Learning outcomes:

 Understand the different dimensions (biological,

psychological and social) of the causation of crime
behaviour.

 Describe the general and specific risk factors contributing to

criminal behaviour.

 Illustrate the application of crime theories in understanding

criminal behaviour.

 Use your knowledge about crime causation and explanation

to solve well-defined problems presented in scenarios.
The human is divided into 3 categories for the purpose of study. These 3 categories include: biological,
psychological and social.

 Biological
Genetic factors Neurophysiologic factors Biochemical factors

•Behaviour stems from •Research reflects a significant difference in •Factors such as diet, blood
inherited genetic criminogenic brain-wave activity for criminals and non- chemistry and allergies can
characteristics. criminals. contribute to criminal behaviour.
•Family, twin & adoption •The following advances in technology •Diets high in sugar and
studies have been conducted allow for studies of the brain in living carbohydrates are found to be
to investigate the genetic persons: EEG (measures brain-wave linked to violent behaviour.
factors that contribute to activity), CAT scanner (photographs internal •The functioning of ductless
criminal behaviour. organs), PET scanner (analysis the glands and their hormones which
•Genectic disorders that metabolism of the brain), BEAM and are secreted directly into the
contribute to criminal Superconducting Interference Device blood impact on human
behaviour include: (these determine the areas of the brain behaviour.
chromosomal disorders, responsible for anti-social behaviour. •The difference in the incidence of
hyperactivity, Tourette’s •Children with behavioural disorders could criminal activity amongst male
syndrome and other related be suffering from impaired neurophysiologic and female can be attributed to
behavioural disorders in processes in the nervous system and brain. the varied levels of sex hormones
juveniles. •Chronic violent criminals reflect a higher produced.
frequency of brain dysfunction that non- •High levels of Adrogen promote
violent criminals. impulsivity, tolerance for pain and
anti-social behaviour.
 Refer to case study/abstracts on pages 136-141.
  Psychological

Cognitive Emotion/ Affective Volitional

•The elements in the process of cognition •Emotions impact on behaviour from a •Volitional refers to acts
involve: awareness and observation, genetic, psychological as well as social level. out of free-will.
learning, memory and thinking. •A few examples of emotions include: •Intent includes
•The components of social cognition happiness, anger, jealousy, fright, guilt and cognitive (intellectual)
associated to criminal behaviour include: shame. and conotive
empathy, locus of control, moral •The level of intensity of the experienced (voluntary) processing.
reasoning, self-control and impulsiveness, emotion will directly impact on behaviour. •The three components
social problem solving and the mind-set •Thoughts and memories are linked to a ‘fight’ of intent include: direct
of offenders. or flight’ reaction. (dolus directus), indirect
•Cognitive approaches to explain •Intense negative emotions can trigger (dolus iindirectus) and
criminal behaviour include: moral aggressive reactions. dolus eventualis.
development (Kohlberg’s theory of moral •In situations that spiral out of control •The three views on
development includes pre-conventional, individuals are likely to react in an ‘approach free-will are as follows:
conventional and post-conventional), (attack)’ or ‘avoidance (withdrawal)’. total free-will (Classical
Social learning approach (behaviour is •Common traits of a psychopath include: lack School), limited free-will
learned/imitated) and Rational Choice of remorse and empathy, emotional (Soft Determinism) and
(people are reasoable beings who immaturity and a short temper. no free-will (Hard
weigh advantages vs. disadvantages). Determinism).

 Refer to case study/abstracts on pages 149-10.

 Social

Family School Peers

•The influence of the •The school is the first area of socialisation out of the •Young adolescents are more
family plays a major role in home where the child is exposed to different vulnerable to peer pressure
an individuals influences, rules and choices. than adults.
development. •The congregation of children from different •There is a strong relationship
•Negative experiences backgrounds can in some instances be conducive between peers and
such as parental rejection, to delinquent behaviour. delinquency.
abuse and/or •Learners who violate school rules are more likely to •Gang involvement is
homelessness at an early be associated with law-breaking behaviour than commonly found in poorer
age contributes to early those who conform to the school regulations. areas where children lack
criminal involvement. •Low academic performance, negative attitude structured family setting and
• Environmental factors towards school, truancy and poor organisation can seek the security and
that impact on impact on delinquent behaviour. belonging.
delinquency include: •Negative encounters at school are most closely •South African males find
parental conflict/broken linked to delinquency in comparison to any other themselves faced with
homes, parental rejection social factor. unemployment and often turn
and methods of parental •Schools situated in poorer areas where to gang involvement as a
control. unemployment is high often reflect a higher rate of means to pass time, gain an
delinquency from their students. income and entertainment.
The general factors contributing to crime in South Africa:

Population structure: South African population structure is disproportionate; more than 50% of South Africa’s
population are under 18 years of age. Young people are daring and seek immediate gratification for their needs
and wants; criminal activity is statistically prove to be higher for youth in comparison to adults. Young people
between ages 12-19 are twice as likely to become victims of crime.

Rapid migration from rural to urban areas: The influx of people are rural areas into the urban areas has caused
social pressure for smaller communities to support a larger group. The limited availability of resources such as land,
jobs and food creates stress and consequently has led to the development of informal settlements.

Rapid urbanisation: The most detrimental consequence of rapid urbanisation that South Africans are faced with
is unemployment. Urbanisation stems from the break-down of traditional values, social norms and the detritions of
social control. Crime rates are escalated in urban areas due to high number of people with limited resources.

High unemployment: In addition to the rapid urbanisation, the recession experienced by South Africa has led to
high levels of unemployment and poverty. South Africa’s unemployment rate is as high as 45% and escalates in
certain communities to a higher 80%. Criminal activity increases as a result from unemployment as people cannot
find jobs to earn an income for survival needs and therefore turn to criminal activity.

Politicalfactors: Due to the political instability in the country the crime has escalated, especially in the years that
followed the 1994 election.

Social transformation: The breaking down of social norms leaves a void for social values and rules. Weakened
social control contributes to criminal behaviour.

The system of migrant labour: Migrant labour plays a prominent role for income to families in the rural areas.
However the lack of a male parental guardian due to work away from home disadvantages the families
regarding a higher incidence of crime.
The general factors contributing to crime in South Africa:

Inadequate welfare services: In general, South Africa lacks the means for a developed social welfare system
that supports families in need. There are current programmes implemented in the department of Social Welfare
which aim to address the needs of such families.

Inadequate education for labour: Although the formal educational functioning of South Africa is improving,
many adults do not have an education thus making it increasingly difficult for many people to find jobs.

Problems with the criminal justice system: The criminal justice system compromises of SAPS, Correctional
Services and the Courts. In all 3 areas of justice the major problem faced is corruption; this results in a general
ineffectiveness of the justice system.

Large numbers of illegal immigrants: Individuals from South African neighbouring have entered into SA
boarders in search of work and improved living conditions. The locals in the country view these immigrants as a
threat due to the scarcity of jobs and facilities in the country.

Emphasis on human rights: Although the practice of human rights is vital, it sometimes threatens the rights of
the broader community. An example of this would be the easy award of bail to an offender whilst he/she
awaits trail; this maybe detrimental to the safety of the broader community.

Large scale amnesty: The sudden release of criminals into society who have been granted amnesty creates a
major threat for communities. The incidence of recidivism is estimated at 70%.

Poor firearm control: Firearms are being smuggled from neighbouring countries into South Africa; the increase
of violent crimes can be partially attributed to the easy availability of unlicensed firearms.
The specific factors contributing to crime in South Africa:

The negotiated transition and destruction of social control: The shift from the politics of confrontation to a
negotiated democratic political system resulted in a breakdown of social control agencies that have not been
re-built/replaced by legitimate practices.

Politicalculture, violence and crime: South Africa’s history of conflict and confrontation has resulted in a
culture of crime and violence. Violent practices have become an answer to political, social and economic
issues.

Politicalrivalry as a factor contributing to crime: In the apartheid practices, violence was seen as a means of
social control; this practice has been carried through with some political parties still using violence as a means
of control.

Absence of national political consensus on crime issues: The growing rate of crime and more so violent crimes
has resulted in crime being viewed as a ‘vote catcher’, whereby simplistic solutions are offered to combat
crime. Politically orientated crime is now viewed as criminal violence.

Unemployment, poverty and relative deprivation resulting from apartheid: Crime rates escalate in areas where
the levels of unemployment is high. There is a complex relationship found between factors such as poverty,
unemployment, repression, inequality and discrimination and crime.

 Crime and economic development: South Africa has a mixed feature of economic development. These
include: modernised banking, sophisticated telecommunication facilities, transport systems and well developed
infrastructure. However, there is a lack of control or means of prevention for fraud and corrupt officials which
dampens the economic improvements and promotes crime.

Youth marginalisation: The history of young black Africans who were socially, economically and educationally
deprived has led to feelings of discrimination and rejection. The Bantu Education Act subjected black people to
inferior educational facilities which led to the Soweto uprising. Gang related activity, drug abuse and alcohol
abuse are strong factors that lead social cohesion.
The specific factors contributing to crime in South Africa:
Inadequate support for victims of crime: There are various implemented measures in South Africa that
aim to assist crime victims; However, despite these measures there still remains a lack of awareness and
limited facilities to educate and aid victim in protecting themselves and their loved ones against crime.

Vigilantism,revenge and self-defence: The result of a historically inefficient criminal justice system in
conjunction with inadequate victim assistance has resulted in a culture of vigilantism, revenge and self-
defence in order to protect oneself against the political and criminal dangers in society.

Socio-psychological factors: The social and political changes in the 1990’s created an atmosphere of
stress, fear and insecurity in communities. These feelings are compounded by high the escalated
violence an crime. The result of this stress is that communities are armed with vigilantism and revenge to
protect themselves. The feelings of fear and powerlessness are often transferred and results in domestic
violence and violence against women and children.

Access to firearms: There is an influx of easily available firearms in South Africa due to the liberation
struggle and in boarder countries. High rates of gun ownership influence the high rates of violent crime.

Gender inequality: Gender inequality increases the risk of gender based crimes internationally.
Inadequate victim support structures contribute towards criminal activity, especially towards women.
 What is a theory?:

Theories are explanations that provide

answers to the question why? Theories often
begin as generalised and the link two or
more events or elements that are related to
each other.

Criminological theories have developed under the

following premise:
 Crime is a congenital trait.
 Crime is a tendency that individuals have acquired.
 The causes of crime are to be found in the structure and function of society.

Four vital components for a good theory:

 Plausibility: a theory must provide a plausible explanation for the relation between two or more
facts.
 Evidence of validity: A good theory will be one that is empirical and reflects the findings of the
research.
 Falsifiablity: All theories are subject to falsifiability testing; theorists develop explanations that are
precise enough to be tested.
 Predictability: a theory which not only provides past and current explanations of crime but also
predicts future crime patterns/ trends/ behaviour.
Important factors to study in a theory:

 Background: there are various factors in a theorists background which may

affect their explanation of theory. Environment and psychological factors
are a major component which plays a contributing factor.
 Key premises: the principals and framework of the theory.
 Responsibility of actions: the study of crime has generated a considerable
amount of explanations for criminal behaviour. An important factor to
question is to what extent does the individual act as a free-agent.
 Policy implications: a theory that encompasses a good empirical premise
should include policy implications on social dilemmas.
 Evaluation: theories are evaluated in terms of their adequacy,
comprehensiveness and usefulness. Theoretical adequacy refers to a
theory’s plausibility, empirical support, falsifiablity and predictability.

The usefulness of theories:

Theories assist us in understanding why crime occurs; and furthermore assist in

prevention strategies.
Classification of theories:

 Classical and Positivist theory: these are the 2 oldest categories are
criminological theories. Classical theory is based on laws and the
rights of the individual. Positivist theory is based on the pathology of
the criminal and deals with the correction of criminality.

 Structure and process theory: explanatory theories that are

subdivided into structure and process. Structure theory focuses on
the way society is organised and how it influences behaviour.
Process theory do not stress social structure, but aim to explain
criminal behaviour through learning.

 Consensus and conflict theory: also known as old and new

criminological theories. Consensus theory focuses on individuals as
free-agents who understand between right and wrong. Conflict
theory argues that there is no consensus in society, since people
have conflicting values.
The key premise of this general theory of crime:

 The definition of crime is less defined.

 The criminal act and the criminal offender
are considered separate concepts.
 The explanation for individual differences in
the tendency to commit criminal acts may
be found in a person’s level of self control.
 The root cause of poor social control is
inadequate child-rearing practises.
Common characteristics of Crime:

 Crime provides immediate gratification.

 Crime provides easy and a simple satisfaction to the needs or
desires.
 Certain crimes do not require skills or a great deal of planning.
 The victims of crime experience pain and discomfort as a result
of the criminal act.

The potential offender:

 The majority of offenders have a minimal tolerance for
frustration.
 Their reactions are immediate and there is no thought for the
consequence of actions.
 Crime is not associated with long-term benefits.
 Criminals lack the necessary self-control which result sin various
circumstantial factors associated with poor self-control.
Theme 04 encompassed the following areas of study:

Learning outcomes:

 Understand the different dimensions (biological, psychological and

social) of the causation of crime behaviour.

 Describe the general and specific risk factors contributing to criminal

behaviour.

 Illustrate the application of crime theories in understanding criminal

behaviour.

 Use your knowledge about crime causation and explanation to

solve well-defined problems presented in scenarios.