Capstone Project

Executions
Project Report On
AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR
CORRECTION USING AURDINO UNO.
 Government Polytechnic, Jalgaon
Academic Year: 2020-21
Program: Diploma In Electrical Engineering
Scheme: I
Semester: EE6I
Course: Capstone Project-Execution
Course code:

A Project Report On
AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR CORRECTION USING AURDINO
UNO.
Submitted By:
‘CPP-Q Group’

Roll no. Name Enrollment No.

57 Ketan k. Lohar 1800180370
60 Wagh Pawan J. 1800180374
63 Prabudha S. Sonawane 1800180379
70 Ganesh A. Patil 1900180187

Guide Name: Shri. N. O. Jadhav sir

GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC, JALGAON

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 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Annexure A

CERTIFICATE

This is certified that Mr. 1. k.k.Lohar (1800180370) 2. Wagh P.J.

(1800180374) 3.P.S.Sonawane (1800180379) 4.G.A.Patil (1900180187) from
Government Polytechnic, Jalgaon has completed Semester VIth Final Project
Report having title Automatic Power Factor Correction using Arduino Uno
in group consisting of 04 persons under the guidance of the Faculty Guide.

Project Guide CPP In-charge Head of Department

Shri. N.O. Jadhav Mis. S.R. Sraaf Shri. A.S. Zope

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 ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC, JALGAON

Annexure B

Portfolio for Self-Directed Learning for Major Project Work

Name of Student: ……………………………………………………………..

Semester: VIth Program/ Branch: Electrical Engineering

Roll Number: …………….

Title of Project: Automatic power factor correction using Arduino Uno.

Name and Designation of Project Guide: Shri. N.O. JADHAV (Lecturer in

EED)

Name of college : Government Polytechnic, Jalgaon.

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 Teacher Evaluation Sheet (ESE)
For
Capstone Project Execution

Name of Student/Group : CPP-Q

Name of Programme : Electrical Engineering Semester: VIth
Course Title and Code: Capstone Project Executions (22060)
Title of Capstone Project: Automatic Power Factor Correction Using Arduino Uno
A. POs addressed by Capstone Project
a. Problem analysis and design /development of solution
b. Engineering tools, experimentation and testing
c. Engineering practices for society, sustainability and environment
d. Project management and lifelong learning
B. COs addressed by Capstone Project
a. Write the problem/ task specifications in existing system related to the occupation.
b. Select, collect and use required information/knowledge to solve the problem/complete the
task.
c. Logically choose relevant possible solutions.
d. Assess the impact of project on society.
C. OTHER LEARNING OUTCOME ACHIEVED BY THIS PROJECT
a. Unit Outcome (Cognitive Domain)
1. The ability to recall data and information.
2. The ability to utilize an abstraction or to use knowledge in new situation.
3. The ability to come up with judgments about more important concepts.
4. The ability to differentiate facts and opinion.
b. Practical Outcome (In Psychomotor Domain)
1. Manipulation of activities/tasks based on the instructions.
2. Performed certain actions with some level of expertise and precision.
3. Development of articulation.
4. Naturalization of performance.
c. Affective Domain Outcome
1. Increment in physical abilities such as flexibility, agility, dexterity, strenuous efforts for
long period.
2. Expressive and interpretive movement that communicates meaning without the aid of
verbal commands.
3. The ability to organize different values information and ideas to relate them with work.
D. SUGGESTED RUBRIC FOR ASSESSMENT OF CAPSTONE PROJECT

Roll no. Name Enrollment No. Marks (25)

Ketan K. Lohar 1800180370
Wagh Pawan J. 1800180374
Prabudha S. Sonawane 1800180379
Ganesh A. Patil 1900180187

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We the students of CPP-Q GROUP driving our great pleasure in

expressing our sincere gratitude towards our principal Shri M. V. Ingle sir for
giving us an opportunity to do this project. We would like to express our
gratitude towards our HOD Shri. A.S. Zope sir for his valuable suggestions and
guidance throughout the project planning. And we particularly thanks to our
project mentor Shri. N.O. Jadhav Sir for his continues guidance support and
motivation throughout the project.
We thank all of them sincerely, who has helped us directly and
indirectly..

Students of CPP - Q Group

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 ABSTRACT
As the world has globally almost 90% of industrial load and further 60-70%
inductive loads i.e. induction motors , ultimately we are wasting a part of the
electrical energy everyday due to the lower power factor further one can say due
to lack of prevention against lagging power factor.By keeping a aim to reduce the
losses due to lower power factor, we the students of CPP-Q Group looking
forward to build our planned ‘Automatic power factor correction using
Arduino Uno’ which will work Automatically to correct the lower Power factor
with the help of programmed microcontroller.

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 CONTENTS

Chapter Name Page no.

no

1 Literature survey ( problem 9

identification and specification)
2 Introduction (background of industry 14
user based problem)
3 Problem solving methodology 18

4 Design and working process 36

5 Bibliography and References 44

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 CHAPTER – 1
LITERATURE SURVEY
(PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND SPECIFICATION)

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 1.1 Power factor
In electrical engineering, the power factor of an AC electrical power system is
defined as the ratio of the real power absorbed by the load to the apparent power
flowing in the circuit, and is a dimensionless number in the closed interval of −1
to 1. A power factor of less than one indicates the voltage and current are not in
phase, reducing the average product of the two. Real power is the instantaneous
product of voltage and current and represents the capacity of the electricity for
performing work. Apparent power is the product of RMS current and voltage.
Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-
linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the
apparent power may be greater than the real power. A negative power factor
occurs when the device (which is normally the load) generates power, which
then flows back towards the source.
In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current
than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power
transferred. The higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution
system, and require larger wires and other equipment. Because of the costs of
larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a
higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low power
factor.
1.2 Causes of Low Power Factor:
The first and the foremost cause of a low power factor is the operation of
highly inductive loads in the power system. As in a pure inductive circuit,
current lags voltage by 90⁰, this large difference in phase angle between the
current and voltage causes zero power factor. Basically, all those circuits
having capacitance and inductance (except tuning circuit or resonant circuit,
where inductive reactance (Xl) is equal to capacitive reactance (Xc), so the
circuit becomes a resistive circuit), will cause a low power factor because
the inductance and capacitance causes a difference of phase (φ) between the
current and voltage.
*Following are the causes of low power factor:
1) Single Phase and Three Phase Induction motors, having a power factor of
0.8-0.9 at full load and 0.2-0.3 at small load while it may be at no-load.
2) Varying load in the power system is another major cause of low power
factor. As we know the load on a power system varies as is evident from the

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load curves. During low load period, supply voltage is increased which
increases the magnetizing current which causes the decreased power factor.
3) Industrial heating furnaces are highly inductive and thus cause a low power
factor on the power system.
4) Electrical discharge lamps (high intensity discharge lamps), Arc lamps etc.
operate at a very low power factor.
5)Transformers
6) Harmonic currents.

1.3 Disadvantage of Low Power Factor:

Power factor plays an important role in AC circuits and power dissipation in
the power system is dependent on the power factor of the system. We know
that the power in a three phase AC circuit is:
P = √3 V × I cosφ
And the current on a three phase AC circuit is:
I = P / (3 V × cosφ)

Also the power in a single Phase AC circuit is:

P = V × I cosφ
And the current on a three phase AC circuit is:
I = P / (V × I cosφ)
It is evident from the equations for the currents that the current is
proportional to cosφ i.e. power factor. In other words, as the power factor
increases the net current flowing in the system decreases and when the
power factor decrease the net current in the system increases. The increased
current incase of low power factor condition leads to following
disadvantages:

1.3.1 Large copper losses:

We know that the line loss or copper loss is the loss of power in the
transmission lines or the windings in case of machines and it is directly
proportional to the square of current (I2). The total power loss is given by:

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 P = I2 × R
Where ‗R‘ is the line resistance in Ohms (Ω).
That means the larger the current the larger is the line loss.

1.3.2 Large kVA rating and size of electrical equipment’s and

switch gear:
As we know that almost all electrical machinery (Transformers,
alternators, switchgear etc.) are rated in kVA. But from the given equation:
Cosφ = kW / kVA
It is clear that the power factor is inversely proportional tp the kVA. Therefore,
the lower the power factor, the larger the kVA rating of machines and also
larger the size of machines.
1.3.3 Greater conductor size and costs:
In case of low power factor conditions on the power system the current will
be increased. In order to transmit this high current the conductor size will
have to be increased. As the size of conductor increases, the cost of the
material, support structure, manpower required also increases manifold,
leading to an overall increase in the cost.

1.3.4 Poor Voltage Regulation and large voltage drop:

The voltage drop in the power system is given by:
V = I×Z
Now, in case of a low power factor, the overall current in the circuit will be
increased. So the larger the current the larger is the voltage drop.
As Voltage Regulation is the change in voltage from no-load to full-load
expressed as a percentage of no-load voltage and is given by:
V.R = ((V no-load – V full-load)/V full-load) ×
100
case of low power factor (lagging) there would be a large voltage drop
which leads to a low voltage regulation. Therefore, in order to maintain the
voltage drop within permissible limits we have to install extra regulation
equipments such as voltage regulators.

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1.3.5 Low efficiency:
In case of low power factor, it results in a large voltage drop and line losses,
which decrease the efficiency of the equipment in particular or the whole of
the power system in general to decrease. In addition, as a result of increased
line losses, the alternator would require higher excitation, thus generation
efficiency would be low.

1.3.6. Penalty from Power Supply Company:

Electrical power supply companies have to bear the brunt of low power
factor by installing equipments and transmission lines of higher ratings,
larger sizes and of higher ratings. In addition they may have to install power
factor correction equipment. Thus, the power utility companies impose a
penalty on the consumers whose power factor is below 0.95 lagging in the
electric power bill.

1.4. Need of Power Factor controller:

Power factor correction is a technique of counteracting the undesirable
effects of electric loads that create a power factor less than one. Power
factor correction may be applied either by an electrical power transmission
utility to improve the stability and efficiency of the transmission network or
correction may be installed by individual electrical customers to reduce the
costs charged to them by their electricity supplier.
An electrical load that operates on alternating current requires apparent
power, which consists of real power plus reactive power. Peal power is the
power actually consumed by the load. Reactive power is repeatedly
demanded by the load and returned to the power source, and it is the cyclic
effect that occurs when alternating current passes through a load that
contains a reactive component. The presence of reactive power causes the
real power to be less than the apparent power, and so, the electrical load has
a power factor of less than unity (1.0).
The reactive power increases the current flowing between the power source
and the load, which increases the power losses through transmission and
distribution lines. This results in operational and financial losses for the
power companies. Therefore, power companies require their customers,
especially those with large loads, to maintain their power factors above a

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specified value (usually 0.90 0r higher) or be subjected to additional
charges. Electrical engineers involved with the generation, transmission and
consumption of electrical power have an interest in the power facto of loads
because power factors affect efficiency and costs for both the electrical
power industry and the consumers. .

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 CHAPTER - 2
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF
INDUSTRY

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 INTRODUCTION
Before getting into the details of Power Factor Correction, let us just brush our
knowledge about the term power factor. In simple words, power factor basically
states how far the energy provided has been utilized. The maximum value of
power factor is unity. So, the closer the value of power factor to unity, better is
the utility of energy or lesser is the wastage. In electrical terms, power factor is
basically defined as the ratio of active power to reactive power or it is the phase
difference between voltage and current. Active power performs useful work while
reactive power does no useful work but is used for developing the magnetic field
required by the device. Most of the devices we use have power factor less than
unity Hence, there is a requirement to bring this power factor close to unity. Here
we are presenting a prototype for automatic power factor correction using the 8-
bit AVR microcontroller “Atmega328” as Arduino Uno.

Power factor correction using capacitor banks reduces reactive power

consumption which will lead to minimization of losses and at the same time
increases the electrical system’s efficiency. Power saving issues and reactive
power management has brought about the development of single-phase capacitor
banks for domestic applications. The development of this project is to enhance
and upgrade the operation of single-phase capacitor banks by developing a
microprocessor-based control system. The control unit will be able to control the
individual capacitors in the capacitor bank and will operate in steps based on the
variation in power factor. Current transformer and a Voltage transformer are used
for sampling of the circuit current and voltage, so as to determine the power
factor. The intelligent control using this micro-processor control system ensures
even utilization of capacitor steps, minimizes number of switching operations and
optimizes power factor correction In the present technological revolution, power
is very precious, and the power system is becoming more and more complex with
each passing day. As such it becomes necessary to transmit each unit of power
generated over increasing distances with minimum loss of power. However, with
increasing number of inductive loads, large variation in load etc. the losses have
also increased manifold. Hence, it has become prudent to find out the causes of
power loss and improve the power system. Due to increasing use of inductive
loads, the load power factor decreases considerably which increases the losses in
the system and hence power system losses its efficiency.
An Automatic power factor correction device reads power factor from line
voltage and line current by determining the delay in the arrival of the current

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signal with respect to voltage signal from the source with high accuracy by using
an internal timer. It determines the phase angle lag (Ø) between the voltage and
current signals and then determines the corresponding power factor (cos Ø). Then
the microcontroller calculates the compensation requirement and accordingly
switches on the required number of capacitors from the capacitor bank until the
power factor is normalized to about unity.
Automatic power factor correction techniques can be applied to industrial units,
power systems and households to make them stable. As a result, the system
becomes stable and efficiency of the system as well as of the apparatus increases.
Therefore, the use of microcontroller-based power factor corrector results in
reduced overall costs for both the consumers and the suppliers of electrical
energy.
Power factor correction using capacitor banks reduces reactive power
consumption which will lead to minimization of losses and at the same time
increases the electrical system’s efficiency. Power saving issues and reactive
power management has led to the development of single-phase capacitor banks
for domestic and industrial applications. The development of this project is to
enhance and upgrade the operation of single-phase capacitor banks by developing
a microprocessor-based control system.

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 BACKGROUND OF PROJECT
Electrical energy efficiency is of prime importance to industrial and
commercial companies operating in today's competitive markets. Optimum use
of plant and equipment is one of the main concerns that industries try to balance
with energy efficiency for both economic and environmental reasons. As
society becomes increasingly conscious of its impact on the environment,
reduced energy consumption becomes more desirable, which is an achievable
goal for everyone. Through the use of measures such as power factor correction,
electricity consumption is optimized, which ultimately leads to reduced energy
consumption and reduced CO2 greenhouse gas emissions.
Within a cost-conscious market, payback considerations are also important.
This report identifies the most appropriate application for power factor
correction based on energy consumption, tariff metering, cost payback and
emission reduction. Power factor correction is an appropriate means by which to
improve the power quality of an installation. Its application is dependent though
on the size of the installation and the extent that power factor correction needs
to be applied. The opportunity however exists to make a significant
environmental contribution whilst simultaneously providing economic benefit.
Currently, the effective use of the capacitor bank as power factor
correction device has been its use as a capacitor bank for domestic use. Also
known as energy stability, it will correct power factor based on the concept of
employing a capacitor as a compensator of reactive current in the single-phase
electric circuit. However, this device proves to be less efficient because of its
static operation i.e. the compensation does not vary with changes in the load.
The project titled Automatic Power Factor Correction was developed to
enable operation of a single-phase capacitor bank to control the power factor
such that it follows the change in the load. The present single-phase capacitor
bank was not able to operate with an increase or reduction in the load on the
power system.

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 CHAPTER 3
PROBLEM SOLVING METHODOLOGY

Contents:
3.1. Power Supply
3.2. Current Transformer
3.3. Potential Transformer
3.4. Zero Crossing Detectors
3.5. Summer (X-OR gate)
3.6. Relay Module
3.7. Capacitor Bank
3.8. Arduino Uno

As the power system is being inefficient due to poor power factor, and as
the power factor correction is essential to save the energy and make the
Power system efficient, we are choosing Automatic Power factor correction
which will be controlled automatically through microcontroller ( pre
programmed initially).
 Power supply will be provided through step down transformer
 Current level will be lowered to a optimal value by current
transformer
 Voltege level would aslo be lowered by 1/10 through potential
transformer
 Then after the phase difference between voltage and current will be
determined by ZCD ( zero crossing detectors)
 The data will be send to the micro controller
 Microcontroller will initiate the operation of the particular relay to
connect the capacitor in parallel to the main circuit..
 Accordingly LCD will display the relevant Power factor .

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3.1. Power Supply:
A good power supply is very essential as it powers all the other modules
of the circuit. In this power supply we use step-down transformer, IC
regulators, Diodes, Capacitors and resistors (presets and pots).
3.1.1. Components:
3.1.1.1. Voltage Transformer:
A voltage transformer or a potential transformer is a wire-wound,
static electromagnetic device that is used to transform the voltage
level of input voltage. A transformer has two windings: a primary
winding to which the input is connected and a secondary winding
from which the transformed voltage is obtained. The input voltage is
transformed (either stepped up or down) according to the turns ratio
of the primary and the secondary windings. The transformer used in
the power supply here gives an output of +12V or -12V or a total of
24V for an input voltage of 230V.

Fig: Voltage Transformer/Potential transformer

Voltage transformers are a parallel connected type of instrument

transformer. They are designed to present negligible load to the
supply being measured and have an accurate voltage and phase
relationship to enable accurate secondary connected metering
The voltage transformer used in the power supply is designed for
single phase 230 V, 50Hz. It has three terminals in the secondary side,

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 the output is taken from the two end wires and is equal to 24V,
because the voltage regulator should have an input voltage much
greater than the output voltage.
3.1.1.2. Diodes:
In electronics a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with
asymmetric conductance. It has low (ideally zero) resistance to
current flow in one direction and high (ideally infinite) resistance in
the other.

A semiconductor diode, the most common type today is a crystalline

piece of semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two
electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode has two electrodes, a plate
(anode) and heated cathode. Semiconductor diodes were the first
semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of crystals'
rectifying abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in
1874. The first semiconductor diodes called cat's whisker diodes,
developed around 1906, were made of mineral crystals such as
galena. Today most diodes are made of silicon, but other
semiconductors such as selenium or germanium may also sometimes
be used.

 Main functions:
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current
to pass in one direction
(called the diode's forward direction) while blocking current in the
opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be
viewed as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional
behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating
current to direct current, including extraction of modulation from
radio signals in radio receivers—these diodes are forms of rectifiers.

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 However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this
simple on–off action, due to their nonlinear current-voltage
characteristics. Semiconductor diodes begin conducting electricity
only if a certain threshold voltage or cut-in voltage is present in the
forward direction (a state in which the diode is said to be
forwardbiased). The voltage drop across a forward-biased diode
varies only a little with the current, and is a function of temperature;
this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or voltage reference.
Semiconductor diodes' current–voltage characteristic can be tailored
by varying the semiconductor materials and doping, introducing
impurities into the materials. These are exploited in special-purpose
diodes that perform many different functions. For example, diodes are
used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect circuits from high
voltage surges (avalanche diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV
receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radio frequency oscillations
(tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes), and to produce
light (light emitting diodes). Tunnel diodes exhibit negative
resistance, which makes them useful in certain types of circuits.

3.1.1.3. Resistors:

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that

implements electrical resistance as a circuit element.

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The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage
across the resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by
Ohm's law:

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is

the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of
volts, and ‗R‘ is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms
(symbol: Ω). The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's
terminals to the intensity of current in the circuit is called its
resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant (independent of
the voltage) for ordinary resistors working within their ratings.
Resistors are common elements of electrical networks and electronic
circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic equipment. Practical resistors
can be made of various compounds and films, as well as resistance
wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome).
Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly
analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed
circuits..
3.1.1.4. Light Emitting Diodes (LED):

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs

are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used
for general lighting. Appearing as practical electronic components in
1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions
are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths,
with very high brightness.
When a light-emitting diode is switched on, electrons are able to
recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form
of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of
the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by
the energy band gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in
area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be
used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs have many advantages over
incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster

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 switching. However, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are
relatively expensive, and require more precise current and heat
management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable
output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation
lighting, automotive lighting, advertising, general lighting and traffic
signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to
be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in
advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in
the remote control units of many commercial products including
televisions, DVD players and other domestic appliances. LEDs are
used to create a new form of wireless internet access called Li-Fi, or
light fidelity. LEDs are also used in seven-segment display.

Fig: Schematic of an LED

3.1.1.5. Electrolytic Capacitor:

An electrolytic capacitor is a capacitor that uses an electrolyte (an ionic
conducting liquid) as one of its plates to achieve a larger capacitance
per unit volume than other types, but with performance disadvantages.
All capacitors conduct alternating current (AC) and block direct current
(DC) and can be used, amongst other applications, to couple circuit
blocks allowing AC signals to be transferred while blocking DC power,
to store energy, and to filter signals according to their frequency. Most
electrolytic capacitors are polarized; hence, they can only be operated
with a lower voltage on the terminal marked "-" without damaging the
capacitor. This generally limits electrolytic capacitors to supply-
decoupling and bias-decoupling, since signal coupling usually involves

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 both positive and negative voltages across the capacitor. The large
capacitance of electrolytic capacitors makes them particularly suitable
for passing or bypassing low frequency signals and storing large
amounts of energy. They are widely used in power supplies and for
decoupling unwanted AC components from DC power connections.

Fig: Electrolytic Capacitors (200V, 1000F)

Supercapacitors provide the highest capacitance of any practically

available capacitor, up to thousands of farads, with working voltages of
a few volts. Electrolytic capacitors range downwards from tens
(exceptionally hundreds) of thousands of microfarads to about 100
nanofarads—smaller sizes are possible but have no advantage over
other types. Other types of capacitor are available in sizes typically up
to about ten microfarads, but the larger sizes are much larger and more
expensive than electrolytic (film capacitors of up to thousands of
microfarads are available, but at very high prices).
Two types of electrolytic capacitor are in common use: aluminum and
tantalum. Tantalum capacitors have generally better performance,
higher price, and are available only in a more restricted range of
parameters. Solid polymer dielectric aluminum electrolytic capacitors
have better characteristics than wet-electrolyte types—in particular
lower and more stable ESR and longer life—at higher prices and more
restricted values.

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 3.1.1.6. Ceramic Capacitor:
A ceramic capacitor is a fixed value capacitor in which ceramic
materials act as the dielectric. It is constructed of two or more
alternating layers of ceramic and a metal layer acting as the electrodes.
The composition of the ceramic material defines the electrical behavior
and therefore applications of the capacitor. Ceramic capacitors are
divided into two application classes:

• Class 1 ceramic capacitors offer high stability and low losses for
resonant frequency applications.
• Class 2 ceramic capacitors offer high volumetric efficiency for
buffer, by-pass and coupling applications.

The different ceramic materials used for ceramic capacitors,

paraelectric or ferroelectric ceramics influences the electrical
characteristics of the capacitors. Using mixtures of paraelectric
substances based on titanium dioxide results in very stable and linear
behavior of the capacitance value within a specified temperature range
and low losses at high frequencies. But these mixtures have a relatively
low permittivity so that the capacitance values of these capacitors are
relatively small.

Higher capacitance values for ceramic capacitors can be achieved by

using ferroelectric materials like barium titanate together with specific
oxides. These dielectric materials have higher permittivities, but at the

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 same time their capacitance values are more or less nonlinear over the
temperature range and the losses at high frequencies are much higher.
3.1.1.7. Voltage Regulators (7805, 7809, 7812):

A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant

voltage level. A voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward"
design or may include negative feedback control loops. It may use an
electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending
on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC
voltages.

Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer

power supplies where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the
processor and other elements. In automobile alternators and central
power station generator plants, voltage regulators control the output of
the plant. In an electric power distribution system, voltage regulators
may be installed at a substation or along distribution lines so that all
customers receive steady voltage independent of how much power is
drawn from the line. Voltage regulator is any electrical or electronic
device that maintains the voltage of a power source within acceptable
limits. The voltage regulator is needed to keep voltages within the
prescribed range that can be tolerated by the electrical equipment using
that voltage. Such a device is widely used in motor vehicles of all types
to match the output voltage of the generator to the electrical load and to
the charging requirements of the battery. Voltage regulators also are
used in electronic equipment in which excessive variations in voltage
would be detrimental.

Voltage regulators perform the same function in large-scale power-

distribution systems as they do in motor vehicles and other machines;
they minimize variations in voltage in order to protect the equipment
using the electricity. In power-distribution systems the regulators are
either in the substations or on the feeder lines themselves. Two types of
regulators are used: step regulators, in which switches regulate the
current supply, and induction regulators, in which an induction motor

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 supplies a secondary, continually adjusted voltage to even out current
variations in the feeder line.
HERE we use 3 types of voltage regulators of lm78XX series such as

7805,7809 and 7812.

Fig: Pin out diagram of an LM7805 regulator.

3.2. Current Transformer:

The current transformer is an instrument transformer used to step-down
the current in the circuit to measurable values and is thus used for
measuring alternating currents. When the current in a circuit is too high
to apply directly to a measuring instrument, a current transformer
produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in the
circuit, which can in turn be conveniently connected to measuring and
recording instruments. A current Transformer isolates the measuring
instrument from what may be a very high voltage in the monitored
circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and
protective relays.
Like any other transformer, a current transformer has a single turn wire
of a very large crosssection as its primary winding and the secondary
winding has a large number of turns, thereby reducing the current in the
secondary to a fraction of that in the primary. Thus, it has a primary
winding, a magnetic core and a secondary winding. The alternating
current in the primary produces an alternating magnetic field in the
magnetic core, which then induces an alternating current in the
secondary winding circuit. An essential objective of a current

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 transformer design is to ensure the primary and secondary circuits are
efficiently coupled, so the secondary current is linearly proportional to
the primary current.

Fig: Secondary Winding of a Ring CT

3.3. Potential Transformer:

A potential transformer, a voltage transformer or a laminated core
transformer is the most common type of transformer widely used in
electrical power transmission and appliances to convert mains voltage
to low voltage in order to power low power electronic devices. They
are available in power ratings ranging from mW to MW. The
Insulated laminations minimize eddy current losses in the iron core.

A potential transformer is typically described by its voltage ratio from

primary to secondary. A 600:120 potential transformer would provide
an output voltage of 120V when a voltage of 600V is impressed
across the primary winding. The potential transformer here has a
voltage ratio of 230:24 i.e., when the input voltage is the single phase
voltage 230V, the output is 24V.

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 Fig: Potential transformer used as an Instrument
Transformer

The potential transformer here is being used for voltage sensing in the
line. They are designed to present negligible load to the supply being
measured and have an accurate voltage ratio and phase relationship to
enable accurate secondary connected metering. The potential
transformer is used to supply a voltage of about 12V to the Zero
Crossing Detectors for zero crossing detection.
The outputs of the potential transformer are taken from one of the
peripheral terminals and the central terminal as only a voltage of
about 12V is sufficient for the operation of Zero crossing detector
circuit.
The outputs are fed to the zero crossing detector circuit and one of the
terminals is grounded to establish a reference.

3.4. Zero crossing detector:

A zero crossing is a point where the sign of a mathematical function
changes (e.g. from positive to negative), represented by the crossing
of the axis (zero value) in the graph of the function. It is a commonly
used term in electronics, mathematics, sound and image processing.

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 In alternating current the zero-crossing is the instantaneous point at
which there is no voltage present. Ina a sine wave this condition
normally occurs twice in a cycle.
A zero crossing detector is an important application of op-amp
comparator circuit. It can also be referred to as a sine to square wave
converter. Anyone of the inverting or the non-inverting comparators
can be used as a zero crossing detector. The reference voltage in this
case is set to zero. The output voltage waveform shows when and in
what direction an input signal crosses zero volts. If input voltage is a
low frequency signal, then output voltage will be less quick to switch
from one saturation point to another. And if there is noise in between
the two input nodes, the output may fluctuate between positive and
negative saturation voltage ‗Vsat‘. .Here IC LM358 is used as a zero
crossing detector.

V1 T1
162.584Vpk
50 Hz
0°
V2
12 V
IRON_CORE_XFORMER*
12-0-12 R1

4.7kΩ
8 U1A
3
D1 D2
1
1N4001GP 1N4001GP
2

R2
4 LM358AD

4.7kΩ

Fig: Circuit Diagram of ZCD detector

The 230 V, 50 Hz is stepped down using voltage transformer and a
current transformer is used to extract the waveform of current. The
output of the voltage transformer is proportional to the voltage across
the load and the output of current transformer is proportional to the
current through the load.. These waveforms are fed to voltage
comparators constructed using LM358 op-amp. Since it is a zero
crossing detector, its output changes during each zero crossing of the

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 current and voltage waveforms. The outputs are then fed to the
summer consisting of the X-OR gate.

Fig: Simulation in Multisim Software

The IC operates on a 12V d.c supply applied to pin 8 and pin 4 is

connected to the ground. The current transformer output is fed to pin
no. 2 and 3 where pin no. 3 is grounded. The digital output
comprising of a square wave is obtained from pin no. 1.
As the input sinusoidal signal crosses over to either side of the zero
line, the ZCD circuit toggles its output from 0 (i.e., 0V) to 1 (i.e., 5V),
thereby generating a square wave at its output as is evident from the
waveform given in the figure below.

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3.5 Summer/Adder (X-OR) gate:
1. General description:
The ‘HC86 and ‘HCT86 contain four independent EXCLUSIVE OR
gates in one package. They provide the system designer with a means
for implementation of the EXCLUSIVE OR function. Logic gates
utilize silicon gate CMOS technology to achieve operating speeds
similar to LSTTL gates with the low power consumption of standard
CMOS integrated circuits. All devices have the ability to drive STTL
loads. The HCT logic family is functionally pin compatible with the
standard LS logic family.
2. Features:
 Typical Propagation Delay: 9ns at VCC = 5V,

 CL = 15pF, TA = 25oC

 Fan-out (Over Temperature Range)

 Standard Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 LSTTL Loads

 Bus Driver Outputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 LSTTL Loads

 Wide Operating Temperature Range . . . -55oC to 125oC

 Balanced Propagation Delay and Transition Times

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  Significant Power Reduction Compared to LSTTL

Fig: Pin Diagram Fig: Functional Diagram

Fig: Current and Voltage inputs to the X-OR gate and the
output on purely Resistive
load

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 Fig: Current and Voltage inputs to the X-OR gate and the output
on Resistive and Inductive
Load.

Inputs Output

Na Nb Ny

L L L

L H H

H L H

H H L

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 Note: H = High level voltage (5V) L = Low level voltage
(0V)

3.6. Relay Module:

The relay module comprises of eight electro-magnetic relays which
are controlled by the outputs on the digital pins of the Arduino
microcontroller. The relays are used to switch on the required number
of capacitors as required for power factor correction. The relays are
normally in the ―Normally Open (‗NO‘) state and the contacts are
closed only when the logic on any of the digital pins is high. As the
logic on a pin goes high, the ―Normally Open contacts of the relay
are now closed and the corresponding capacitor in connected in
parallel with the load.
The relay module is interfaced with the digital pins of the Arduino
microcontroller using a parallel port and bus. The relay driver is
supplied with a voltage of 12V from the power supply. Each of the
relays has an LED connected across its terminals to indicate that the
relay has been switched on and is functional.

3.6.1. Relay Driver:

The ULN2001A, ULN2002A, ULN2003A and ULN2004A are high
voltage, high current Darlington arrays each containing seven open
collector Darlington pairs with common emitters. Each channel rated
at 500mA and can withstand peak currents of 600mA. Suppression
diodes are included for inductive load driving and the inputs are
pinned opposite the outputs to simplify board layout. The four
versions interface to all common logic families:

These versatile devices are useful for driving a wide range of loads
including solenoids, relays, DC motors, LED displays filament lamps,
thermal print heads and high power buffers. The

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 ULN2001A/2002A/2003A and 2004A are supplied in 16 pin plastic
DIP packages with a copper lead frame to reduce thermal resistance.
They are available also in small outline package (SO-16) as
ULN2001D/2002D/2003D/2004D.

Fig: Pin diagram of the Relay driver ULN2003A

3.6.2. Relay Operation:
The relays used in the control circuit are high-quality Single Pole-
Double Throw (SPDT), sealed 12V Sugar Cube Relays. These relays
operate by virtue of an electromagnetic field generated in a solenoid
as current is made to flow in its winding. The control circuit of the
relay is usually low power (here, a 12V supply is used) and the
controlled circuit is a power circuit with voltage around 230V a.c.
The relays are individually driven by the relay driver through a 12V
power supply. Initially the relay contacts are in the ‗Normally Open‘
state. When a relay operates, the electromagnetic field forces the
solenoid to move up and thus the contacts of the external power
circuit are made. As the contact is made, the associated capacitor is
connected in parallel with the load and across the line. The relay coil
is rated upto 14V, with a minimum switching voltage of 10V. The
contacts of the relay are rated upto 7A @ 270C AC and 7A @ 24V
DC.

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 Fig: Sugar Cube relays

Fig: Schematic Diagram of the Sugar Cube relay

3.7. Capacitor Bank:

A capacitor bank is a grouping of several identical or non-identical
capacitors interconnected in parallel or in series with one another.
These groups of capacitors are typically used to correct or counteract
undesirable characteristics such as power factor lag or phase shifts
inherent in alternating current electrical power supplies. Capacitor
banks may also be used in direct current power supplies to increase
stored energy and improve the ripple current capacity of the power
supply. The capacitor bank consists of a group of eight (8) a.c
capacitors, all rated at 230V, 50 Hz i.e., the supply voltage and
frequency. The value of capacitors is different and it consists of four
capacitors of 2.5farad, two capacitors of 4.5farad and two
remaining capacitors are rated at 10farads each. All the capacitors

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 are connected in parallel to one another and the load. The capacitor
bank is controlled by the relay module and is connected across the
line. The operation of a relay connects the associated capacitor across
the line in parallel with the load and other capacitors.

Fig: Circuit diagram of Capacitor Bank designed in MATLAB

3.8. Microcontroller:

3.8.1. Introduction:
The Microcontroller or the processing module is an interfacing and
controlling module, that interfaces the various peripherals and other
modules used in the circuit. It integrates the function of various
modules such as the Zero Crossing Detector (ZCD), X-OR gate,
Relay driver (ULN2003A) etc.

3.8.2. Overview:

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 The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the
ATmega328. It has 14 digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be
used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz ceramic resonator,
a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button.
It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply
connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-
DC adapter or battery to get started.
The Uno differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the
FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it features the Atmega16U2
(Atmega8U2 up to version R2) programmed as a USB-to-serial
converter.
Revision 2 of Uno board has a resistor pulling the 8U2 HWB line to
ground, making it easier to pit into DFU mode.

Revision 3 of the Uno board has the following features:

 1.0 pinout: added SDA and SCL pins that are near to the AREF pin and
two other new pins placed near to the RESET pin, the IOREF that allow
the shields to adapt to the voltage provided from the board. In future,
shields will be compatible with both the board that uses the AVR,
which operates with 5V and with the Arduino Due that operates with
3.3V. The second one is a not connected pin that is reserved for future
purposes.
 Stronger RESET circuit.

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  ATmega 16U2 replace the 8U2.

"Uno" means one in Italian and is named to mark the upcoming release
of Arduino 1.0. The Uno and version 1.0 will be the reference versions
of Arduino, moving forward. The Uno is the latest in a series of USB
Arduino boards, and the reference model for the Arduino platform; for a
comparison with previous versions, see the index of Arduino boards.

 Ratings and specifications:

Microcontroller ATmega328
Operating Voltage 5V
Input Voltage (recommended) 7-12V
Input Voltage (limits) 6-20V

Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)

Analog Input Pins 6

DC Current per I/O Pin 40 mA

DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA
Flash Memory 32 KB (ATmega328) of which 0.5
KB used by bootloader
SRAM 2 KB (ATmega328)

EEPROM 1 KB (ATmega328)
Clock Speed 16 MHz

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 CHAPTER 4 :
DETAILS OF DESIGNS, WORKING AND
PROCESSES

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Power:
The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an
external power supply. The power source is selected automatically.
External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter
(wall-wart) or battery. The adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm
center-positive plug into the board's power jack. Leads from a battery can be
inserted in the Gnd and Vin pin headers of the POWER connector. The
board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with
less than 7V, however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the
board may be unstable. If using more than 12V, the voltage regulator may
overheat and damage the board. The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts.

The power pins are as follows:

• VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external
power source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other
regulated power source). You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if
supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through this pin.
• 5V: This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The
board can be supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 12V),
the USB connector (5V), or the VIN pin of the board (7-12V). Supplying
voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the regulator, and can damage
your board. We don't advise it.
• 3V3: A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum
current draw is 50 mA.
• GND: Ground pins.
• IOREF: This pin on the Arduino board provides the voltage reference with
which the microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read
the IOREF pin voltage and select the appropriate power source or enable
voltage translators on the outputs for working with the 5V or 3.3V.

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Memory:
The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the bootloader). It
also has 2 KB of SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM (which can be read and
written with the EEPROM library).

Input and Output:

Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output,
using pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They
operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA
and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of 20-50
kOhms. In addition, some pins have specialized functions:

• Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX)
TTL serial data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of
the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip.
• External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an
interrupt on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value.
See the attachInterrupt() function for details.
• PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the
analogWrite() function.
• SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support
SPI communication using the SPI library.
• LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the
pin is HIGH value, the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.

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 The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5, each of which
provide 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default they
measure from ground to 5 volts, though is it possible to change the upper
end of their range using the AREF pin and the analogReference()
function.
Additionally, some pins have specialized functionality:
• TWI: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin. Support TWI communication
using the Wire library.
There are a couple of other pins on the board:
• AREF: Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with
analogReference().
• Reset: Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used
to add a reset button to shields which block the one on the board.
Communication:
The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a
computer, another Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328
provides UART TTL (5V) serial communication, which is available on
digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An ATmega16U2 on the board channels
this serial communication over USB and appears as a virtual com port to
software on the computer. The '16U2 firmware uses the standard USB
COM drivers, and no external driver is needed. However, on Windows, a
.inf file is required. The Arduino software includes a serial monitor
which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the Arduino
board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being
transmitted via the USB-to-serial chip and USB connection to the
computer (but not for serial communication on pins 0 and 1).
A ‗Software Serial‘ library allows for serial communication on any of
the Uno's digital pins. The ATmega328 also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI
communication. The Arduino software includes a Wire library to
simplify use of the I2C bus; see the documentation for details. For SPI
communication, use the SPI library.

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Programming:
The Arduino Uno can be programmed with the Arduino software
(download). Select "Arduino Uno from the Tools > Board menu
(according to the microcontroller on your board). For details, see the
reference and tutorials.
The ATmega328 on the Arduino Uno comes preburned with a
bootloader that allows you to upload new code to it without the use of an
external hardware programmer. It communicates using the original
STK500 protocol (reference, C header files).
You can also bypass the bootloader and program the microcontroller
through the ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header; see these
instructions for details.
The ATmega16U2 (or 8U2 in the rev1 and rev2 boards) firmware source
code is available. The ATmega16U2/8U2 is loaded with a DFU
bootloader, which can be activated by:

• On Rev1 boards: connecting the solder jumper on the back of the board
(near the map of Italy) and then resetting the 8U2.
• On Rev2 or later boards: there is a resistor that pulling the 8U2/16U2
HWB line to ground, making it easier to put into DFU mode.
Automatic (Software) Reset:

Rather than requiring a physical press of the reset button before an

upload, the Arduino Uno is designed in a way that allows it to be reset by
software running on a connected computer. One of the hardware flow
control lines (DTR) of theATmega8U2/16U2 is connected to the reset
line of the ATmega328 via a 100 farad capacitor. When this line is
asserted (taken low), the reset line drops long enough to reset the chip.
The Arduino software uses this capability to allow you to upload code by
simply pressing the upload button in the Arduino environment. This
means that the bootloader can have a shorter timeout, as the lowering of
DTR can be well-coordinated with the start of the upload.
This setup has other implications. When the Uno is connected to either a
computer running Mac OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is

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 made to it from software (via USB). For the following half-second or so,
the bootloader is running on the Uno. While it is programmed to ignore
malformed data (i.e. anything besides an upload of new code), it will
intercept the first few bytes of data sent to the board after a connection is
opened. If a sketch running on the board receives one-time configuration
or other data when it first starts, make sure that the software with which
it communicates waits a second after opening the connection and before
sending this data. The Uno contains a trace that can be cut to disable the
auto-reset. The pads on either side of the trace can be soldered together
to re-enable it. It's labeled "RESET-EN". You may also be able to
disable the auto-reset by connecting a 110 ohm resistor from 5V to the
reset line; see this forum thread for details.

Physical Characteristics:
The maximum length and width of the Uno PCB are 2.7 and 2.1 inches
respectively, with the USB connector and power jack extending beyond the
former dimension. Four screw holes allow the board to be attached to a surface
or case. Note that the distance between digital pins 7 and 8 is 160 mil (0.16"), not
an even multiple of the 100 mil spacing of the other pins

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Photo of Project Model

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PCB Layout: -

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Working Process:

- Plugin the two pin plug in two pin socket (230 v 50Hz AC Supply only)
- Check the position of all switches as shown on image S1. S2 , S’1, S’2
- put S’1 switch down so it will be in lagging mode , RL series circuit will
come in picture.
- Now the two switches given at left side are for S1 to go for manual mode
, S2 to for automode and when it is UP only that time you will get the
combined PF of total load i.e improved power factor , so it must be in
upper position to know the actual power factor of circuit
- We have connected RL series circuit because it would damage the chock
if we direct connect it across 230 V AC .

- To take readings:
1. First keep the RL series circuit on , positions of switches will be
S1 – up
S2 – up
S’1 – down
S’2 – up
2. By keeping these positions now you can push the black ‘push
buttons’ given exactly in front of S1 and S2

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 3. By pushing these buttons wait for the result , it will take some
seconds .
4. As you get the improved power factor you can even note it down
accordingly .

Testing of project:
As soon as we completed our project work we moved towards the testing of our
project modal got the below readings

Load on No. of Current Power Improved

circuit Compensating lag factor power factor
Capacitor in (In m.sec)
parallel to RL
series circuit
RL - 3.48 m sec 0.57 -
RL ll C 1 1.44 m sec 0.89 0.32
RL ll C 2 0.08 m sec 0.99/ 1 0.10
RL ll C 3 I leads 0.82 -
1.96 m sec

Future scope:-
The automatic power factor correction using capacitive load banks is very
efficient as it reduces the cost by decreasing the power drawn from the supply.
As it operates automatically, manpower is not required and this automated
power factor correction using capacitive load banks can be used for the
industries purpose in the future.

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 CHAPTER - 5
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES

• P. N. Enjeti and R martinez, “A high performance single

phase rectifier with input power factor correction ,”IEEE
Trans. Power Electron..vol.11,No.2,Mar.2003.pp 311-317
• J.G. Cho,J.W. Won,H.S. Lee , “Reduced conduction loss
zero-voltage-transition power factor correction converter
with low cost,”IEEE Trans.Industrial Electron..vol.45,no
3,Jun. 2000,pp395-400
• “The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded Systems” by
Muhammad Ali Mazidi and Janice Gillispie Mazidi.

References
 www.atmel.com
 www.beyondlogic.org
 www.wikipedia.org
 www.howstuffworks.com
 www.alldatasheets.com

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