The design of truss structures allows trusses to withstand significant

forces while remaining lightweight and cost-effective. Truss structures

find extensive applications in bridges, roofs, towers, cranes, and even
spacecraft, where their exceptional strength-to-weight ratio is highly
advantageous.
What is a Truss?

A truss is a fundamental structural element widely used in engineering

and architecture to provide support and stability to various structures.
It is a framework composed of interconnected members forming a
series of triangles, which work together to distribute loads efficiently.
Trusses are designed to withstand tension and compression forces,
making them an essential component in a wide range of applications,
including bridges, roofs, and towers.

Trusses have been utilized in construction for centuries due to their

remarkable strength-to-weight ratio and structural integrity. By
employing triangles, which are inherently stable geometric shapes,
trusses can effectively distribute loads and resist deformation under
various conditions. This ingenious design allows engineers to create
robust and reliable structures while minimizing the amount of material
required.

The versatility of trusses is evident in their application across diverse

fields. In civil engineering, trusses form the backbone of many bridges,
providing strength and stability over long spans. Architects incorporate
trusses in the design of roof structures to create open, spacious
interiors without sacrificing support. Trusses also find utility in the
construction of transmission towers, cranes, and even aerospace
structures, where their lightweight yet sturdy composition is highly
valued.
TYPES OF TRUSSES

Trusses are essential components in structural engineering, providing

stability and support to various types of constructions. They are
composed of interconnected triangular units, offering remarkable
strength-to-weight ratios. Trusses come in several different types, each
with unique characteristics that make them suitable for specific
applications. Here a few types of truss are described below.

KING POST TRUSS

King post truss is one of the oldest and simplest types of truss designs.
It consists of a single vertical central post, two diagonal beams, and
horizontal rafters connecting the post and the beams. This type of truss
is commonly used for small-span roofs and bridges. Its straight forward
design and ease of construction make it cost-effective for simple
structures.

QUEEN POST TRUSS

Similar to the king post truss, the queen post truss features two vertical
posts (queen posts) instead of a central post. These posts are
connected by a horizontal beam called the tie beam, while diagonal
beams provide additional support. Queen post trusses offer increased
stability and can span longer distances, making them suitable for larger
roofs and bridges.

PRATT TRUSS

The Pratt truss is a popular choice for medium to long-span bridges and
roof structures. It consists of diagonal members sloping downwards
toward the center of the truss, while vertical members provide vertical
support. The diagonal members are in tension, while the vertical
members are in compression. This truss type offers excellent load-
bearing capacity and structural stability.
HOWE TRUSS

The Howe truss is a variation of the Pratt truss, with diagonal members
sloping upwards toward the center. The vertical members are in
tension, and the diagonal members are in compression. Howe trusses
are commonly used for longer-span bridges and heavy-load
applications. The design allows for efficient distribution of weight and
provides excellent support for the structure.

WARREN TRUSS

The Warren truss is characterized by its alternating diagonal members,

forming a zigzag pattern. It is commonly used for medium-span bridges,
industrial buildings, and transmission towers. This truss type is
lightweight, economical, and easy to construct. The diagonal members
are primarily in tension, and the vertical members carry compressive
forces.
SCISSOR TRUSS

Scissor trusses feature two sloping members crossing each other and
connected at the center, resembling a pair of scissors. This type of truss
is commonly used in cathedral ceilings, giving an open and spacious
interior appearance. Scissor trusses offer architectural flexibility and are
particularly suitable for spaces requiring larger clear spans.

DIFFERENT TYPE OF TRUSS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

Trusses in civil engineering can be classified based on different

parameters, which includes the determinacy of truss, uses of truss and
also depending on the number of members and joints in the truss.
Based on the structural requirements in design, different types of truss
are provided in the civil engineering design of structures.

Types of Truss Based on the Members and Joints

On the basis of members and joints, a truss can be classified as the

Perfect truss, Imperfect truss and the Redundant truss. It can be
explained as follows:
Perfect Truss: A perfect truss refers to an idealized structural
configuration where every member is essential for the stability and
load-bearing capacity of the overall structure. In a perfect truss, all the
members are subjected to either tension or compression forces, with
no redundant or unnecessary members present. This ensures an
efficient distribution of loads throughout the truss, maximizing its
strength-to-weight ratio.

Imperfect Truss: Contrary to a perfect truss, an imperfect truss features

additional members that are not necessary for the stability or load-
bearing capacity of the structure. These extraneous members, often
referred to as redundant members, do not contribute significantly to
the overall strength of the truss and can be removed without
compromising its stability. Imperfect trusses may arise due to errors in
design, construction, or modifications made during the lifespan of the
structure.

Redundant Truss: A redundant truss is a specific case of an imperfect

truss, characterized by having more members than the minimum
required for structural stability. Redundant members in a truss create
multiple load paths, allowing the structure to distribute and
redistribute loads in different ways. This redundancy provides a safety
margin against unforeseen loads, member failures, or changes in
loading conditions.

TYPES OF TRUSS BASED ON ITS DETERMINACY

Determinacy of the truss refers to its ability to resist external loads and
maintain structural stability. There are primarily three types of trusses
based on their determinacy: determinate trusses, indeterminate
trusses, and partially determinate trusses. Let’s explore these types in
detail:

Determinate Trusses: Determinate trusses are those that can be

analyzed using the equations of statics alone. These trusses have a
specific number of members and joints, which allows for the
determination of internal forces and reactions using equilibrium
conditions. The support conditions, external loads, and member
properties are known and can be precisely determined. Due to their
simplicity, determinate trusses are easier to analyze and design.

Indeterminate Trusses: Indeterminate trusses are characterized by

having more members and joints than necessary to maintain
equilibrium. This excess of members introduces redundant forces and
renders the truss statically indeterminate. To analyze indeterminate
trusses, additional compatibility equations or methods such as the
method of joints, method of sections, or matrix methods like the
flexibility or stiffness methods are employed. These techniques help
solve the additional unknowns and determine the internal forces in the
truss members.

Partially Determinate Trusses: Partially determinate trusses exhibit

features of both determinate and indeterminate trusses. They have
some members that can be analyzed using the equations of statics
alone, while others require additional techniques for analysis. Partial
determinacy can arise from different reasons, such as the presence of
hinges, members with varying cross-sectional properties, or supports
with limited rotational constraints. The analysis of partially determinate
trusses combines the methods used for determinate and indeterminate
trusses, depending on the specific characteristics of the truss structure.

USES OF TRUSSES IN STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Trusses have become indispensable components in modern structural

design, offering remarkable strength and versatility. These frameworks
consist of interconnected triangular units, which efficiently distribute
loads and minimize material usage. Trusses are widely employed in a
variety of architectural and engineering applications due to their
numerous advantages. Here are a few examples of the truss uses
described, which strengthen the concept of students in detail.

Roofing Systems: Trusses play a pivotal role in constructing roofing

systems for both residential and commercial buildings. By efficiently
transferring the weight of the roof to the walls or supports, trusses
provide exceptional strength while minimizing the need for excessive
materials. The triangular arrangement of members within a truss
ensures optimal load distribution, making it ideal for spanning large
areas without requiring additional support columns. This versatility
allows for the creation of open, spacious interior layouts.

Bridges and Overpasses: In civil engineering, trusses find extensive use

in the construction of bridges and overpasses. The ability to span long
distances while maintaining structural integrity makes trusses an
excellent choice for such projects. Truss bridges distribute the weight of
the bridge evenly across the supporting piers or abutments, ensuring
stability and minimizing the risk of structural failure.
Industrial Structures: Trusses are widely utilized in the construction of
industrial structures such as warehouses, factories, and exhibition halls.
These large-scale buildings often require vast open spaces free from
internal columns to accommodate machinery, storage, and operational
activities. Trusses, with their lightweight and high-strength properties,
offer an efficient solution by supporting the roof and transferring loads
to the outer walls. This allows for greater flexibility in space utilization
and facilitates the smooth workflow within industrial facilities.

Sports Arenas and Stadiums: Sports arenas and stadiums demand

intricate design solutions that provide unobstructed views for
spectators while ensuring structural stability. Trusses are frequently
employed to achieve this delicate balance. Their ability to span long
distances, combined with their lightweight nature, allows for the
creation of large, column-free spaces.

ASSUMPTIONS IN TRUSS ANALYSIS

Truss analysis is a fundamental technique used in structural engineering

to determine the internal forces and reactions in truss structures. It
allows engineers to evaluate the stability and integrity of these systems.
However, to simplify the analysis process, several assumptions are
made. These assumptions of the truss analysis have been described as
follows:

Truss Members are Idealized as Straight, Massless, and Infinitely Rigid:

In truss analysis, truss members are assumed to be straight and rigid,
with negligible weight. This assumption enables engineers to neglect
the effects of member deformations due to bending and torsion,
simplifying the calculations. Additionally, it allows for the assumption of
two-force members, meaning that each truss member carries only axial
forces along its length, and no moments.

Joints are Perfectly Rigid: Truss joints are assumed to be perfectly rigid,
meaning that they do not undergo any deformation. This assumption
implies that all forces applied to a joint are solely transmitted along the
member lines, resulting in a zero displacement at each joint. In reality,
joints may experience some degree of deformation or rotation, but
assuming perfect rigidity simplifies the analysis while still providing
reasonable approximations for many truss structures.

Loads are Applied Only at the Joints: To simplify the analysis, truss
loads are typically assumed to be applied only at the joints. This
assumption allows for the calculation of internal forces in each truss
member by applying equilibrium equations at the joints. While real-life
loads may be distributed along the truss members, assuming
concentrated loads at the joints provides a practical and efficient
approach for most truss designs.

Trusses are Plane Structures: In truss analysis, it is commonly assumed

that trusses are two-dimensional plane structures. This assumption
allows engineers to solve for the forces and reactions in a simpler and
more manageable manner. By analyzing the truss in a single plane, the
complexity associated with three-dimensional analysis is significantly
reduced without compromising the accuracy of the results for many
practical applications.

Material Behavior is Linear and Elastic: Truss analysis often assumes

that the materials used in constructing the truss members exhibit linear
and elastic behavior. This assumption implies that the materials obey
Hooke’s law and have a linear relationship between stress and strain.
While this assumption is reasonable for many structural applications
within the elastic limit of the materials, it may not accurately represent
the behavior of materials under extreme loads or conditions.

DIFFERENT METHODS FOR TRUSS ANALYSIS

Truss analysis plays a crucial role in structural engineering, enabling

engineers to determine the internal forces, deformations, and stability
of truss structures. Various methods have been developed over the
years to analyze trusses, each with its unique approach and advantages.
Here a few methods of the truss analysis are described, students can
understand them and practice for those methods to get in depth
understanding of the concepts.

Method of Joints: The Method of Joints is one of the most widely used
techniques for truss analysis. It relies on the equilibrium of forces at
each joint of the truss to determine the internal forces in the members.
By considering the forces acting at each joint and solving equations
simultaneously, engineers can calculate the member forces and analyze
the overall stability of the truss. This method is particularly useful for
statically determinate trusses with simple geometry.

Method of Sections: The Method of Sections provides an alternative

approach to analyzing trusses by cutting through the structure and
isolating specific sections. By applying the equilibrium equations to a
selected portion of the truss, engineers can determine the forces in the
members within that section. This method is beneficial for analyzing
individual members or sections of interest without having to solve
equations for the entire truss. It is especially useful when dealing with
statically indeterminate trusses.

Finite Element Method (FEM): The Finite Element Method is a

powerful numerical technique widely used for analyzing various types
of structures, including trusses. FEM breaks down the truss into smaller
elements, such as bars or rods, and analyzes their behavior based on
the governing equations of elasticity. By solving these equations
numerically, engineers can obtain a detailed understanding of the
internal forces and deformations throughout the truss. FEM is
particularly advantageous for complex truss systems or those subjected
to dynamic loads.

Graphic Statics: Graphic Statics is a graphical method for truss analysis

that utilizes the principles of equilibrium to determine the forces in the
truss members. It involves constructing a force polygon and a funicular
polygon based on the given external loads and geometry of the truss.
By accurately positioning the lines representing the truss members,
engineers can determine the forces in each member graphically. This
method offers a visual understanding of the forces and can be useful
for conceptual design and quick estimations.

SIGNIFICANCE OF ZERO FORCE MEMBERS IN A TRUSS

Trusses, often found in engineering and architectural structures, are

composed of interconnected members that form a stable framework.
In the analysis of trusses, one important aspect is identifying zero force
members. These members do not carry any load and can be crucial in
determining the overall stability and behavior of the truss.
UNDERSTANDING ZERO FORCE MEMBERS

A zero force member is a structural element within a truss that

experiences no internal force when subjected to external loads. In
other words, the forces acting on a zero force member are in perfect
equilibrium, resulting in a net force of zero. These members play a
unique role in the overall behavior of the truss, as they neither
contribute to the load-carrying capacity nor affect the stability of the
structure

SIGNIFICANCE OF ZERO FORCE MEMBERS

Zero force members have practical significance in truss analysis for

several reasons:

Simplification of Analysis: The presence of zero force members allows

for simplification of calculations by eliminating the need to consider
these members in load distribution and stress analysis. This
simplification can significantly reduce the complexity of structural
analysis.

Structural Stability: Zero force members can contribute to the stability

of the truss by redistributing forces and maintaining equilibrium. They
act as braces and help prevent excessive deformations, ensuring the
structural integrity of the truss.

Reducing Material and Cost: Identifying zero force members helps

optimize the design of the truss by eliminating unnecessary members
that do not contribute to load-bearing capacity. This can result in
material and cost savings during construction.
 WHAT ARE PORTAL FRAMES?

Columns and horizontal rafters are normally attached by moment-

resisting connections to form portal frames, which are generally low-
rise structures. The bending stiffness of the members and the rigidity of
the connections provide resistance to lateral and vertical actions, which
can be augmented by haunching or deepening the rafter sections.

In this structure, the plane of the frame remains stable, and there is a
clear span unobstructed by bracing. 50% of construction steel in the UK
is used during the construction of portal frames, making them a very
common building type.

As they’re very efficient to construct over a large area and provide a

large coverage and are used in sectors that need cost-efficient coverage,
such as industrial and storage units, as well as commercial and retail
units.

TYPES OF PORTAL FRAME BUILDINGS

The various portal frame types described below provide an idea of the
types of portal construction available.

Each of the typical features have been illustrated. This information is

not intended to dictate limits on structural forms, rather just give you a
realistic idea of the uses of each.
pitched roof symmetric portal frame

Portal frame featuring a mezzanine floor Often office accommodation

sits within a steel portal frame structure that utilises the use of a
mezzanine floor.

The assessment of frame stability needs to demonstrate the effect of

the mezzanine floor.
Portal frame with internal mezzanine floor

Pitched roof symmetric portal frame These frames are usually

fabricated from UB sections with a large eaves haunch section cut from
a fabricated plate or rolled section. 25 to 35 m are the most effective
and common spans.

Crane portal frame with column brackets

Crane portal frame featuring column brackets In the case where a

travelling crane of up to 20 tonnes is required, brackets can be attached
to the columns of the frame to support the crane rails. By using a tie
member or rigid column base, this reduces the eaves deflection.

The spreading of the frame at the crane’s level is critically important to

how the crane functions overall. Requirements should be agreed with
the client prior to construction along with consent from the crane
manufacturer too.
Tied portal frame

Tied portal frame The horizontal movement of the eaves present in a

tied portal frame along with bending motions in the columns are
significantly reduced. Tie portal frames can be highly effective in
limiting the spreading of a crane-supported structure

Because of the high axial forces that are introduced to the frame where
a tie is used, the use of second-order software should be necessitated
to analyse its overall form.

mono-pitch portal frame

Mono-pitch portal frames Mono-pitch portal frames are generally used

for small spans and because of their proximity to other buildings in the
area. As a simplistic variation of the pitched roof portal frame, these
frames tend to be ideal for smaller constructions of up to 15m span.
Propped portal frame

Propped portal frame In the case where the span of the portal frame is
larger than usual and you don’t have to provide a clear span, a propped
portal frame is suitable. This reduces the size of the rafters along with
the horizontal shear present at foundation level.

Mansard portal frame

Mansard portal frame Mansard portal frames are generally chosen in

the case of large and clear height mid-spans where the eaves height of
a building is minimised in comparison.
Curved rafter portal frame

Curved rafter portal frame Portal frames can be constructed with

curved rafters which are implemented generally for architectural
reasons. Due to transport limitations however, rafters that are longer
than 20m usually require splices. Curved members are usually modelled
for analysis based on a series of straight elements and stability of
curved rafters within portal frames of this type is provided in SCI P281.

As an alternative, curved rafters can also be created using a series of

straight rafters. However, in doing so, it’s a necessity that purlin cleats
of various heights are provided in order to achieve a curved profile for
the rafters.
Cellular beam portal frame

Cellular beam portal frame Rafters can be fabricated using cellular

beams and this is usually the case for aesthetics. However, they may
also be preferred for long spans and where transportation is limited
which imposes a requirement for the use of splices. They should be
carefully detailed in order to preserve their architectural features and
be of an elastic design.
PORTAL FRAME ANATOMY

Buildings with portal frames are made up of transverse frames that are
braced longitudinally. Portal frames and bracing are formed by columns
and rafters. There are two types of end frames (gable frames): portal
frames and braced arrangements of columns and rafters.

Secondary steelwork consists of side rails for walls and purlins for roofs.
Primary steelwork is resisted by secondary steelwork, which supports
the building envelope.

Cladding is used in the walls and the roof to provide a good thermal and
acoustic barrier from the outside of the building. A cladding’s structural
purpose is to transfer loads to secondary steelwork and to restrain the
flange of a purlin or rail to which it is attached.

CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN

It is important to consider a large number of interrelated design

requirements at every stage of the design process in the design and
construction of any structure. This discussion of the design process and
its constituent parts is intended to provide the designer with an
understanding of the relationship between the structural elements and
the final construction of the structure, so that decisions can be made
based on a clear understanding of the implications at each stage.

SECTION AND MATERIAL CHOICE

Portal frame structures are usually made of S355 steel sections. For
plastically designed portal frames, Class 1 plastic sections must be used
at hinge positions that rotate, while Class 2 compact sections can be
used elsewhere.

DIMENSIONS OF THE FRAME

At the conceptual design stage, the height and width of the frame are
crucial to ensure adequate internal dimensions and clearance for the
building’s functions.

DIMENSIONS OF THE CLEAR SPAN AND HEIGHT

Dimensions should be established early in the design process based on

the clear span and height required by the client. It is likely that the
client will require the clear distance between the flanges of the two
columns. Therefore, the span will be larger because of the section
depth. As the design span may be affected by brickwork or blockwork
around the columns, it should be determined whether brickwork or
blockwork is needed around the columns.

In the case of clear internal heights, these are usually measured from
the finished floor level to the underside of the haunch or suspended
ceiling.

THE MAIN FRAME

In general, the main (portal) frames are made from UB sections with a
substantial eaves haunch section, either rolled or fabricated from plate.
Characteristics of a typical frame include:
  Spans between 15 and 50 m

 The clear height of the haunch should be between 5 and 12

metres

 Roof pitches between 5° and 10° (though 6° is commonly used)

 6 to 8 m spacing between frames

 Haunches present between the rafters at the eaves and apex

 An approximate stiffness ratio of 1.5 between the column and

rafter sections

 Light gauge purlins and side rails

 Light gauge diagonal ties between some purlins and the side rails
in order to restrain the interior flange of the frame at certain
points

DIMENSIONS OF THE HAUNCH

Where a haunch is used, its dimensions are critical. A haunch will

reduce the required depth of any rafter by increasing the moments
resistances of the member where applied moments are at their highest.

The haunch will also add stiffness to the portal frame which will reduce
any deflections and it helps to facilitate a sturdy bolted moment
connection too.

Eaves haunchers are typically cut out from the same sized rolled
section that the rafter is. It may also be cut from one that is slightly
bigger. Once cut, it is welded onto the underside of a rafter and its
length generally equates for 10% of the total frame span.
A haunch length is calculated by looking at the hogging moment at its
end which is equal to the largest sagging moment at the apex. Its depth
from the rafter axis to the underside of the haunche equates for 2% of
the total span.

An apex haunch can be cut directly from a rolled section which is the
same size as the rafter or alternatively made from plate. The apex
haunch isn’t usually modelled as part of the frame analysis and is only
used in order to facilitate a bolted connection within the frame.

RESTRAINT POSITIONING

At the initial design phase, the rafter members are selected in

accordance with their cross-sectional resistance to bending moments
and axial force. During the later design phases, stability in relation to
buckling should be verified and restraints positioned with good
judgement.

Selection of the column size plays a big part in buckling resistance as

there generally is much less freedom in terms of positioning the rails to
align with the design’s requirements. This means that the rail
positioning could be dictated by any windows or doors placed in
elevation.

When intermediate lateral restraints are introduced, and it is not

possible due to the columns, buckling resistance determines the
sectional size selection initially. Therefore, it’s crucial to assess at the
early stage whether side rails should be used to provide restraint to the
columns.
Continuous side rails are the only type that is effective in providing such
restraints. Any side rails that have been interrupted by shutter doors,
for example, shouldn’t be relied on as they do not provide the right
level of restraint.

Where the compression flange, rafter, or column isn’t restrained using

purlins and side rails, alternative restraint can be provided using a
column and rafter that stays on the inside flange.

ACTIONS

Advice on actions is located in BS EN 1991. You can also find a

combination of actions listed in BS EN 1990. It is very important that
you use the UK National Annex for the necessary Eurocode part in
order to commence with the construction of such structures in the U.K

PERMANENT ACTIONS

Permanent actions refer to the weight of the structure itself, any

secondary steelwork and external classing. Unit weights of all materials
used across construction should be considered and obtained from each
of the manufacturer’s data. If information cannot be located, such data
can be found in BS EN 1991-1-1.

SERVICE LOADS

Service loads always vary depending on the use of the building that is
being constructed. In any portal frame, heavy point loads can occur
from the use of suspended walkways and other types of elevated
structures. Therefore, it’s crucial to consider with care where any
additional provision may be required.

It depends on the use of the building itself, and if sprinklers are

required in its construction, however, it is normal to account for a load
of 0.1–0.25 kN/m2 on plan over the whole area of the roof.

VARIABLE ACTIONS

Imposed roof loads

Any imposed loads that are placed on roofs are accounted for in the
U.K. NA to BS EN 1991-1-1. However, it will be based on the roof slope
itself. A point load, Qk is given, which is utilised for local checking of
roof fixings and materials and a uniformly distributed load, qk, should
be applied vertically. Note that in the case of imposed loads on roofs,
there should never be a combination of wind or snow.

Snow loads

Snow loads can sometimes be used to determine the dominant gravity

loading. A snow load’s value should be calculated using BS EN 1991-1-3
and its U.K. National Annex. In order to accurately determine a snow
load, it is also advisable to refer to Chapter 3 of the Steel Designers’
Manual.

Any drift condition must be allowed not only in the design of the frame
itself but also in the design of the purlins, which provide support for
roof cladding. The severity of loading, along with the position of
maximum drift, will usually exceed the basic minimum snow load.

Wind action

Determining wind action is crucial, and it can be determined by

referring to BS EN 1991-1-4 and its U.K. National Annex. The Eurocode
will provide a large amount of scope for any adjustments that must be
made, and its annex is an important document.

Wind action is always complex and, without a doubt, will influence any
final design of a building. Therefore, the designer must make a
considered choice when they assess wind actions and choose
appropriate ways to simplify a design process. This also must include
conservative load bearing.

Crane actions

The most utilised crane for any type of building construction is an

overhead crane which runs on beams that are supported using columns.
Beams are carried using cantilever brackets or, where they are heavier
than usual, dual columns. Because of the weight of the cranes
themselves and accompanying loads, effects of acceleration must be
considered by a designer. In the case where simple cranes are used, a
quasi-static approach can be used alongside amplified loads.
Accidental actions

Many common design situations are classified as accidental design

situations and include:

Drifted snow which can be determined using Annex B of BS EN 1991-1-3;

Dominant openings that have been opened which were assumed to be

shut at ULS.

Every project must be thoroughly assessed as to whether any sort of

accidental actions could act on the structure itself.

Robustness

Robustness requirements are in place to ensure that no structural

collapse is out of proportion to its cause. BS EN 1990 outlines and sets
the requirements in order to design and construct any robust buildings
with the prevention of disproportionate collapse under accidental
design situations. BS EN 1991-1-7 provides the reader with details of
how this requirement can be accurately met.

Fire

By law in the U.K., structural steel present in single-storey buildings

does not normally need fire resistance. However, the most common
scenario in which it is required to fire protect the structural steelwork is
seen where preventing fire spread to adjacent buildings, referred to as
a boundary condition, is needed. There are also a few other examples
where this applied. For example, when demanded by an insurance
provider.
If a portal frame is close to a boundary, there are a number of
requirements that are aimed at preventing fire spread by ensuring that
the boundary is intact:

 Use of fire-resistant cladding

 The Application of fire protection of the steel up to the underside

of the haunch

 The provision of a moment resisting bas