
General guidelines for structuring a preparation program containing altitude
training camps

Summary

The initial impetus to study altitude training and performance was fueled by
the need to compete in high prestige events like the 1960 Winter Olympics and the
1968 Summer Olympics. The further development of altitude training has been
oriented mostly towards preparation for sea level performances. A review of the

200
current literature allows us to reconstruct the physiological changes that take place
during altitude acclimatization. Most notable is that the human responses in the acute
phase differ widely from those seen during more delayed periods of adaptation (Table
5.2).

The current grasp of altitude training is contradictory. Many exercise

physiology textbooks declare that altitude training provides no benefits for sea level
performances when compared to proper conventional training, while coaching
publications consider altitude training as an efficacious and practice-proven tool to
enhance high-performance preparation. This contradiction can be partly explained by
the variety of individual training responses to altitude training, i.e., the individual
predisposition of some athletes being more favorable. Nevertheless, the potential
benefits of altitude training for enhancement of sea level performance include the
following: (1) improved oxygen delivery to muscles induced by higher oxygen-
carrying capacity of blood, (2) enhanced oxygen utilization within the muscle cells
due to the greater activity of aerobic enzymes and increased myoglobin content and
(3) increased anaerobic capacity via improved buffering capacity in muscles and
blood.

The general principles of altitude training are based on the importance of

several primary goals of preparing athletes for altitude or sea-level performance, or
using the altitude camp for active recovery and diversification. It is also based on the
selection of athletes who respond positively to altitude training, the structure of the
altitude training program in accordance with phases of acclimatization, and the design
of the post-altitude training program based on phases of sea level re-acclimatization.

Acclimatization at altitude is divided into three phases. The first one - acute
acclimatization - is restricted mostly to training capacity and its duration (3-7 days)
strongly depends on each athlete's individual peculiarities. The second transition
phase brings more favorable but unstable and less predictable responses. Its duration
also varies according to the individual and lasts 3-5 days. The third stabilization phase
allows athletes to perform a training program with large workloads almost without
limitation. The general approach is to construct a training program according to the
phases of acclimatization (Table 5.6). Similarly, post-altitude preparation is affected

201
by phases of sea-level re-acclimatization and this determines the favorable periods for
competition, mainly, the intervals between days 14-28, and between days 36-46.

Special attention is given to structuring a training cycle containing an altitude

camp. Usually the first part of an altitude program consists of medium intensity
aerobic exercises that correspond to the content of the accumulation mesocycle. The
second part of the altitude camp can include highly intense aerobic-anaerobic and
anaerobic exercises which are typical of the transmutation mesocycle. High
performances can be planned between days 14-28, and between days 36-46.
Correspondingly, the training stage can be shorter or longer. When the training is
intended to exploit the post-altitude ergogenic effect, the annual cycle includes two-
three training stages with an altitude camp.

In addition to traditional altitude training, where athletes live and train at the
same elevation, several non-conventional approaches have appeared: (1) athletes live
at altitude but train lower; (2) athletes live at altitude-simulated conditions and train at
sea level; (3) athletes live at sea-level and train in altitude-simulated conditions. A l l of
these techniques have their advantages and disadvantages (Table 5.10) and can be
creatively implemented in the preparation of an athlete.

202
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Witkovski,S., Chen, J., Stray-Gundersen, R.L. et al.(2002). Genetic markers for
erithropojetic responses to altitude. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 34(Suppl.5):S246.

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Glossary

aerobic endurance (capacity) - Ability to sustain fatigue in exercises where energy is

supplied with the use of oxygen
anaerobic glycolitic endurance (capacity) - Ability to sustain fatigue in exercises
where energy is predominantly supplied with anaerobic glycolitic reactions
anaerobic threshold - The level of effort where lactate levels begin to rise.
blood Lactate - Physiological indicator of glycolisis activation or anaerobic
metabolism.
blood urea - Physiological indicator of metabolic fatigue and metabolic recovery.
catecholamines (adrenaline and noradrenaline) - Hormones produced by the
adrenal medulla for rapid activation of metabolic reactions during excitation,
physical effort and emotional tension.
cardiac output - The volume of blood pumped by the heart in liters/minute.
conjugated effect exercises - Exercises that combine motor ability and technical
skill.
Cortisol - Hormone that controls metabolism of carbohydrates and fats, acts as an
anti-inflammatory agent and stimulates breakdown of protein.
creatine phosphokinase (CPK) - Blood enzyme that reflects the level of muscle tissue
breakdown and serves as an indicator of protein metabolism
creatinphosphate - An energy-rich substance that plays a crucial role for providing
energy in short-term highly intense exercises.
detraining - Decrease in functional capabilities of an athlete due to insufficient
training stimuli.
erythropoietin (EPO} - A hormone, produced by the kidney, which stimulates the
bone marrow to produce red blood cells.
fartlek - The term that is usually used for describing a wide spectrum of non-uniform
continuous exercises
glycogen - The carbohydrate storage located in muscles and liver.
hypoxia - A reduced availability of oxygen to the tissues.
key-exercise (or key-task) - The main element (drill, fight or match) in a single
workout.
key-workout - The most important developmental workout which is focused on the
main training objective.

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maximal anaerobic glycolitic power - Maximum amount of work per minute attained
in exercises where the energy is supplied predominantly by anaerobic glycolitic
reactions.
maximum oxygen consumption (maximal aerobic power) - The maximum amount
of oxygen that an individual can utilize in a defined period of time.
mesocycle-blocks:
accumulation mesocycle - Employed to develop basic motor and technical abilities
and to increase the motor potential of the athlete.
transmutation mesocycle - Employed to transfer the increased generalized motor
abilities into event-specific athletic preparedness.
realization mesocycle - Used for attainment of full restoration and event-specific
readiness for the forthcoming trial or competition.
microcycles:
adjustment - Devoted to initial adaptation to appropriate workloads.
loading - Devoted to fitness development. It is the most widely used type of
microcycle.
impact - Microcycle using extreme training stimuli.
pre-competitive - Devoted to immediate preparation for forthcoming competition.
competitive - Microcycle where the athlete takes part in competition.
restoration - Used for active recovery of the athlete.
muscle buffering capacity - The ability of muscles to tolerate the acid that
accumulates in them during anaerobic workloads.
overload principle - Postulates that a fitness gain requires a load (stimulus) that
exceeds the accustomed to level.
responders (high, medium, and low) - The athletes who manifest a high, medium, or
low response to training stimuli.
sensitive periods - The periods in long-term preparation of the young athlete when
he/she is more trainable in certain motor abilities than at other times.
somatotype - Characteristics of the body that include linear, circular and fat
measurements in human body.
sport giftedness - Predisposition to and higher trainability to a certain athletic activity.
They are referred to as genetically transmitted properties of the individual.
sport talent - Optimal combination of psycho-physiological, anthropometric and
mental properties of the individual that allow him/her to attain sport excellence.

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stretch-shortening cycle - Muscle action consisting of eccentric (stretch) and
concentric (shortening) phases.
supercompensation cycle - Sequence of physiological reactions from a single or
series of workloads to attain a higher than pre-load level of fitness.
targeted ability - The ability (physical or technical) upon which the training workload
has an effect.
testosterone - The predominant male sex hormone.
trainability - The athletes' ability to react positively to training stimuli
training cycles:
microcycle - Small training cycle containing a number of training days.
mesocycle - Medium size training cycle containing a number of microcycles.
macrocycle - Big training cycle containing a number of mesocycles.
annual cycle - Big training cycle containing the preparation for one year.
quadrennial (Olympic) cycle - Training cycle comprised of four annual cycles.
training effects - Changes in the athlete's state induced by training.
acute effect - Changes in body state that occur during the exercise.
immediate effect - Changes in body state resulting from a single workout or/and
single training day.

cumulative effect - Changes in body state and level of motor/technical abilities

resulting from a series of workouts.
delayed effect - Changes in body state and level of motor/technical abilities attained
over a given time interval after a specific training program.
residual effect - Retention of changes in body state and motor abilities after the
cessation of training beyond a given time period.
training means - Refers to all modalities involved in the program.
training block - A training cycle of highly concentrated specialized workloads.
training periodization - The purposeful sequencing of different training units and
cycles so that the athlete can attain the desired state and planned for results.

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 About the Author

Prof., Dr. Vladimir B. Issurin serves as a scientific and

professional coordinator of the Elite Sport Department of the
Israeli Olympic Committee at the Wingate Institute. He
completed his undergraduate studies in Sport Sciences and his
Ph.D. dissertation on aquatic motor fitness and movement
technique of swimmers in the Leningrad Sport University (1963-
1972). His post-doctoral studies on motor/ technical sportsmanship in individual
water sports were completed at Moscow Sport University (1988). He served as a
scientific adviser and head of the scientific group for the USSR Olympic canoe/kayak
team during three quadrennial cycles (1978-1991) and earned two government
awards.

Since 1991, professor Issurin has lived in Israel and works as a researcher in
the Sports Science Department (1991-94), is a professional consultant and coordinator
of the Israeli Olympic National teams (since 1992), and lecturer at the Wingate
coaching school and Wingate Physical Education College. He was advisor of 21
Ph.D. dissertations in the theory, physiology and biomechanical branches of sports
training. As a member of the national Olympic delegations he took part in five
Olympic Games; twice as a team leader of Israeli kayak and swimming national teams
(2000 and 2004). He has over 150 scientific articles in national and international
journals and in edited books and given over 50 international presentations.
He has lectured at universities and coaching forums in Athens, Bangkok,
Florence, Ghent, Gijon, Goteborg, Grand Rapids (Michigan), Jyvaskyla, Kiev, Koln,
Leuven, Lisbon, Madrid, Magdeburg, Moscow, Palma de Mallorca, Pontevedra,
Poznan, Prague, Riga, Rome, St.Petersburg, Sofia, Tashkent, Tallinn, Vilnius and
Volgograd. He has authored or coauthored 9 books. He has received honorary awards
of the Olympic Committees of USSR, Bulgaria and Lithuania. Dr. Issurin is a
member of the International Informatization Academy associated with UNESCO. He
is an Editorial Board member of the Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness
and reviewer for the scientific journals, Sports Medicine and European Journal of
Sport Sciences. Currently his research is focused on the methodology of high-
performance training and further development of the original coaching concepts for
elite athletes. He is a multi-champion of Israel in masters swimming competitions.

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