DBMD Record Ashok
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Powered by AIAggregate functions in SQL are used to perform calculations on a set of values and return a single result. These functions are often combined with the GROUP BY clause to organize data into groups on which to perform computations. For instance, the COUNT() function can count the number of rows in each group, SUM() adds up values, AVG() computes the average, MAX() finds the maximum value, and MIN() identifies the minimum value within each group . GROUP BY allows these functions to operate on subsets of data, facilitating analyses such as finding average salaries per department or total sales per region .
Key SQL constraints include NOT NULL, UNIQUE, DEFAULT, CHECK, PRIMARY KEY, and FOREIGN KEY constraints. NOT NULL ensures that a column cannot store null values, enforcing the presence of data . UNIQUE requires that all values in a column are distinct, avoiding duplicates . DEFAULT assigns a default value if no specific value is provided . CHECK allows validation against a particular condition for the data in a column, ensuring data meets specified criteria . PRIMARY KEY uniquely identifies each row, and FOREIGN KEY establishes a link between tables, preserving referential integrity by ensuring valid references between related tables . Together, these constraints maintain the accuracy and reliability of the data stored within a database.
Enforcing the NOT NULL constraint ensures fields contain valid and expected data, forbidding null entries that might represent missing information in critical columns . The UNIQUE constraint prevents duplicate values in a column, ensuring data uniqueness and reducing redundancy . The CHECK constraint enhances data reliability by enforcing specific conditions, validating input against logical checks such as range limits, formats, or domain constraints, which uphold business rules and data validity . Together, these constraints maintain data integrity by ensuring accurate and valid data is consistently entered into the database.
SQL triggers are database objects that automatically execute predefined actions in response to specific events on a table, like INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE operations. They help automate tasks and enforce business rules. Triggers come in two main types: row-level and statement-level. Row-level triggers activate for each affected row, useful for operations that need to validate or modify data on a per-row basis. Statement-level triggers execute once per SQL statement, suitable for operations that don't require row-specific logic . For example, a row-level trigger can enforce a constraint across insertions, while a statement-level trigger can maintain audit logs of operations .
DDL (Data Definition Language) commands are used to define, alter, and manage the structure of database objects, such as tables. They include commands like CREATE, ALTER, DROP, and TRUNCATE, which are auto-committed, meaning changes are permanent . In contrast, DML (Data Manipulation Language) commands facilitate the manipulation of data within these structures, allowing users to select, insert, update, or delete data records. DML commands include SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE, enabling interaction with the database content rather than its structure .
Independent subqueries in SQL can run on their own outside of the main query, providing results that are then used by the outer query without any dependencies on it. They're useful when the subquery doesn't reference any column of the primary query and needs to provide a complete set of results independently . Correlated subqueries, however, reference one or more columns in the outer query. Each execution of the correlated subquery depends on the outer query's current row, making them suitable for row-by-row processing and operations that involve dependencies between tables . These differences affect performance and applicability, with correlated subqueries often being more complex and resource-intensive.
SQL views are virtual tables made from the result of a stored query, allowing users to simplify complex queries by presenting data through easy-to-understand structures. Views can include selected fields from one or more tables, with the potential to restrict access to certain data layers and simplify query execution. They provide an abstraction layer that can optimize data management by representing specific datasets without altering the underlying tables . Views also enhance security, since users can be granted access to views rather than exposing sensitive data within tables directly .
Entity-relationship diagrams (ERDs) are used to visualize and design the structure of a database, which is essential for understanding and organizing the relationships between different entities within a system, such as a hospital management system. In this context, ERDs help outline key entities such as patients, doctors, medical records, and hospitals, defining each entity's attributes and establishing relationships between them, like 'admitted in' and 'has a'. This provides a clear framework for building a robust and efficient database to manage hospital operations .
SQL JOIN operations enable data retrieval from multiple tables by combining rows based on a related column, effectively merging information that spans various tables . The primary types of JOINs include INNER JOIN, which returns only the rows with matching keys in both tables, LEFT JOIN, which returns all rows from the left table and the matched rows from the right table, filling in NULLs where no match is found, and RIGHT JOIN, which does the opposite by taking all rows from the right table and matched ones from the left . These operations are crucial for complex queries that require integration of data from disparate sources within a database.
SQL PRIMARY KEY constraints enhance database design by ensuring each row in a table is uniquely identifiable, which is crucial for maintaining distinct records . A FOREIGN KEY constraint, on the other hand, enforces referential integrity by linking tables through a mutual column. This ensures that relationships between tables remain consistent, as the FOREIGN KEY column in one table must correspond to a valid PRIMARY KEY in another table . These constraints prevent orphaned or duplicate records, enhance data integrity by maintaining consistent inter-table relationships, and support complex queries and database normalization .
