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Kingdom Protista (ZLY 103)

Occurrence of Protists:

Protista consists of a vast assortment of primarily aquatic eukaryotic organisms

whose diverse body forms, types of reproduction, modes of nutrition, and lifestyles
make them difficult to characterize. Protists are unicellular, colonial, or simple
multicellular organisms that have a eukaryotic cell organization. Protist (Greek word
for “the very first”) are found in water bodies in the form of plankton. Some live in
the bodies of animals as parasites. Hence, their cells are amongst the most complex
organisms. Some taxonomists prefer to use the name Protoctista (Gk. Proto, first;
kristos, to establish), as the word protist is associated with small unicellular
organisms but the group contains multicellular forms.

The major Protoctista phyla include: Rhizopoda (rhizopods), Zoomastigina

(flagellates), Apicopmplexa (sporozoans), Ciliophora (ciliates), Euglenophyta
(euglenoid flagellates), Oomycota (water molds), Chlorophyta (green algae),
Rhodophyta (red algae) and Phacophyta (brown algae).

Importance and Biological contributions of Protoctista

They hold pivotal position in the history of life on earth as they are the first to arise
from prokaryotes and their descendants evolved into animals, plants and fungi. Their
biological contributions in terms of innovation include:-

1. Intracellular specialization (division of labour within the cell)

2. The simplest example of division of labour between tissues is seen in certain
colonial forms that have somatic and reproductive cells.
3. Asexual reproduction with zygote formation was first reported in protists
4. True sexual reproduction leading to zygote formation was first reported in
protists.
5. Taxism in protists represents the initiation of reflexes and instincts.
6. Protective exoskeleton as shown in certain shelled protists.
7. Development of basic enzyme system.
8. They initiated means of movement in aquatic media.
9. All forms of nutrition are reported in the group.
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The Protozoa

Protozoa came from the greek word Protos – first; Zoon – animal. They are basically united
only in being acellular or unicellular. However, they are not a natural phylogenetic group.
Recent classification has placed them in the kingdom protoctista with several phyla. They are
therefore animal-like Protista with the following features:-

1. They are unicellular with some multicellular forms

2. They are microscopic
3. They lack organ/tissue structures but have specialized organelles.
4. They are at protoplasmic level of organization.
5. They are aquatic with some occurring in moist habitations.
6. In sexual reproduction, the whole body act as a gamete or fragments to form gametes.

These animal-like phyla include Rhizopoda (rhizopods), Zoomastigina (flagellates), Apicomplexa

(sporozoans), Ciliophora (ciliates) and Euglenophyta (euglenoid flagellates).

Phylum Rhizopoda

These are commonly known as rhizopods with the following characteristic features:-

 They are unicellular and uninucleated

 They are at protoplasmic level of organization
 Their body is not distinctly differentiated
 They use pseudopodia for locomotion
 They are aquatic with marine and fresh water forms
 They are mostly heterotrophic and free-living. Some are however parasitic, e.g. Entamoeba
histolytica – causes amoebic dysentery in man.
 They reproduce asexually with no record of sexual reproduction
 Examples include Amoeba proteus, Entamoeba gingivalis, Diffugia species, and the
Foraminiferans.

Biology of Amoeba

Amoeba proteus is a microscopic living organism which consists of a single cell. It is about 0.3
mm across and inhabits the mud at the bottom of fresh water ponds because they require a surface
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to crawl. Although it is just a single cell, it exhibits all the essential functions of any living
organism. They have no fixed shape as they lack pellicle, hence the name ‘blob’. Ectoplasm and
endoplasm are prominent (Fig 1). Endoplasm bears one nucleus, many contractile vacuole and
food vacuoles and many small vesicles. It moves with the aid of pseudopodia formed as a result
of cytoplasmic streaming. Respiratory gases are exchanged directly across the entire cell
membrane. They are holozoic feeders living on algae, protozoans and rotifers. These organisms
are ingested by phagocytic action, ingested food is digested within 15 to 30 minutes in the food
vacuole and the undigested wastes are egested by exocytosis. Excretion takes place by diffusion
across cell membrane. Amoeba lives in a hypotonic medium, water regulation is usually a problem,
and this situation is handled by the contractile vacuoles. Growth involves increase in size until it
becomes too large for the nucleus to handle; the animal then divides into two smaller individuals
by binary fission (A typical mitotic division).

nucleus
cell membrane
food vacuole

pseudopodium

ectoplasm
cytoplasm
endoplasm
0.1mm
contractile
vacuole
Structure of an amoeba
Amoeba - locomotion
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Reproduction
1. Amoeba stops moving and rounds off
2. The nucleus begins to divide.
3. The nucleus has divided and the cytoplasm
starts to constrict.
4 & 5. The constriction continues to divide the
cytoplasm.
6. The daughter amoebae separate.
This is a form of asexual reproduction called
binary fission. There is no evidence of sexual
reproduction in this species of Amoeba

Feeding

contractile vacuole
nucleus

pseudopodia closing
around prey

microscopic alga
(e.g.Chlamydomonas)

food vacuole

Amoeba engulfing its prey

Amoeba feeds on microscopic organisms such as single-celled algae and bacteria.

When amoeba encounters a suitable organism, the cytoplasm flows round the prey and engulfs it, with
a drop of water, in a food vacuole.

The cytoplasm secretes enzymes into the food vacuole. The enzymes digest the soft parts of the prey
and the soluble products are absorbed back into the cytoplasm. Any undissolved residue is left behind
as the amoeba flows on.
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Breathing - gaseous exchange

oxygen

maximum distance for

diffusion is about 0.1mm
carbon
dioxide

Because amoeba is so small, the surface area of its cell membrane is very large compared with the small
volume of its cytoplasm. The demands of the respiratory processes in the cytoplasm can therefore be met
by the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the cytoplasm and the surrounding water. Oxygen
diffuses in and carbon dioxide diffuses out.

Phylum Zoomastigina

These are commonly known as flagellates with the following characteristics:-

o They are unicellular and uninucleated

o They are at protoplasmic level of organization
o Their body is not distinctively differentiated
o They possess one or more flagellum utilized for locomotion
o They are aquatic with marine and fresh water forms
o They are usually heterotrophic and free living although quite a number are
parasitic, e.g. Trypanosoma brucei – causes African sleeping sickness
(Trypanosomiasis) in man.
o They reproduce asexually by binary fission without spore formation and recod
of sexual reproduction

Example include Trichomonas virginalis, Trichonympha sp., Giardia sp., and

Leihmania sp.
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Biology of Trypanosoma brucei

T. brucei lives in the blood stream of their host (usually cattle or man) in them it is
essentially a parasite of connective tissue, i.e., blood and lymph where it multiplies
readily. Finally it localises in the brain. They are referred to as haemoflagellates.
They exhibit heteroxenous life cycle i.e. ability to inhabit more than one host during
their development. T. brucei also lives in Tse tse fly (Glossina sp.), which serves as
the vector. The parasite is transmitted by the bite of Glossina sp. T. brucei exhibits
polymorphic forms. It occurs in the vertebrate host as Trypomastigote form.
Trypomastigotes show polymorphism. It is unicellular, elongated with body length
ranging between 15 and 30um.

Structure of Trypanosoma

T. brucei has an elongated body having a streamlined and tapered shape. Its cell
membrane (called pellicle) encloses the cell organelles, including the nucleus,
mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and ribosomes. In addition,
there is an unusual organelle called the kinetoplast, which is made up of numerous
circular DNA (mitochondrial DNA) and functions as a single large mitochondrion.
The kinetoplast lies near the basal body with which it is indistinguishable under
microscope. From the basal body arises a single flagellum that run towards the
anterior end. Along the body surface, the flagellum is attached to the cell membrane
forming an undulating membrane. Only the tip of the flagellum is free at the anterior
end. The cell surface of the bloodstream form features a dense coat of variant surface
glycoproteins (VSGs) which is replaced by an equally dense coat of procyclins when
the parasite differentiates into the procylic in the tsetse fly midgut.
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(i) Short, thick and stumpy forms

These measure 10 µ long by 5 µ broad and without or with a short free

flagellum.

(ii) Long, slender forms:

The short stumpy forms are ingested by the fly. In the gut of the fly the stumpy forms
change to long slender forms and start multiplying for some days. After 15 days they
enter the proventriculus and thence to salivary gland via the buccal cavity. Here they
again multiply and transform to epimastigote and then again to metacyclic, i.e., short
and stumpy forms of trypomastigote.

These measure 20 µ long by 3 µ broad and possess long free flagellum.

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In general, T. brucei is an elongated spindle-shaped organism. The nucleus is large

and centrally located. Kinetoplast is small and is situated at the posterior. The
flagellum starts from the posterior end and runs beyond the anterior end as free
flagellum. The undulating membrane is thrown into 3 to 4 folds.

T. brucei passes its life cycle in two hosts:

(i) Development in vertebrate hosts:

Metacyclic stage of Trypomastigotes introduced by the bite of Glossina (infected)

develop into long and slender forms. At the site of inoculation they multiply by
longitudinal binary fission and transform into stumpy forms to invade the blood
stream.

(ii) Development in Glossina (Tsetse):

The long slender forms migrate into salivary glands via oesophagus and mouthparts
of insects. Here, they metamorphose into the crithidial forms with shortened body,
reduced free flagellum and the kinetoplast in front of the nucleus. The mitochondria
develop an extensive network of cristae and parasite respires more economically as
blood glucose gradually declines. The crithidial forms multiply in the lumen of
salivary glands and transform into slender metacyclic forms. When the tsetse fly
bites a healthy person, it transfers the metacyclic stage into his blood where they
initiate another infection.
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Phylum Euglenophyta:

These are euglenoid flagellates with the following characteristics:-

 They are unicellular but may be multicellular and uninucleated

 They are at protoplasmic level of organization
 The body is not distinctly differentiated
 They possess one or more flagellum used for locomotion
 They are aquatic with marine and fresh water forms
 They feed autotrophically, holozoically and saprozoically (Mixotrophs)
 They reproduce asexually by binary fission without spore formation and
record of sexual reproduction.

Example include; Euglena viridis, Ceratium sp., Paramecium sp. And Volvox sp.

Biology of Euglenoid

It lives in freshwater streams and ponds with considerable organic matter. It is

unicellular, spindle shaped and about 60um long (Fig 6). Its shape is maintained due
to the presence of a flexible pellicle located beneath the cell membrane but absent
around the reservoir. Two flagella originating from separate kinetosomes (Basal
bodies) emerge in the flask-shaped reservoir at the anterior portion of the organism.
Only one of the flagella emerges from the reservoir, as it is quite long. A contractile
vacuole used for excretion and osmoregulation empties its contents into the
reservoir. One nucleus, kinetosomes, chloroplasts that bear chlorophyll occur in the
cytoplasm, hence the greenish appearance of the organism. A stigma (red eye spot),
which assists in orientating the organism to light occur around the reservoir within
the cytoplasm. E. viridis is autotrophic. They may also be heterotrophic and
saprozoic. They reproduce by binary fission and may encyst to survive adverse
environmental conditions.
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Phylum Ciliophora:

These are ciliates with the following characteristics:-

 They are unicellular and binucleate
 They are at protoplasmic level of organization
 Their body is highly differentiated hence they are the most complex protozoan
 They possess numerous cilia for locomotion and anchorage
 They are aquatic with marine and freshwater forms
 They feed autotrophically, holozoically and saprozoically
 They reproduce asexually and sexually by binary fission and conjugation respectively.
Example include; Paramecium caudatum, Vorticellar sp., Balantidium sp. and Stentor sp.
Biology of Paramecium caudatum
Paramecium is a ciliate protozoan. Ciliates’ bodies are covered with fine cytoplasmic hair-like
structures called cilia. Flickering movements of the cilia propel the organism through the water
and also create feeding currents. Paramecium, illustrated here, is a ciliate. They are blunt anteriorly
and pointed posteriorly. They are between 150 to 300um. They are asymmetrical due to the
depression running obliquely backwards. Entire body surface is covered with cilia. Below the
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pellicle is the ectoplasm. It surrounds a larger mass of granular endoplasm. Embedded in the
ectoplasm are spindle shaped trichocysts used for defence and anchorage. It has two nuclei, a large
kidney shaped macronucleus and a small micronucleus fitted into the depression of the former.

meganucleus
(controls basic processes) micronucleus
(controls reproduction)
cytoplasm
contractile
vacuole
contractile
(filling)
vacuole
(about to
empty)) 60µ

food
cilia vacuole

anal pore feeding

cytostome
oral groove current
(cell ‘mouth’)
direction of
movement
Paramecium
Unlike amoeba, paramecium has a distinct and permanent shape and certain areas of cytoplasm,
(cell organelles), are specialized to carry out specific functions.
Locomotion. Individual cilia bend and straighten The whole complement of cilia beat in
rapidly in such a way that the recovery stroke offers a rhythmic pattern, (metachronal
minimal resistance and the bending stroke helps rhythm), so that the waves of propel
paramecium through the water. contraction pass over the cell body
like wind blowing through ripe corn.
power stroke
.
recovery

1. Paramecium
hits an obstacle
If paramecium encounters an obstacle, it reverses
the ciliary beat and moves back. It then changes
direction slightly and moves forward. It will do 3 turns
2 reverses its slightly
this repeatedly until it gets past the obstruction. ciliary beat

This reaction also shows that paramecium is

sensitive to stimuli (in this case, the stimulus of touch). 4 moves
forward
again
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Paramecium - Osmoregulation
Their cytoplasm contains a greater concentration of solutes than their surroundings and so they
absorb water by osmosis. The excess water is collected into a contractile vacuole which swells and
finally expels water through an opening in the cell membrane.
Paramecium has two contractile vacuoles, one at each end, which fill and contract alternately. They
are permanent structures and the surplus water is conducted to the vacuoles by a series of radiating
channels.

vacuole filling vacuole full and about to empty

Paramecium - Feeding
Paramecium and amoeba both live in fresh water pools or ponds and feed on microscopic
organisms such as bacteria and single-celled algae. Amoeba is able to take in food at almost any
point on its surface. Paramecium, on the other hand, can take in food only at the cytostome. The
cilia in the oral groove create a current of water which wafts the food organisms up to the
cytostome where they are ingested in a food vacuole. This food vacuole then follows a specific
route through the cytoplasm. On its travels, enzymes are secreted into the vacuole and the food is
digested. The digested substances are then absorbed into the cytoplasm.
Any undigested matter is expelled through the anal pore. This contrasts with amoeba which can
expel the undigested remains from almost any point.

circuit followed by food

vacuoles slow movement

food particles drawn food ingested undigested remains

into oral groove by into a food expelled
ciliary current vacuole

Paramecium feeding
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Reproduction
Paramecium reproduces, like amoeba, by
binary fission. The ciliate stops moving (1)
and both mega- and micronucleus divide and
move to opposite ends of the organism (2).
The cytoplasm then divides at right angles to
the long axis (3) and the daughter paramecia
seperate (4). Binary fission may take place
2 or 3 times each day.
There is also a complex sexual process in
which two paramecia join by their oral surfaces.
The meganucleus breaks down and the
micronucleus divides. One of the micronuclei
of each individual crosses to the partner and fuses 1 2
with the remaining micronucleus there. The partners 3
then separate and reproduce by binary fission.
4
Binary fission

Phylum Apicomplexa
These are sporozoans with the following characteristics:-
 They are unicellular and uninucleated
 They are at protoplasmic level of organization
 Their body structure is very simple
 They lack locomotory organelle
 They are all parasitic
 They reproduce both asexually and sexually involving spore formation,
 They engage an intermediate host or vectors at a point in their life cycle
Examples include: Plasmodium sp., Toxoplasma gondii, Monocystis sp. and Eimeria sp.
Biology of Plasmodium falciparum
The primary causative organism, Plasmodium falciparum, requires both the Anopheles mosquito
and humans to complete its life cycle. The sexual cycle of the protozoan occurs in the mosquito.
Immature sporozoites in the saliva of the mosquito are transmitted to the human when the mosquito
bites the skin to feed on the blood of man.

In the body of man, the parasites reach the liver, multiply and enter the blood where it attacks red
blood cells for their haemoglobin. The red blood cells rupture to release the merozoites to attack
more red blood cells. Haemozoin, a toxin is also released when the RBC ruptures. This causes chill
and high fever.
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Some of the merozoites are transformed into gametocytes which are sexually mature and are
transmitted back to another biting mosquito. In the mosquito, the gametocytes start the sexual
cycle. The details of the life cycle is summarized in the Figure below. Other four species of
plasmodium causing malaria infection in man include; P. ovale, P. vivax, P. malariae and P.
knowlesi.
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