(2023-24)

Physics Lab Manual

Class - XII | Major File

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 INDEX

S.NO. EXPERIMENT DATE TEACHER SIGNATURE

1. Ohm’s law

2. Metre bridge

3. Series combination

4. Parallel combination

5. Half deflection method

6. Prism

7. Focal length of concave mirror

8. Focal length of convex lens

9. Refractive index of glass slab using Travelling

microscope

10. Refractive index of liquid (water)

11. P-N junction diode

Calculation :- (i) Resistance of Wire - A
R1 =

R2 =

R3 =

Mean R =

(ii) Resistance of Wire - B

R1 =

R2 =

R3 =

Mean R =

(iii) Resistivity of Wire - A

-4

(iv) Resistivity of Wire - B

-4
 .EXPERIMENT - 1..

AIM:- To determine resistivity of two/three wires by plotting graph of potential difference versus current.
Apparatus:- Two resistance wire, voltmeter, ammeter, battery, key, connecting wire, screw gauge, meter
scale etc.
Theory :- According to ohms law the current ' I ' flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference 'V' applied across its ends provided the physical conditions of the conductor
remain unchanged,
V I V=IR R=
Specific Resistance:-

Observation:- Range of voltmeter = 3 Volt

Range of ammeter = 3 Amp.
Least count of voltmeter = Volt.

Least count of Ammeter =

Length of wire A = 10 cm.
Length of wire B = 15 cm.
Observation Table :-

Voltmeter Reading (V) Ammeter Reading (I) R= Mean (R)

Wire used S. No.
Volt Amp.
1. 2 x 0.05=0.10 3x0.05=0.15 0.66
Wire A 2. 4 x 0.05=0.20 6x0.05=0.30 0.66 0.66
3. 6 x 0.05=0.30 9x0.05=0.45 0.66
1. 3 x 0.05=0.15 4 x 0.05=0.20 0.75
Wire B 2. 6 x 0.05=0.30 8 x 0.05=0.40 0.75 0.75
3. 9 x 0.05=0.45 12 x0.05=0.60 0.75
Observation table for diameter by using screw gauge :-
(i) Screw gauge pitch = 1 mm
(ii) No. of division on circular scale = 100
(iii) Least count of screw gauge =

S. No. Reading of main Circular scale Diameter MSR+

n L.C
scale (N) Reading (n) CSR L.C
Wire A 0 44 0.001 (cm) 0.044 (cm)
Wire B 0 46 0.001 (cm) 0.046 (cm)
Result :- (i) Resistance of wire 'A' (R) =0.66
(ii) Resistance of wire 'B' (R) = 0.75
(iii) Resistivity of wire 'A' = 1.0 10-4
(iv) Resistivity of wire 'B' = 1.2 10-4
Precaution :- (i) All the connection should be neat and tight.
(ii) The ends of the connecting wire must be cleaned with a sand paper.
(iii) Ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter in parallel with the circuit.
Sources of error :- (i) The wire used may not be of uniform area of cross section.
CALCULATION:- (i) S1 =

(ii) S2 =

(iii) S3 =

(iv) S4 =

(v) S5 =

Mean S=
S =2.42
 .EXPERIMENT - 2..
AIM :- To find resistance of a given wire using metre bridge.
APPARATUS:- Metre bridge , resistance wire, connecting wire, key, resistance box, battery, jockey,
galvanometer, meter scale etc.
THEORY :- The metre bridge work on the principle of Wheatstone bridge. Then according to Wheatstone
principle we have -

The unknown resistance can be calculated as,

Where L= Length of wire A to B

100 - l = Length of wire B to C
R = Resistance of resistance box.
OBSERVATION:- Length of resistance wire =20 cm.
OBSERVATION TABLE:-

S. Resistance of Length Length S = (100-l) R/l Mean

No. resistance box (R) A to B (l) cm. B to C (100 - l) cm. S )
1. 1 30 70 2.33
2. 2 45 55 2.44
3. 3 55 45 2.45 2.42
4. 4 62 38 2.45
5. 5 67 33 2.46
RESULT :- The resistance of the given wire=2.42 ohm
PRECAUTION :- (i) All the connection should be neat and tight.
(ii) The plugs in the resistance box must be kept tight by giving them a gentle twist after
(iii) Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it against the wire.
Sources of error :- (i) The bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section along its entire length.
(ii) Due to prolonged flow of current ,the wire gets heated up and its resistance changes.
CALCULATION :-
(A) r 1 wire only -
(i) r = = 2 = 4.66

(ii) r = = 3 = 3.00

Mean r 1 = = 3.83
(B) r 2 wire only -
(i) r = = 2 = 3.55

(ii) r = = 4 = 3.69

Mean r 2 = = 3.62
(C) r 1 and r 2 wire in series combination :-

(i) r = = 2 = 8.00
(ii) r = = 4 = 6.00
Mean r S = = 7.00

Theoretical value rS = r1 + r2 = 3.83+3.62 = 7.45

Experimental value = 7.00
Different value = Experimental value -Theoretical value
= 7.45—7.00 = 0.45
 .EXPERIMENT - 3..

AIM:- To verify the law of series combination of resistance using a metre bridge.
APPARATUS:- A metre bridge, galvanometer, two resistance wire , a resistance box, a jockey, a key, battery,
connecting wire etc.
THEORY:- For a balanced Wheatstone bridge the unknown resistance ( ) of a wire is given by -

For a series combination of two resistance r1 and r2 the combination resistance (rs) is given by -
rs = r1 + r2

OBSERVATION:- (i) Length of first wire = 15 cm

(ii) Length of second wire = 20 cm
OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Resistance Resistance of Length Length Resistance Mean

S. No. resistance box
connected A to B ( L ) B to C r = (100-L) R/L Resistance
(R) cm (100-L)cm (r)
r 1 wire only 1. 2 30 70 4.66
r1 = 3.83
2. 4 50 50 3.00
r 2 wire only 1. 2 36 64 3.55
r2 = 3.62
2. 4 52 48 3.69
r1 and r2 1. 2 20 80 8.00
wire in series rS = 7.00
2. 4 40 60 6.00

RESULT:- Within the limit of experimental error, the experimental and the theoretical values of the series
combination of resistances are equal. So the law of combination of series stands verified.
PRECAUTIONS :- (i) Make all the connection properly .
(ii) Insert the key only when the observations are to be taken.
(iii) The wire should be stretched and it should not make a loop.
SOURCES OF ERROR:- (i) Loose screw of the instrument may cause error.
(ii) Non uniform area of cross-section in the wire may cause error.
CALCULATION:- (A) r1 wire only -

(i) r= = 2 = 3.26

(ii) r = = 4 = 3.27

Mean r1 = = 3.26
(B) r2 wire only -
(i) r= = 2 = 3.00

(ii) r= = 4 = 3.40

Mean r2 = = 3.20

(C) r1 and r2 wire in parallel combination :-

(i) r= = 2 = 1.07

(ii) r = = 4 = 1.20

Mean rp = = 1.14

rp = = = 1.61

Theoretical value = 1.14

Experimental value = 1.61
Different value = Theoretical value-experimental value
= 1.61-1.14=0.47
 .EXPERIMENT - 4..
AIM :- To verify the law of parallel combination of resistance using metre bridge.
APPARATUS :- A metre bridge , galvanometer, two resistance wire, resistance box, jockey, key, battery,
Connecting wire, etc.
THEORY:- For a balanced Wheatstone bridge the resistance (r) of wire is given by -

For a parallel combination of two resistance r1 and r2, the net resistance (rp) is given by -

rp =

OBSERVATION:- (i) Length of first wire = 10 cm

(ii) Length of second wire = 15 cm
OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Resistance Resistance Length Length Resistance Mean

S. of resistance A to B B to C r = (100 - L) Resistance
connected No. Box (R) ( L ) cm (100 - L) cm R/L rp ( )

1. 2 38 62 3.26
r 1 wire only r 1 = 3.26
2. 4 55 45 3.27
1. 2 40 60 3.00
r 2 wire only r 2 = 3.47
2. 4 54 46 3.40
r 1 and r 2 wire in 1. 2 65 35 1.07 rp = 1.20
parallel 2. 4 75 25 1.33

RESULT:- Within the limits of experimental error the experimental and the theoretical values of the parallel
combination of resistance are equal. So the law of parallel combination of resistance stands
verified.
PRECAUTIONS:- (i) Draw the circuit diagram before making connections.
(ii) The connections should be neat and tight.
(iii) The plugs of the resistance box should be tight.
SOURCES OF ERROR:- (i) Area of cross-section of wire may not be uniform.
(ii) Heating of the wire may cause an error.
(iii) Resistance of copper strips , though negligible may cause an error.
CALCULATION - (A) RESISTANCE OF GALVANOMETER :-

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

(v)

Mean

(B) FIGURE OF MERIT OF THE GALVANOMETER:-

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

Mean

Amp/
 .EXPERIMENT - 5..

AIM :- To determine the resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method and to find its figure of merit.
APPARATUS :- A galvanometer , a battery, high resistance box, low resistance box, two one way key,
voltmeter, connecting wire and sand paper.
THEORY:- (i) The resistance G of a galvanometer by half deflection method is given by-

Where R is the resistance in series with the galvanometer and S is shunt resistance.

(ii) The figure of merit of the galvanometer is given by-

Where 'Q' is the deflection produced with series resistance 'R' and 'E' is the e.m.f. of the battery.

OBSERVATION & OBSERVATION TABLE:- (i) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method.

Deflection in Resistance Half deflection Resistance of Mean

Resistance of
galvanometer of shunt in galvanometer galvanometer Resistance of
S. high resistance
resistance Q / 2 (division) = R.S/R-S galvanometer
No. box (R) Q (division)
box (S) G( )
1. 6000 28 100 14 101.69
2. 7000 24 100 12 101.45
3. 8000 20 100 10 101.26 101.30
4. 9000 18 100 9 101.12
5. 10000 16 100 8 101.01
(ii) Figure of merit of the galvanometer

Resistance of high Full deflection in Figure of merit Mean figure of

S. No. resistance box (R) galvanometer K=E/(R+G) x Q merit (K)
Q (division) Amp/div. Amp/div.
1. 6000 28 1.17x10-5
2. 7000 24 1.17x10-5 1.19x10-5
3. 8000 20 1.23x10-5
4. 9000 18 1.22x10-5

E.M.F. of battery = 2 Volt.

Resistance of the galvanometer = 101.30
Total number of division on either side of zero mark of the galvanometer scale, M = 60 division.
RESULT:- (i) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method,
(ii) Figure of merit of the galvanometer,

PRECAUTION:- (i) All the connection should be neat, clean and tight.
(ii) The value of the series resistance R should be large. This ensures correct value of G.

SOURCES OF ERROR:- (i) The plugs in the resistance bones may not be clean or tight.
(ii) The emf of the battery may not be constant.
CALCULATION:- Angle of prism A=60°

Angle of minimum deviation (Dm.) = 38°

( ) ( )
 .EXPERIMENT - 6..

AIM:- To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a glass prism by plotting graph between the
angle of incidence and the angle of deviation and determine the refractive index of materials of the
prism.
APPARATUS :- Drawing board, prism, Drawing pins, Protector, Meter scale, white sheet, etc.
THEORY :- The refractive index of glass prism is -
𝐴 + 𝐷𝑚
s n( )
𝜇
𝐴
sn

A = Angle of prism
Dm. = Angle of minimum deviation
OBSERVATION:- Angle of prism = 60°
OBSERVATION TABLE :-

S. No. Angle of incidence Angle of deviation Angle of minimum

(i) (d) deviation (Dm.)
1. 30° 48°
2. 35° 43.5°
3. 40° 40°
4. 45° 39° 39°
5. 50° 40.5°
6. 55° 42.5°
7. 60° 44°

RESULT:- From the graph minimum deviation angle Dm. = 39°

Degree and refractive index µ =1.50
PRECAUTION:- (i) The pins should be fixed with care.
(ii) The pins should be placed vertically.
(iii) The angle of incidence should lie between 30° and 60°
SOURCES OF ERROR:- (i) Measurement of the angle may be wrong.
(ii) Pin pricks may be thick.
CALCULATION:-
(i) = -- = =

(ii) = = =

(iii) = = =

(iv) = -- = =

(v) = = =

Mean =
 .EXPERIMENT - 7..

AIM :- To find the value of 'V' for different values of 'U' in case of a concave mirror and to find its focal
length.
APPARATUS:- An optical bench, knitting needier, a concave mirror, half meter scale etc.
THEORY:- The relation between the object distance u, image distance v and focal length f of a concave
mirror is given by the mirror formula -

( )

According to new Cartesian sign convention, u and v are both negative when a concave mirror forms a real
image. Also , f is negative for a concave mirror.

OBSERVATION :- (i) Rough focal length of concave mirror = 20 cm.

(ii) Length of knitting needle = 8 cm.
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
Position of Position of Position of Object Image 1/u 1/v Focal length
S. concave object image distance distance (cm) (cm) F= u.v /u-v
No. mirror (P) needle (O) needle (I) u (cm) V (cm) (cm)
1. 95 72 10 23 85 0.043 0.011 18.11
2. 95 71 15 24 80 0.041 0.012 18.46
3. 95 70 22 25 73 0.040 0.013 18.62
4. 95 69 30 26 65 0.038 0.015 18.57
5. 95 68 40 27 55 0.037 0.018 18.10

Mean = ―18.37 cm

RESULT :- The focal length of concave mirror = ―18.37 cm

The focal length of concave mirror u-v graph f = 20 cm.
PRECAUTIONS :- (i) The principal axis of the mirror should be horizontal and parallel to the length of the
optical bench.
(ii) The uprights should be rigid and vertical.
(iii) To locate the position of the image the eye must be held at a distance of about 30
cm from the image needle.
SOURCES OF ERROR :- (i) The uprights may not be vertical.
(ii) Parallax might not have been removed completely.
CALCULATION:-
(i) = = =

(ii) = = =

(iii) = = =

(iv) = = = 10.6

(v) = = =

Mean - =
 .EXPERIMENT - 8..
AIM :- To find the focal length of convex lens by u-v method and plotting graphs between u and v or 1/u and
1/v
APPARATUS:- Optical bench, lens holder, knitting needle, convex lens, meter scale, etc.
THEORY:- Focal length of convex lens is -

=
u = object distance
v = image distance
OBSERVATION :- (i) Rough focal length of convex lens = 10 cm
(ii) Length of knitting needle=8 cm
OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Position of Position of Position of Object Image Focal length

object convex image distance distance 1/-u 1/v
S. F=uv/u-v
No. needle lens (L) cm needle (I)cm -(u) cm (v) cm cm cm
(cm)
(O) cm

1. 95 50 36.5 45 13.5 0.022 0.074 10.38

2. 90 50 35.8 40 14.2 0.025 0.070 10.47
3. 85 50 35.0 35 15.0 0.028 0.066 10.50
4. 80 50 33.5 30 16.5 0.033 0.060 10.64
5. 75 50 30.5 25 19.5 0.040 0.051 10.95

Mean = 10.58 cm

RESULT :- Mean focal length of convex lens is

PRECAUTION :- (i) The heights of the tips of the needles and the pole of the lens should be the same.
(ii) Parallax should be removed from tip to tip between needle and the image of the object
needle.
(iii) The uprights should be in a vertical way and principle axis of the lens should be
horizontal
SOURCES OF ERROR:- (i) The uprights may not be vertical.
(ii) The parallax removal may not be perfect.
CALCULATION :-
(i) = = = 1.35

(ii) = = = 1.34

(iii) = = = 1.30

(iv) = = = 1.31

Mean =

= = 1.32
 .EXPERIMENT - 9..
AIM :- To find the refractive index of liquid (water) using a concave mirror.
APPARATUS :- A concave mirror , water, an optical needle, a clamp stand, one meter scale , plumb line etc.
THEORY :- Using Snell law for light ray undergoing refraction from air to water.

µ=

µ=

OBSERVATION:- Rough focal length of the concave mirror,

OBSERVATION TABLE:-
LIQUID (WATER ) :-

Real depth Apparent depth Real depth/Apparent

S. No. Mean
DR (cm) DA (cm) depth

1. 29.0 21.4 1.35

2. 31.0 23.0 1.34 1.32
3. 32.0 24.6 1.30
4. 33.5 25.5 1.31

RESULT:-The refractive index of liquid (water)

PRECAUTION :- (i) The principal axis of the concave mirror should be vertical.
(ii) The optical needle should be clamped horizontally so that its tip lies just above the pole
of the mirror and on its principal axis.
SOURCES OF ERROR:- (i) Thickness of the mirror may be large.
(ii) Parallax might not have been removed completely.
CALCULATION :-

(i) = 1.50

(ii) = 1.69

(iii) = 1.35

Mean = = 1.51
 .EXPERIMENT - 10..

AIM :- To determine the refractive index of glass slab by using travelling microscope.
APPARATUS:- Travelling microscope, glass slab, chalk powder, marker, white paper sheet, etc.
THEORY:- Refractive index of glass slab is -

µ=

µ=
Real depth = - R1
Apparent depth = R3 - R2

OBSERVATION :- (i) Range of main scale =15 cm

(ii) Total no. of division in main scale = 300
(iii) Minimum reading of main scale = = 0.05 cm
(iv) Total no. of division in vernier scale = 50
(v) Least count of travelling microscope = =
0.05/50=0.001 cm
OBSERVATION TABLE :-
Mark without
Mark with glass Apparent Refractive
glass slab Mark with glass Real depth
S.NO. slab + chalk powder depth index of
(MSR + VSRXLC) slab (MSR + R3 - R1 (cm)
(MSR + VSRXLC) R3 R3 - R2 (cm) glass slab
R1 VSRXLC) R2

1. 6.704 7.402 8.803 2.099 1401 1.50

2. 6.708 7.513 8.910 2.202 1.297 1.69
3. 6.918 7.451 8.955 2.037 1.509 1.35

Mean = 1.51

RESULT:- The refractive index of glass slab = 1.51

PRECAUTION:- (i) The microscope should be moved only focused with care.
(ii) The microscope screw should be moved only is one direction in order to avoid back.
(iii) The particle used should be pretty fine.
SOURCE S OF ERROR :- (i) The microscope scale may not be properly calibrated.
 Figure (A) PN Junction diode in forward bias Figure (B) PN Junction diode in reverse bias

CALCULATION:- (A) Forward bias:

(i) Dynamic resistance R=V/I=0.8-0.76/(5-3) 10-3=0.04/2 10-3=20 Ω
(ii) Static resistance r=V/I=0.8/5 10-3=160 Ω
(B) Reverse bias:
(i) Dynamic resistance R=V/I=6-5/(24-20) 10-6=2.5 105 Ω
(ii) Static resistance r=V/I=6/24 X 10-6=2.5 105 Ω
 .EXPERIMENT - 11..

AIM :- To draw the I-V characteristic curve for a p-n junction diode in forward bias and reverse bias.
APPARATUS :- Two voltmeter, millimeter, micro ammeter, battery, one way key, connecting wire, p-n
junction, etc.

THEORY:- Dynamic resistance R= 
Static Resistance r =

OBSERVATION:- (A) Forward bias :

(i) Range of voltmeter = 1 (volt.)
(ii) Range of millimeter= 10 (mA)
(iii) Least count of voltmeter = range/ no. of division =1/50 = 0.02 (Volt.)
(iv) Least count of millimeter =range/no. of division = 10/50 = 0.2 (mA)
(B) Reverse bias:
(i) Range of voltmeter = 50 (volt.)
(ii) Range of micro ammeter = 100 (µA)
(iii) Least count of voltmeter = range/no. of division = 2/10=0.2 (volt.)
(iv) Least count of micro ammeter = range/no. of division =100/50 =2 (µA)
OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Forward Bias Ammeter Reverse Bias Ammeter

S. No. Voltmeter Reading Voltmeter
Reading (I) mA Reading (I) µA
(V) volt. Reading (V) volt.

1. 0.20 0.2 2 2
2. 0.32 1.0 4 3
3. 0.46 2.0 6 4
4. 0.66 4.0 8 5
5. 0.80 5.5 10 9

RESULT:- The forward bias and reverse bias characteristics of the given p-n junction diode are shown on two
sheets of graph paper.
PRECAUTION :- (i) All of the collections must be neat and tight.
(ii) The ends of the connecting wire should be cleaned using sand before making any
collections.
(iii) The current should be passed for the minimum possible time.
SOURCES OF ERROR:- (i) The markings on the millimeter and voltmeter may not be accurate.
(ii) The p-n junction diode supplied may be vary.