Understanding curriculum

Definitions of Curriculum

A clear understanding of what curriculum is, helps scholars and students in understanding the
curriculum as a dynamic field in education. Reid (2006) opined that people talk about, write about,
legislate for, teach courses on, and take credits in curriculum; hence, it is important to have a concrete
explanation of what curriculum is.

Many books on curriculum present various images, characterizations, and definitions of the term
curriculum. To analyze or discuss all of these definitions would be a massive endeavor since there are
more than eleven hundred books written about curriculum (Schubert, 1980). Presented in this book are
just a few definitions provided by Saylor (1981), Beauchamp (1982), Schubert (1986), Eisner (1985),
Pinar (1995), Posner (1995), Marsh (2004), Oliva (2005), Glatthorn (2006), and Reid (2006), among
others.

 Curriculum as a list of subjects. This definition suggests that curriculum is the “permanent” or
the traditional subjects offered in the school curriculum such as Mathematics, Language,
Science, Music, Arts, and others.
 Curriculum as learning experiences. This definition includes students’ curricular and co-curricular
activities and the learning experiences they encounter inside or outside the school. This
definition includes the hidden curriculum or those things learned by the students as a result of
their experiences in the school with their peers, schoolmates, teachers, school staff, or the
values they learned from a school program. In short, it includes the school culture.
 Curriculum as intended learning outcomes. This definition includes a list of learning
competencies or standards that students should learn in school.
 Curriculum as planned learning experiences. This includes documents specifying contents,
objectives, or general ideas of what students should know in schools or in a specific discipline.
 Curriculum as a discipline. Curriculum as a discipline has its own principles, theories, and
practices.
 Curriculum as content or subject matter. This definition views curriculum as a series of topics
under each subject area.

It is important that curriculum workers have a common understanding of what curriculum is.
Their personal definition of curriculum defines the curriculum product that they will produce.
Many curriculum projects fail, and many curriculum researches appear vague because of an
unclear understanding of the field of curriculum. Besides this, only few people are experts in
curriculum studies, especially in the Philippines, who may be consulted regarding these projects
and researches.

Different Types of Curriculum

Several curriculum scholars (see Glatthorn, Boschee, and Whitehead, 2006; Print, 1993; Tanner
and Tanner, 2007) cited nine types of curriculum in their books depending on how curriculum is
used in various institutions.
 Ideal or Recommended Curriculum. This refers to what scholars propose as the most
appropriate curriculum for the learners. For example, different professional organizations or
various programs of study in different universities may propose curriculum innovations or
alternative curriculum content as a result of their researches.

Ideal or recommended curriculum may also develop as an alternative response to various

curricular problems and issues. Glatthorn, Boschee, and Whitehead (2006) noted several
influences that seem to play the key roles in shaping the recommended curriculum. These
influences are the professional associations, individuals, and societal trends.

Curriculum standards recommended by professional organizations are examples of ideal or

recommended curriculum. Many of these various curriculum standards are recommended by
professional organizations as alternative to the current contents of the curriculum. Standards
are products of their latest researches on the nature of the different disciplines and the
developments in various academic fields.

Intended, Official, or Written Curriculum. This refers to the official curriculum embodied in approved
state curriculum guides (Glatthorn, Boschee, and Whitehead, 2006). It is the curriculum prescribed by
the government. In the Philippine context, these are the prescribed courses from different government
agencies: the Department of Education (DepEd), the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), and the
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). Examples of this type of curriculum are:

 The Kindergarten Curriculum Standards

 The K-12 Curriculum
 CHED Curriculum for General Education (Memorandum Order No. 20
 Series of 2013) TESDA Modules and Competencies
 Implemented Curriculum. This type of curriculum refers to the actual implementation of
the curriculum or what teachers in the school teach. In many cases, teachers modify and
improve their curriculum based on the needs of the students or whenever there are
new ideas in various disciplines that are important to teach to the students. Academic
freedom among faculty members in college may also influence how professors plan and
implement their courses.
 Achieved Curriculum or Learned Curriculum. This refers to the result of the curriculum
or what students actually learned in school (Print, 1993). The achieved curriculum
reveals whether the students learned and whether the schools are successful in
attaining their curriculum goals and objectives.
 Tested Curriculum. This is a set of learning that is assessed in teacher-made classroom
tests, curriculum-referenced tests, and in standardized tests. (Glatthorn, Boschee, and
Whitehead, 2006) Entitlement Curriculum. It refers to what the people or the general
society
 Believed the learners should expect to learn in the educational system for them to
become good members of the society.
  Supported Curriculum. This refers to the curriculum that is reflected on and shaped by
the resources allocated to support or deliver the official curriculum. (Glatthorn,
Boschee, and Whitehead, 2006)
 Null or Censored Curriculum. This refers to various curriculum contents or topics that
must not be taught to the students. (Tanner & Tanner, 2007)
 Hidden Curriculum. This refers to various skills, knowledge, and attitudes that students
learn in school as a result of their interaction with other students, staff, and faculty
members. Although the hidden curriculum is not actually taught in formal classroom
learning, it is also true that the hidden curriculum can be a product of the students’
schooling. The hidden curriculum is very powerful in developing the school culture
(Print, 1993).

Curriculum Foundations

Curriculum development scholars like Tyler (1949), Taba (1962), Eisner (1985), Saylor,
Alexander, and Lewis (1981), Print (1993), Sowell (1996), and Tanner and Tanner (2007)
generally identified three categories of sources for curriculum foundations: (1) studies of
learners and learning theory (psychology); (2) studies of life (sociology and
anthropology); and (3) studies of the nature and value of knowledge (philosophy). These
curriculum sources or foundations influenced curriculum developers in framing different
curriculum conceptions and in developing curriculum.

Psychology as a discipline deals about understanding human behavior; hence, it is

important in curriculum development. According to Print (1993), psychology can provide
information in five important areas:

1. Educational objectives
2. Student characteristics
3. Learning processes
4. Teaching methods
5. Evaluation procedures

Meanwhile, studies about the society and culture-sociology and anthropology,

respectively-affect all curriculum processes. Sowell (1996) pointed out that knowledge
about the society and its culture is important in selecting the content of the curriculum.
It provides a clear understanding of the context in which the curriculum is developed.
Studies about the society and culture help curriculum workers in understanding several
social and educational issues that affect curriculum processes and education in general.

On the other hand, philosophy as a foundation helps curriculum workers in

understanding the nature of knowledge and what subjects or topics are worthwhile.
This is very important in making decisions about the contents of the curriculum.
Ornstein and Hunkins (1993) mentioned that philosophy provides curriculum workers
 with a framework or base for organizing schools and classrooms. It also provides
educators with a framework for broad issues and tasks, such as determining the goals of
education, the content and its organization, and the teaching and learning processes.

Curriculum Conceptions

Curriculum workers have different ideas about curriculum matters and curriculum
development processes. They have different points of view about curriculum concerns,
goals of what a curriculum should accomplish, and how a curriculum should be designed
or constructed. These explain the presence of various curriculum orientations or
conceptions. McNeil (2006), Eisner (1985), and Print (1993) identified six curriculum
conceptions:

Academic Rationalist Conception considered as the oldest among the curriculum

conceptions. It stresses the importance of different bodies of knowledge, known as
disciplines or subject areas, as the focus of the curriculum.

1. Cognitive Processes Conception-seeks to develop a repertoire of cognitive skills that

are applicable to a wide range of intellectual problems. The subject matters are
instruments or tools for developing these cognitive skills that are lasting in the lives
of individuals.
2. Humanistic Conception – stresses the idea that curriculum or education is an
instrument for developing the full potential of individuals. It seeks to help
individuals discover and develop their unique identities. It stresses that curriculum
should focus on the needs and interests of individuals.
3. Social Reconstructionist Conception-views the school or schooling as an agency for
social change. Hence, it stresses that curriculum should respond to the different
needs, issues, problems, and demands of the society.
5.Technological Conception is preoccupied with the development of means to achieve
curriculum or educational goals. It views schooling as a complex system that can be
analyzed into its constituent components.
6.Eclectic Conception is where curriculum workers find themselves aligning their ideas
with two or more curriculum conceptions. Hence, this curriculum conception reiterates
the realities in curriculum development that each of the curriculum conceptions is to be
considered and is influential to a certain extent in designing the curriculum.

Elements of a Curriculum

In general, a curriculum has four important elements. These elements must be present
in all curriculum documents or before a document can be called curriculum. These four
elements are curriculum intent, content, learning experiences, and evaluation.

Curriculum Intent
 Content

Learning Experiences

Evaluation

Figure 1. Curriculum Elements

1. Curriculum Intent- is the term used by Print (1993) to mean the direction that
curriculum developers wish to take as a result of participating in the curriculum. It
includes the aims, goals, and objectives found in any curriculum documents.

 Aims are the broad statements of social or educational expectations. Aims

include what is hoped to be achieved by the entire curriculum.
 Goals are statements more specific than aims. Goals are general – statements of
what concepts, skills, and values should be learned in the curriculum.
 Objectives-are specific learning outcomes. Objectives include what specific
concepts, skills, and values should be learned by the students. Usually,
objectives are used in making decisions or planning about instruction.

These topics are based on the curriculum intents. Contents may include values, concepts, or skills that
are important for the learners to learn.

2. Learning Experiences-include all instructional strategies that are useful for the
implementation of the curriculum. These may appear in the form of activities,
strategies, methods, or approaches that are useful in implementing the curriculum
or in teaching the content.

Hilda Taba (1962) observed that all curricula, no matter what design they have, are composed of certain
elements.

 A curriculum usually contains a statement of aims and specific objectives.

 It indicates some selection and organization of content.
 It either implies or manifests certain patterns of learning and teaching, whether because the
objectives demand them or because the content organization requires them.
 It includes a program of evaluation of the outcomes.

Understanding the different elements of curriculum will help curriculum workers especially the teachers
in designing curriculum and in analyzing the different curriculum materials that are offered to schools
and students.

Reflections on Understanding Curriculum

The first chapter introduced different concepts that every professional curriculum worker should know
about curriculum. Understanding these concepts is useful in appreciating curriculum studies as an area
in the field of education.

 Curriculum can be defined as:

Set of contents

Set of learning experiences

Planned content

Set of learning outcomes

 There are different types of curriculum:

Intended curriculum

Implemented curriculum

Achieved curriculum Hidden curriculum

Ideal or recommended curriculum

Tested curriculum

Entitlement curriculum

Null or censored curriculum

Supported curriculum

 Curriculum development is influenced by various academic fields that

Serve as foundations of curriculum such as:

Psychology (studies about the learners and learning theories)

Philosophy (studies on the nature and value of knowledge)

Sociology (studies on culture, society, and human activities)

 There are different types of curriculum conception Academic rationalist

Cognitive processes

Social reconstructionist
 Humanistic

Technological Eclectic

 There are four elements of curriculum

Intent

Content

Learning experiences

Evaluation

Curriculum Planning

Curriculum Sources and Influences

Tyler (1949) identified three major sources of curriculum: subject matter, society, and learners.
Accordingly, these curriculum sources need to be considered and examined to identify the four
elements of curriculum: goals, content, learning experiences, and evaluation. It is important to
understand the nature of the subject matter in order to provide knowledge and skills that are essential
to the nature of the discipline. This also helps in selecting and designing curriculum contents.

Likewise, it is important to have a clear understanding of the nature of society in developing a

curriculum. This provides a more comprehensive idea of the needs, demands, and problems of the
society, and the available resources that can be utilized in the development and implementation of the
curriculum (Tyler, 1949). In short, society, as one of the curriculum sources, provides information about
the context in which the curriculum will be used. This is important to make the curriculum more relevant
and responsive.

Understanding the nature of the learners is also important in curriculum development. Understanding
the learners includes knowing their needs, nature, and interests, learning styles, and thinking styles. It
also includes knowing the various issues and problems about them. The learners are the direct subjects
of the school curriculum. Hence, making the learners as one of the curriculum sources is important in
selecting the learning experiences for the curriculum (Tyler, 1949).

Society as Source of Curriculum

Society is an important source of curriculum. Teachers need to understand the cultural, socio-economic,
and political conditions of the people. Understanding the context is important in developing a relevant
and responsive curriculum (Tyler.1949; Nicholls & Nicholls, 1978). It is useful in selecting curriculum
goals and objectives, content, and learning experiences (Taba, 1962: Stark & Lattucs, 1997, Oliva, 2005).

There are many changes in the society that need to be considered in the curriculum. Science and
technology continue to influence our everyday life as new science findings, new technology, and new
information come in almost every single minute of a day. The new world of economy also has its own
issues and demands. For example, 21st century skills and new forms of knowledge should be developed
in the curriculum in order to develop a world-class workforce.

In addition, the society is becoming multilingual and multicultural. Developing cultural understanding
and socio-cultural consciousness among the learners is becoming a necessity. Other pressing social
issues like climate change, security problems, diseases, poverty, and many others also affect the
everyday life of people.

Educators and schools face the challenge whether they will simply respond to the needs and demands of
the society or have education through its curriculum in order to develop or create the kind of society
that everyone wishes to have. There is a need to put a balance between pursuing the utopian goals of
education and its practical or economic goals.

Learners as Source of Curriculum

Knowledge about the learners is one of the major sources of the curriculum. Although the curriculum
content is set by the Department of Education (DepEd), Commission on Higher Education (CHED), or the
Technical Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA), educators and curriculum developers have
tried to align the curriculum to the needs and nature of the students. This process is done when faculty
members plan their individual syllabi, unit plans, and lesson plans as an interpretation of the intended
curriculum.

As students come from different provinces, they have different cultures, languages, learning styles,
needs, and types and levels of motivation. The students are also different in terms of socio-economic
status and educational backgrounds (public or private). For these, the students, as one major source of
curriculum, are supported by several curriculum scholars and are well-represented in their curriculum
development models (Taba, 1962; Wheeler, 1967; Walker, 1972; Skilbeck, 1976, Nicholls, 1978; Print,
1993; Stark & Lattuca, 1997; Oliva, 2005).

Discipline or Subject Matter as Source of Curriculum

Tyler (1949) identified the nature of the discipline or subject matter as one of the main sources of
curriculum. Different subjects are unique in terms of design and content. There are specific skills and
contents that should be emphasized in each of the disciplines. In some cases, there are similarities in
skills, concepts, and strands in different subjects that may be possible points for integration.

Understanding the nature of the discipline or subject matter requires educators to closely analyze the
contents prescribed by the Department of Education especially the K-12 Curriculum. The curriculum
framework, curriculum goals, descriptions, standards, and competencies in different subjects will help
educators understand what should be taught and how to teach the different subjects.

The Commission on Higher Education also prescribes guidelines in different courses. Several curricular
innovations and changes set by the government were considered and strictly followed in designing the
official curriculum of a particular school, college, or university. The curricular requirements that include
course title, course credit, and course descriptions are based on the CHED Memorandum Orders (CMOS)
which CHED issued for different courses. For example CMO No. 20 Series of 2013 included the general
education program for all undergraduate courses or programs in the Philippines.

Technical Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA) also prescribes different contents of the
modules offered for each particular subject for vocational or technical courses. The skills that should be
learned including the materials needed and the time that is required for training are clearly specified in
each module.

Curriculum Influences

Aside from the major curriculum sources, Stark and Lattuca (1997) identified three major factors that
influence curriculum development: external, internal, and organizational influences (see Figure 2). Stark
and Lattuca used the term curriculum influences to refer to these three factors that are very influential
in curriculum development. According to them, these curriculum influences affect the whole academic
plan that incorporates a total blueprint for action, including the purposes, activities, and ways of
measuring success.

External Influences

Society/Government Discipline Associations; Marketplace/Alumni

Organizational Influences

Program Relationships Resources Governance

Internal Influences

Faculty, Students, Discipline, and Program Mission

ACADEMIC PLAN

Figure 2. Factors Affecting Academic Planning (Stark & Lattuca, 1997)

Understanding the different curriculum influences is useful in knowing the different factors that are
needed to be considered in developing a curriculum. It provides the sources of data and information for
developing curriculum. Knowing these curriculum influences is useful in making the curriculum more
relevant and responsive to the educational system of the Philippines.

Students

The students are considered as the most influential among the different curriculum influences especially
in designing the implemented curriculum. Learners have different interests, needs, talents, abilities,
learning styles, and thinking preferences. All these are important in course planning. Teachers believe
that the students could learn more if their interest and learning styles are considered when planning
their courses. Many students want a variety of learning experiences in their classes and practical
application of their lessons in real-life situations.

They came from different families with different cultures, religious affiliations, beliefs, language, and
socio-economic status. When teachers plan their courses, they always keep these in mind. They
recognize that their previous experiences with the students, including the students’ performance in
class, are sources of valuable information about the students’ capabilities. Many teachers observe
during their classes that students’ backgrounds, especially their demographic characteristics, influence
their attitude and performance toward learning. Thus, students bring with them their culture in the
school.

For college, the academic background of the students is influential in curriculum planning. As students
took up their basic education in either public or private schools in their provinces, their academic skills
and learning habits differ from those of the city. For instance, some students have poor communication
skills because of poor background in English education in their basic education.

School’s Vision, Mission, and Core Values

The school vision, mission, and core values are very influential factors in developing the curriculum. They
are the fundamental bases in developing the four elements of curriculum goals and objectives, content,
learning experiences, and evaluation. These three factors are included in all the lesson plans or course
syllabi to ensure that the core values of the institution are included in the syllabi.

The vision, mission, and core values of the school are also reflected in the planned, implemented, and
hidden curriculum of the school. All faculty members are required to reflect this type of education in
their teaching, lesson plans, and in the syllabus. The vision, mission, and core values of the school are
reflections of what the institution can contribute to the society and to the development of individuals.
Students and alumni are expected to possess the core values of their schools.

Admission and Retention Policies

The third influential factor is the admission and retention policies. These policies set the standard of
what kind of students are admitted and what are the things they need to do as students of the
institution until they graduate. This is an important part of the intended and implemented curriculum,
School rules are set to give order and provide smooth implementation of the curriculum. Rules also
develop the hidden curriculum of the school.

Faculty Members

The influence of faculty members is also considered important. Faculty members bring with them their
educational background, experiences, expertise, and personal, professional, and political views on the
institution. They also have different interests, teaching styles, and philosophies, which influence the way
they plan, develop, and implement the curriculum.

In basic education, teachers take the role of a second parent to their students. Many students believe in
what they say and teach. They are not only seen as models of high ethical life-students and other people
also see them as intellectuals in various subject areas.

In the college level, teachers are seen as experts in their fields. They are expected to know more about
their subjects. The academic freedom enjoyed by faculty members also allows them to modify and plan
their syllabi based on their expertise and researches. The behaviors of the faculty members also
influence the hidden curriculum in college. Sometimes their students take their professional and
personal views on certain issues seriously as a principle.

Teachers, as recognized by Stark and Latucca (1997), are a major influence in curriculum development.
They are the key implementers of the curriculum. The success of any curriculum and instruction highly
depends on them. They need to be empowered to make curricular and instructional innovations in their
own schools. Teachers are expected to be experts in the content of the subjects they teach. They should
also be experts in pedagogy

School Administrators and Board of Trustees

The influence of school officials and the school bureaucracy in curriculum processes were recognized by
several curriculum scholars like Wiles and Bondi (2006), and Stark and Latucca (1997), among others.
School administrators, including the board of trustees, play an important role in providing curriculum
leadership in schools, colleges, and universities. Apart from setting and approving rules for the school,
they administer the planning, implementation, and evaluation of the curriculum. The administrators
then serve as the curriculum and instructional leaders. They provide administrative and leadership
support for the implementation of the curriculum. Their abilities and skills as curriculum leaders and
managers are essential in curriculum development, implementation, and evaluation (Wiles & Bondi,
2006). Oliva (2005) considered them as part of the entire team of curriculum workers in an institution.
The academic preparation and previous experiences of the administrators can also be noted to influence
the development of the curriculum.

Accrediting Agencies

Accrediting agencies are equally influential in basic education and in higher education. Like the DepEd
and CHED, the accrediting agencies set the necessary standards for curriculum, instruction, faculty, and
facilities, and influence how the curricular programs are governed. Accrediting agencies determine the
quality of the courses being offered in an institution. As such, many schools especially private schools try
their best to improve the governance and implementation of their various curricular and co-curricular
programs.
Some accrediting agencies in the Philippines are the Association of Christian Schools, Colleges, and
Universities Accrediting Agency Incorporation (ACSCU-AAI), Philippine Accrediting Association of
Schools, Colleges, and Universities (PAASCU), and the Accrediting Agency for Chartered Colleges and
Universities in the Philippines (AACCUP). These accrediting bodies are in charge of evaluating the quality
of education for each member institution based on criteria set by the accrediting agency.

Government Policies and Agencies

The respondents identified government policies and agencies as most influential in curriculum planning
and development. In basic education, the Department of Education issues Department Orders (DOS) and
memoranda that serve as guide for all public and private schools in the country. The Department of
Education also prescribes the official curriculum for basic education and issues the guidelines for
operations for private schools.

For tertiary education, the CHED, through its series of memorandum orders, prescribes the minimum
general education and professional courses, course credits, and course descriptions to be taken by the
students. The CHED also prescribes the faculty qualifications, facilities, and other requirements for the
implementation and administration of the courses

Market Demands (General)

Market demands or the needs of the society are very influential in planning and developing curriculum.
It is imperative that students are prepared in terms of knowledge, values, and skills to meet the needs
and demands of different institutions In the society. For example, graduates are expected to develop or
possess 21st century skills. They are expected to be technologically literate. They are also expected to
develop various literacies including functional literacy. Schools are expected to develop graduates that
can be assets and good citizens of the society.

Alumni

The alumni are also considered as one of the external influences on curriculum development. The
alumni are very helpful in terms of donating money to support programs for students, faculty
scholarships, professorial chairs, facilities, and financing students’ activities. Besides financial help, their
comments or their evaluation feedback based on their previous experiences as students are very useful
information for improving the implemented curriculum of the school. The alumni are the living
testimony of the curriculum or the quality of education offered by a particular school.
Media and Information and Communications Technologies (ICT)

Media and Information and Communications Technologies (ICT) are two of the external curriculum
influences. The presence of technology, especially the Internet, enables students and teachers to access
almost all the information they need for teaching and learning. This allows students and faculty
members to access online journals, papers, and other information from the Internet to be used for
teaching and learning. Technology connects the school to the global community.

In as much as ICT is changing the landscape of schooling, it is also changing how the courses are planned
and implemented, especially how the content of the curriculum will be put together. Although it is
expensive to have full ICT integration in schools, school administrators try their best to achieve this goal.
Computers, LCD projectors, Internet facilities, and other forms of technology are made available for
instructional purposes in the school.

The Church and Church-related Agencies

For religious schools, the different religious orders and the church play an important role in school.
Many religious institutions serve as extension programs or mission programs of the churches and
religious orders that established them, The schools also offer institutional requirements such as Bible
subjects, theology, and Christian Living subjects. These subjects are required to all students. Religious
schools also offer retreats, chapel services, and other religious activities to their students.

School Facilities and Other Resources

School facilities and other resources are very important in the implementation of the curriculum. The
respondents explained that school facilities like classrooms, libraries, laboratories, ICT equipment,
dormitories, school clinics, counseling office, canteen, chapel for sectarian schools, and laboratories are
very useful in providing quality education, especially in implementing the curriculum.

Student Services

The last among the influences are the existing student services or existing student support system
institutionalized by the schools. Among these services are the following:

 Campus Ministry – helps in the spiritual nourishment of the students in sectarian schools
 Guidance and Counseling Services-provides professional help to students
With various personal and psychological concerns
  Health Services- responds to various health-related concerns of the
Students through a clinic with full-time health workers
 Financial Assistance and Scholarships – provides financial assistance deserving students
 Student Affairs Office – guides the students in organizing activities and provides all forms of
support for academic and personal development of the students in the school

These curriculum influences and sources are very important in curriculum development. Responding to
these curriculum sources and influences helps curriculum workers and developers in planning,
developing, and implementing a relevant and responsive curriculum for different learners and schools.
They help everyone involved in and affected by a curriculum understand the context in which one is
developed. Moreover, when evaluating a curriculum, these curriculum sources and influences are the
ones that are looked into and reviewed.

Reflections on Curriculum Planning

Curriculum planning is an essential part of curriculum development. It sets the tone for curriculum
development activities. In curriculum planning, we are taught to examine the needs and demands of the
society, understand the nature of the discipline and structure of knowledge, and analyze the nature and
needs of the learners.

Knowledge about the learners – helps us to understand that curriculum must respond to the
nature, needs, interest, learning styles, and thinking preferences of every learner. It makes us
realize that the purpose of the curriculum is not just to develop knowledge and skills but for the
holistic development of every learner.

Knowledge about the society- helps us to realize that a curriculum must be made relevant and
responsive to the needs and demands of the society. A curriculum should be context-based and
it must uphold social values and edify democratic principles of the society.

Knowledge about the discipline of subject matter- helps us to understand the different
disciplines, subjects, and academic fields. It enables every curriculum worker to understand
essential contents that should be covered In a particular discipline.

There are also different curriculum influences: organizational, internal, and external influences.
Understanding these curriculum influences helps us appreciate the educational and social context where
each curriculum is developed and implemented.

Curriculum Design
Definition of Curriculum Design

Curriculum design refers to the arrangement of the elements of a curriculum. These four elements are
intent (aims, goals, and objectives); subject matter or content; learning experiences; and evaluation. In
many books, curriculum design is used interchangeably with curriculum organization. Posner (1997)
provided an enlightening idea on how to differentiate these two related terms in curriculum as he
classified the activity of arranging curriculum elements or contents into two. According to him, there is a
macro and a micro level of organizing curriculum contents.

The macro level deals with arranging or organizing the total curriculum from the philosophy down to the
contents of different subjects. The micro level on the other hand, deals with organizing the content of a
specific subject or discipline. The macro level of arranging the elements and contents of the curriculum
can be referred to as function of curriculum design while the micro level is a function of curriculum
organization. However, it is important to note that curriculum organization is based on the curriculum
design. Curriculum design provides a philosophical way of organizing the contents and elements for the
curriculum.

Different Curriculum Designs

Print (1988) classified the different curriculum designs in four groups. According to him, all curriculum
designs can be classified as subject-centered, learner-centered, problem-centered, or core learning
designs:

1. Subject-centered Designs. Majority of the curricula used in schools are arranged or organized in
terms of subjects. Thus the subject-centered design is the most popular among the four types of
curriculum designs. The subject-centered design is classified into three specific designs.

a. Subject Design. The curriculum is organized in terms of subjects like Mathematics,

Science, Filipino, English, and other subjects. Most of these subjects are offered in the
elementary level. The subjects are organized in a fragmented manner. Connections
between and among these subjects are not emphasized in the subject design. Instead,
the nature of the subject is highlighted in this design to provide students with a general
knowledge of each subject.

Math

Science

Filipino

English

b. Academic Disciplines Design. Like the subject design, this type of design organizes the
curriculum in terms of disciplines like Algebra, Physics, Chemistry, Literature, Economics,
Philippine History, and other disciplines. This type of design is mostly used in high school or in
college. The contents are highly specialized particularly in the college level.
 Biology

Algebra

Earth Science

Economics

C. Integrated Design. This curriculum design is based on the principle that learners learn in an
integrated manner. Thus, this type of curriculum design tries to merge two or more related
subjects. Basically, there are three types of integration:

c.1. Interdisciplinary includes the merging of two related disciplines or subjects. An example is the
integration of Science and Health. Educators believe these two are naturally integrated. One needs
science knowledge in order to understand health concepts.

Science

Health

c.2. Multidisciplinary or broad fields-includes the integration of three or more related disciplines. An
example is the Social Studies curriculum. This subject integrates civics, history, culture, and economics.

Geography

Civics And culture

History

Economics

c.3. Core-requires that all subjects or disciplines in the school curriculum be put together using a single
theme. Usually, this type of integrated curriculum design is used in preschool where subjects are
combined using curriculum themes.

Community

Family

Self

Learner-centered Designs. Learner-centered designs focus on the needs, nature, and interests of the
learners in the curriculum. The aim of these designs is to develop the potentials and abilities of the
learners and making the curriculum relevant and responsive to them.

a. Activity/Experience Design. This concentrates on activities that are

meaningful and interesting to the learners. In doing these activities, learners
will develop various skills like process skills, communication skills, problem
solving, critical thinking, and creativity that are important for the learners.
 b. Humanistic Design. The curriculum is composed of topics and learning
experiences that focus on the holistic development of an individual. It also
addresses the needs and nature of the learners. The goal of this design is
the development of a well-rounded individual.

Problem-centered Designs. These curriculum designs focus on understanding and finding solutions to
individual and social issues and problems. They require students to use their skills and knowledge of
different subjects and disciplines as they engage themselves in meaningful learning of various social and
individual problems like poverty, climate change, peace and order or terrorism, diseases, traffic, and
economic recession, among others.

a. Thematic Design. This design suggests the thematic approach to integration. Almost all models
advocate this approach. The only thing that is different is the main focus of the theme. Some
models give emphasis on human activities as the themes of study while others use different
topics that are interesting to students. Themes can either be concepts, guided questions,
activities, or standards and skills but the purposes and goals are all intended to provide an
education that is holistic, meaningful, and relevant to the life of the learner.

b. Problem Design. The learners are exposed to different lessons in problem solving involving real-
life problems. By doing problem-solving activities, the learners are exposed to some practical
situations or issues that are important to them and to their community.

Core Learning Designs. These curriculum designs focus on learning a set of common subjects,
disciplines, courses, skills, or knowledge that is necessary for students to master. It aims to provide a
uniform type of education based on a certain philosophy or educational theory. The core curriculum
began in the early part of the 20th century in the United States as an experiment on liberal higher
education and it remains vibrant until now. The central theme of this curriculum design is not just to
provide common learning to students. It also aims to provide an education that is transformative and
relevant to all types of learners. Furthermore, it aims to develop a habit of mind or cultivate the critical
and creative thinking of students that they can employ in their everyday life.

a. Core Design. This is a set of common subjects, disciplines, or courses that are required for
students to study before they graduate or move to a different level.
b. National Core Curriculum Design. This is a set of subjects or courses that are required to be
taught to all students across the country. The national core curriculum is prescribed by the state
through the Department of Education or the Commission on Higher Education. Examples of
 national core curriculum designs are the General Education Curriculum for undergraduate
courses and the K-12 Curriculum for basic education.

Things to Consider in Designing Curriculum

There are two major forces considered in designing curriculum. These are the horizontal and vertical
organizations.

a. Horizontal Organization – is often referred to as the scope and horizontal integration that is
concerned with the arrangement of curriculum components at any point in time (Print, 1993).
For example, it asks about the relationship between Geography, History, Economics, and Civics
in elementary Social Studies curriculum. It focuses on establishing relationships and integration
among subject areas in elementary or secondary curriculum.
b. Vertical Organization focuses on the spiral progression of curriculum contents. For example,
what skills, concepts, and values should be taught in Science from Grade I to Grade VI. It focuses
on the distribution of curriculum contents from Kindergarten to Grade 12 (K-12). Looking at the
spiral progression of curriculum content enables teachers to focus on developing students’
mastery of the content by examining prerequisite knowledge and skills in learning different
subjects.

Tomlimson et al. (2002) identified these important features for a good curriculum design. Accordingly, a
good curriculum design must be mentally and affectively engaging, allows meaningful collaboration,
develops in-depth understanding, connects with students’ lives and worlds, focuses on product, deals
with profound ideas, and must be real, purposeful, and useful to students.

Sequencing Curriculum Content

Sequencing curriculum content is essential in curriculum design. Sequence is defined as the order in
which contents are presented to the learners (Print, 1993). Traditionally, contents are sequenced based
on the nature of the subjects and disciplines they belong. They are also organized according to a specific
curriculum design principle or philosophy.

Print (1993) identified the following design principles that are most commonly

a. Used to sequence the curriculum contents: a. Simple to Complex – this is traditionally applied to
disciplines like Math, Language, Science, or Music. The topics are arranged in a progressive-
spiral sequence.

b. Prerequisite Learning – this principle is followed in subjects and courses that largely consist of
laws and principles like Geometry, Algebra, and Physics. To understand the laws and principles,
students should learn the basic prerequisite knowledge and concepts.
 c. Chronology-this design principle suggests sequencing of content according to chronology of
events. History is an example.

d. Whole-to-Part Learning this is a deductive approach to designing – contents. One must see the
big picture of ideas to understand the specific concepts and skills.

e. Increasing Abstraction-content can be sequenced according to the idea or principle that a

student can learn most effectively if the concept or skill is related or relevant to own personal
experiences.

Reflection on Curriculum Design

Curriculum design is the systematic arrangement of all the elements of curriculum: (1) Intent, (2)
Content, (3) Learning experiences, and (4) Evaluation. There are different types of curriculum designs
and each design is organized based on a certain curriculum philosophy or theory.

Subject-centered

 Subject designs
 Academic disciplines design

Learner-centered

 Activity and experience design

 Humanistic design

Problem-based

 Thematic
 Problem design

Core learning

 Core design
 National core curriculum design

There are two forces that influence curriculum design

 Vertical organization (sequence)

 Horizontal organization (scope and integration)