Modern Algebra Lecture Notes

Dr. Monks - University of Scranton - Fall 2021

Contents
0 Introduction 2
0.1 Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
0.2 Appendix B: Sets, Functions, Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
0.3 Appendix D: Equivalence Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
0.4 Appendix C: Math Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1 Arithmetic in Z Revisited 19
1.1 Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2 Divisibility in Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3 Primality in Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2 Congruence in Z and Modular Arithmetic 24

2.1 Congruence in Z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2 Arithmetic in Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3 Algebra in Zn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

3 Rings 28
3.1 Definition and Examples of Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2 Algebra in Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3 Ring Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4 Arithmetic in F[x] 37
4.1 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.2 Divisibility in F[x] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3 Primality (Irreducibilty) in F[x] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.4 Polynomial Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

5 Congruence in F[x] and Congruence Class Arithmetic 46

5.1 Congruence in F[x] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
5.2 Arithmetic in F[x]p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.3 Finite fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

6 Ideals and Quotient Rings 50

6.1 Congruence in Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
6.2 Arithmetic in R/I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

7 Groups 53
7.1 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.2 Properties of Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.3 SubGroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

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7.4 Group Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

7.5 (Section 8.1) Congruence and Lagrange’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.6 (Section 7.5) Symmetric and Alternating Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

8 Appendix: Some Useful Proof Recipes 64

0 Introduction
This is not a complete set of lecture notes for Math 448, Modern Algebra I. Additional material will
be covered in class and discussed in the textbook. These notes are currently under development
as a port from a previous version, so typos and formatting errors are inevitable. Check back
frequently for updates.

0.1 Logic
In this section, we give an informal overview of logic and proofs. For a more formal introduction
see any logic textbook.

Proofs and Formal Axiom Systems

Definition. A Formal Proof System (or Formal Axiom System) consists of
1. A set of expressions S, called the statements.
2. A set of rules R, called the rules of inference.
Each rule of inference has zero or more inputs called premises and one or more outputs called
conclusions. Most premises and all conclusions of a rule of inference are statements in the system.1
There also may be conditions on when a particular rule of inference can be used.

Definition. An axiom is a conclusion of a rule of inference that has no premises.

Definition. A statement Q in a formal axiom system is provable from premises P1 , . . . , Pn if

1. Q is one of the premises P1 , . . . , Pn , or
2. Q is a conclusion of a rule of inference whose premises are provable from P1 , . . . , Pn .
In particular, if Q is an axiom, then Q is provable from no premises at all!

Definition. If Q follows from no premises in a formal axiom system, we say that Q is provable in
the system. A provable statement is called a theorem.
And finally, the definition we’ve all been waiting for!

Definition. A proof of a statement in a formal axiom system is a finite sequence of applications of

the rules of inference (i.e., inferences) that show that the statement is a theorem in that system.
1
Other common premises are variable declarations, constant declarations, and subproofs.

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Notation. If Q is provable from premises P1 , . . . , Pn in a formal system we can denote this symbol-
ically as
P1 , . . . , Pn ` Q
It is also commonplace to refer to such an expression as a theorem. To prove such a theorem is to
give a proof of Q in the same formal system where additionally the premises are ‘Given’ as axioms.

Variables, Expressions, and Statements in Mathematics

Term Description

set A set is a collection of items.

element The items in a set are called its elements (or members).
expression An expression is an arrangement of symbols which represents an element of a
set
type The set of elements that an expression can represent is called the type of the
expression.
value The element of the domain that the expression represents is called a value of
that expression.
variable A variable is an expression consisting of a single symbol
constant A constant is an expression whose domain contains a single element.
statement A statement (or Boolean expression) is an expression whose domain is
{ true, false}.
truth value The value of a statement is called its truth value.
solve To solve a statement is to determine the set of all elements for which the
statement is true.
solution set The set of all solutions of a statement is called the solution set.
equation An equation is a statement of the form A = B where A and B are expressions.
inequality An inequality is a statement of the form A ⋆ B where A and B are expressions
and ⋆ is one of ≤, ≥, >, <, or ,.

Remarks:
• An element is either in a set or it is not in a set, it cannot be in a set more than once.
• It is not necessary that we know specifically which element of the domain an expression
represents, only that it represents some unspecified element in that set.
• We do not have to know if a statement is true or false, just that it is either true or false.
• If a statement contains n variables, x1 , . . . xn , then to solve the statement is to find the set of
all n-tuples (a1 , . . . , an ) such that each ai is an element of the domain of xi and the statement
becomes true when x1 , . . . , xn are replaced by a1 , . . . , an respectively. In this situation, each
such n-tuple is called a solution of the statement.
• In formal mathematics, ‘true’ means ‘provable’.

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Substitution and Lambda Expressions

Definition. We can prefix an expression E to form the expression “λx, E” (or “x 7→ E”) to indicate
that all occurrences2 of x in E are a variable that represents the same unspecified object of the same
type as x. These prefixed expressions are called lambda expressions (or anonymous functions).

Definition. Lambda expressions can be applied to an expression a having the same type as x to
form a new expression, (λx, E)(a) which has the same type as E. These can be further simplified to
the expression obtained by replacing all occurrences3 of x in E with a.

Remark. If we give a name to a lambda expression, e.g., define f to be λx, E then the expression
(λx, E)(a) is just the usual notation for function application f (a).4

Definition. Two lambda expressions are said to be equivalent if they simplify to the same or
equivalent things when applied to any argument.

Remark. Renaming all occurrences of x in λx, E with a new identifier always produces a lambda
expression that is equivalent to the original. Another common situation where we can simplify a
lambda expression λx, E is when the expression E does not contain x. In this situation (λx, E)(a)
simplifies to just E for every a, and thus we can say that λx, E simplifies to just E in that case.

Rules of Inference in Mathematics

Most rules of inference in mathematics are stated as assertions that something can be proven in
the given system. Frequently these are given as lambda expressions. Such a lambda expression
generate an entire family of specific rules of inference, one for each application of the expression.
Because this is so common, we usually omit the lambda prefixes, and use the convention that any
free variables that appear free in the premises or conclusion of a rule of inference can be replaced
with an expression of the same type to form a particular instance of that rule of inference.

2
These refer to free occurrences - see below.
3
See footnote 2. Also no free identifier in a should become bound as a result of the substitution.
4
Indeed, in precalculus they usually write f (x) = x3 instead of writing f = (λx, x3 ), but the latter is usually what they
mean.

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Template Notation for Rules of Inference

Notation. A rule of inference having premises P1 , . . . , Pk and conclusions Q1 , . . . , Qn can be ex-
pressed in template notation or recipe notation as

Rule Name Here

P1 (show)
..
.
Pk (show)
...................................
Q1 (conclude)
..
.
Qn (conclude)

In this notation, the rule looks like a template that we can fill in to create our proofs. In particular,
the lines marked with a (show) need to be justified with a rule of inference that is supplied as
a reason for that line, and those marked with (conclude) can be justified with the given rule of
inference.
Some rules of inference have a premise of the form

(P1 , . . . , Pk ` Q)

This is not a statement in the formal system itself, but rather the assertion that Q can be proven
from P1 , . . . , Pk in the formal system. We call an expression of this form a subproof or environment.
Such a premise is satisfied by including a subproof in a proof that shows that Q can be proved
from the given premises (which do not need to be justified by a rule of inference). We denote this
in recipe notation as an indented ‘assume-block’ as illustrated below.

Example 1. Suppose we have a rule of inference that justifies the following.

φ or ψ, (φ ` ρ), (ψ ` ρ) ` ρ

where φ, ψ, and ρ are any mathematical statements. Then we would express this rule in recipe
notation as

Proof by Cases

φ or ψ (show)
Assume φ
ρ (show)
←
Assume ψ
ρ (show)
←
...................................
ρ (conclude)

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In this, everything between an Assume and the following ← (the ‘end assumption’ symbol) is a
subproof that demonstrates the corresponding premise in the rule of inference. We indent such
assumption blocks in our proofs. Subproofs can be nested, and the level of indentation corresponds
to the level of nesting. Assumptions (lines that start with Assume) do not need to be justified by
a rule of inference. We say that they are given. Lines marked with (show) must be justified. Lines
marked with (conclude) are justified by the rule itself.
Note that we do include the word "Assume " in the proof itself, but not the words "show" or
"conclude" which are just instructions to the proof author (as opposed to the reader) for how to
justify the indicated lines.

Natural Deduction
We now turn our attention to a formal axiom system that is based on one first formulated by
Gerhard Gentzen in 1934 as a formal system that closely imitates the way mathematicians actually
reason when writing traditional expository proofs.

Propositional Logic
The Statements of Propositional Logic
Definition. Let φ, ψ be statements. Then the five expressions “¬φ”, “φ and ψ”, “φ or ψ”, “φ ⇒
ψ”, and “φ ⇔ ψ” are also statements whose truth values are completely determined by the truth
values of φ and ψ as shown in the following table:

φ ψ ¬φ φ and ψ φ or ψ φ⇒ψ φ⇔ψ

T T F T T T T
T F F F T F F
F T T F T T F
F F T F F T T

We can also write ’not’ for ¬, ’if and only if’ for ⇔, and ’implies’ for ⇒. A statement of the form
’φ ⇒ ψ’ is called a conditional statement or an implication, and can be written in English as ’φ implies
ψ’, ’if φ then ψ’, ’ψ follows from φ’, or ’ψ, if φ’.

Definition. The statements S, of Propositional Logic consists of

1. Atomic Statements that do not contain any of the five logical operators, and
2. Compound Statements that are one of the five forms, ¬φ, φ and ψ, φ or ψ, φ ⇒ ψ, or φ ⇔ ψ
where φ and ψ are any elements of S.
Note: In compound statements we usually put parentheses around the statements φ or ψ involved.
For instance if φ is the statement ‘P or Q’ and ψ is the statement ‘R and S’ then φ ⇒ ψ should be
written
(P or Q) ⇒(R and S)

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in order to avoid the confusion that ‘P or Q ⇒ R and S’ might actually mean something like
P or (Q ⇒(R and S)). In order to cut down on parentheses, we assign a precedence order for
our operators, meaning we apply the operators in the following order (from highest to lowest).

Precedence of Notation

parentheses, brackets, (), {}, [] etc.

arithmetic operations∗ ∧, ·, +, . . . etc.
set operations ×, −, ∩, ∪, . . . etc.
arithmetic and set relations =, ⊆, ≤, ,, . . . etc.
not
and , or
⇒
⇔
∀, ∃, ∃!
∗
with the usual precedence among them

The Rules of Propositional Logic

Natural deduction generially defines a pair of rules for each definition. A ’plus’ rule is used to
prove statements that contain the thing being defined from statements that do not, while ’minus’
rules do the opposite.

Rules of Propositional Logic

Name Rule

and+ φ, ψ ` (φ and ψ)
and− (φ and ψ) ` φ
(φ and ψ) ` ψ
or+ φ ` (φ or ψ)
ψ ` (φ or ψ)
or− (proof by cases) (φ or ψ), (φ ⇒ ρ), (ψ ⇒ ρ) ` ρ
⇒+ (φ ` ψ) ` (φ ⇒ ψ)
⇒ − (modus ponens) (φ ⇒ ψ), φ ` ψ
⇔+ (φ ⇒ ψ), (ψ ⇒ φ) ` (φ ⇔ ψ)
⇔− (φ ⇔ ψ) ` (φ ⇒ ψ)
(φ ⇔ ψ) ` (ψ ⇒ φ)
not+ (proof by contradiction) (φ ` →←) ` not φ
not− (proof by contradiction) (not φ ` →←) ` φ
→← + φ, (not φ) ` →←

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We can also list these rules in template notation that mirrors how they are used in proofs.

Propositional Logic
and + and −
φ (show) φ and ψ (show)
ψ (show) ........................................................
........................................................ φ (conclude)
φ and ψ (conclude) ψ (conclude)

⇒+ ⇒ − (modus ponens)
Assume φ φ (show)
ψ (show) φ⇒ψ (show)
← ........................................................
........................................................ ψ (conclude)
φ⇒ψ (conclude)

⇔+ ⇔−
φ⇒ψ (show) φ⇔ψ (show)
ψ⇒φ (show) ........................................................
........................................................ φ⇒ψ (conclude)
φ⇔ψ (conclude) ψ⇒φ (conclude)

or + or − (proof by cases
φ (show) φ or ψ (show)
........................................................ φ⇒ρ (show)
φ or ψ (conclude) ψ⇒ρ (show)
ψ or φ (conclude) ........................................................
ρ (conclude)

not + (proof by contradiction) not − (proof by contradiction)

Assume φ Assume ¬φ
→← (show) →← (show)
← ←
........................................................ ........................................................
¬φ (conclude) φ (conclude)

→← + copy
φ (show) φ (show)
¬φ (show) ........................................................
........................................................ φ (conclude)
→← (conclude)

Remarks:
• The symbol ← is an abbreviation for “end assumption”.
• The symbol →← is called “contradiction” and represents the logical constant false.

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• The word Assume is actually entered as part of the proof itself, it is not just an instruction in
the recipe like ’(show)’ and ’(conclude)’.
• The inputsAssume- and “←” are not themselves statements that you prove or are given, but
rather are inputs to rules of inference that may be inserted into a proof at any time. There is
no useful reason however, to insert such statements unless you intend to use one of the rules
of inference that requires them as an input.
• The statement following an Assume is the same as any other statement in the proof and can
be used as an input to a rule of inference.
• Statements in an Assume-← block can be used as inputs to rules of inference whose conclu-
sion is also inside the same block only. Once a Assume is closed with a matching ←, only the
entire block can be used as an input to a rule of inference. The individual statements within
a block are no longer valid outside the block. We usually indent and Assume-← block to
keep track of what statements are valid under which assumptions.

Definition. A compound statement of propositional logic is called a tautology if it is true regardless

of the truth values the atomic statements that comprise it. (Its "truth table" contains only T’s.)
It can be shown that a statement can be proved with Propositional Logic if and only if the statement
is a tautology.

Formal Proof Style

One way to write down the proof of a theorem is called a formal proof. This style of proof consists
of a sequence of numbered lines containing statements, reasons, and references to premises. Every
line contains exactly one statement (or declaration - see below), and the reason given on that line
is the name of a rule of inference for which the statement on that line is the conclusion. If the rule
of inference has premises, the reason is followed by the line numbers containing the statements
(or variable declarations) which are the premises that the rule is being applied to. References to
premises can only refer to lines which appear earlier in the same proof which are not contained in
a subproof that has been closed. Subproofs used as a premise are cited by listing the range of line
numbers comprising the subproof.

Example 2. Let P and Q be statements. Prove the following case of DeMorgan’s Law, namely that

¬P or ¬Q ⇒ ¬(P and Q)

Proof.
1. Assume ¬P or ¬Q -
2. Assume ¬P -
3. Assume P and Q -
4. P by and −; 3
5. →← by →← +; 2,4

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6. ← -
7. ¬(P and Q) by not+; 3,5,6
8. ← -
9. ¬P ⇒ ¬(P and Q) by ⇒+; 2,7,8
10. Assume ¬Q -
11. Assume P and Q -
12. Q by and −; 11
13. →← by →← +; 10,12
14. ← -
15. ¬(P and Q) by not+; 11, 13, 14
16. ← -
17. ¬Q ⇒ ¬(P and Q) by ⇒+; 10,15,16
18. ¬(P and Q) by or −; 1,9,17
19. ← -
20. ¬P or ¬Q ⇒ ¬(P and Q) by ⇒ +; 1,18
2
Notice that when a rule of inference has a subproof for a premise, we indicate this by citing the
line numbers for the assumption, the conclusion, and the end of assumption block indicator (←)
e.g., as shown in line 7 above.

Exercise 3. Give a formal proof for the reverse case of DeMorgan’s Law, namely that
¬(P and Q) ⇒ ¬P or ¬Q

Exercise 4. Give a formal proof for yet another case of DeMorgan’s Law, namely that
¬(P or Q) ⇔ ¬P and ¬Q

Predicate Logic
We can extend Propositional Logic by adding more statements and rules of inference to those we
already have in our formal system. This extended formal system is called Predicate Logic.

Quantifiers
The symbol λ in the lambda expression (λx, E) is an example of a quantifier. The thing that all
quantifiers have in common is that they bind variables. If W is an expression that does not contain
any quantifiers, then every occurrence of every identifier that appears in the expression is said to
be a free occurrence of that identifier.
If a quantifier appears in an expression, there are one or more variables that it binds. All occurrences
of the variables that are in the scope of the quantifier (usually everything to the right of it until a
scope delimiter for that quantifier is encountered) are called bound variables.

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Predicate logic extends propositional logic by defining two additional quantifiers.

Definition. The symbols ∀ and ∃ are quantifiers. The symbol ∀ is called “for all”, “for every”, or
“for each”. The symbol ∃ is called “for some” or “there exists”.
We will encounter more quantifiers beyond just these two and λ.

Statements
Every statement of Propositional Logic is still a statement of Predicate Logic. In addition we define
the following statements.

Definition. If x is any variable and W is a lambda expression5 that simplifies to a statement when
applied to any expression having the same type as x, then (∀x, W(x)) and (∃x, W(x)) are both
statements.
We say that the scope of the quantifier in (∀x, W(x)) and (∃x, W(x)) is everything inside the outer
parentheses. Sometimes these parentheses are omitted when the scope is clear from context. All
occurrences if x throughout the scope are said to be bound by the quantifier.

Variable declaration
Before using a free identifier for the first time in any expression in our proofs we should tell the
reader what that identifier represents. There are four ways to introduce a new free identifier.
1. It can be declared to be a variable (a variable declaration).
2. It can be declared to be a constant (a constant declaration).
3. It can be defined as temporary new notation, usually as an abbreviation for a larger expression
(a notational definition).
4. It can occur free in an expression preceding the proof itself, such as in the statement of the
theorem, in a premise that is given, or declared globally prior to the start of the proof (globally
declared).
Bound variables do not have to be declared. They can be any identifier you like, as long as that
identifier is not in the scope of more than one quantifier that binds it.

Rules of Inference
The rules of inference for these two quantifiers are as follows.

Rules of Inference for Predicate Logic

Name Rule


∀+ Let s be arbitrary ` φ(s) ` (∀x, φ(x))
∀− (∀x, φ(x)) ` φ(t)
5
Not containing x.

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Rules of Inference for Predicate Logic (cont.)

Name Rule

∃+ φ(t) ` (∃x, φ(x))

∃− (∃x, φ(x)) ` For some constant c, φ(c)
∃!+ (∃x, φ(x) and ∀y, φ(y) ⇒ y = x) ` (∃!x, φ(x))
∃!− (∃!x, φ(x)) ` ∃x, φ(x) and ∀y, φ(y) ⇒ y = x

These can also be expressed in template notation.

Predicate Logic∗
∀+ ∀−
Let s be arbitrary (variable declaration) ∀x, φ(x) (show)
φ(s) (show) ........................................................
← φ(t) (conclude)
........................................................
∀x, φ(x) (conclude)

∃+ ∃−
φ(t) (show) ∃x, φ(x) (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
∃x, φ(x) (conclude) For some c, (constant declaration)
φ(c) (conclude)

∗ Restrictions
and Remarks
• In ∀+, s must be a new variable in the proof, cannot appear as a free variable in any assumption
or premise, and W(s) cannot contain any constants which were produced by the ∃− rule. The
indentation and ← symbol indicate the scope of the declaration of s. Variables s and x must
have the same type.
• In ∀− and ∃+, no free variable in t may become bound when t is substituted for x in W(x).
Variable x and expression t must have the same type.
• In ∃+, t can be an expression, and W(x) can be the expression obtained by replacing one or
more of the occurrences of t with x. The identifier x cannot occur free in W(t). Variable x and
expression t must have the same type.
• In ∃−, c must be a new identifier in the proof. Also W(c) must immediately follow the
constant declaration for c in the proof. The scope of the declaration continues indefinitely or
until the end of the scope of any subproof block or variable declaration scope that contains
the constant declaration. Variable x and constant c must have the same type.
One consequence of this is that it enforces the restriction on ∀+ that prohibits any constant
declared with ∃− to appear in W(s) because after the application of ∀+ any free occurrence
of c is no longer in the scope of the original declaration (and therefore undeclared).

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Equality
Finally, we can complete our definition of logic by adding the rules of inference for equality.

Definition. The equality symbol, =, is defined by the following two rules of inference.

Rules of Inference for Equality

Name Rule

reflexivity ` (x = x)
substitution (x = y), φ ` (φ with one or more free occurrences of x replaced by y)

Equality
Reflexivity Substitution∗
........................................................ x=y (show)
x=x φ (show)
........................................................
φ with any free occurrences of x replaced by
y. (conclude)

∗ Restrictions and Remarks

• Note that in the Reflexive rule there are no inputs, so you can insert a statement of the form
x = x into your proof at any time.
• No free variable in y can become bound when y is substituted for x.
Rather than make a formal definition for the symbol , we will simply define x , y to be convenient
shorthand for ¬(x = y)

0.2 Appendix B: Sets, Functions, Numbers

The symbol ∈ is formally undefined, but it means “is an element of”. The expression x ∈ A is a
statement that is true if and only if A is a set and x is an element of A. Modern set theory is usually
based on the Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms which are robust but sophisticated. Most mathematicians
use the slightly more informal definitions listed below, which will be sufficient for our purposes.
As with , we will consider x < A to be an abbreviation for ¬(x ∈ A) that can be used interchangeably
rather than defining it separately.

Elementary Set Theory

Name Definition

Empty set ∀x, x < { }

Finite set notation x ∈ { x1 , . . . , xn } ⇔ x = x1 or · · · or x = xn

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Elementary Set Theory (cont.)

Name Definition

Set builder notation∗ x ∈ y : φ(y) ⇔ φ (x)
Subset A ⊆ B ⇔ ∀x, x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ B
Set equality A = B ⇔ A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A
Power set P (A) = { B : B ⊆ A }
Intersection x ∈ A ∩ B ⇔ x ∈ A and x ∈ B
Union x ∈ A ∪ B ⇔ x ∈ A or x ∈ B
Set Difference x ∈ B − A ⇔ x ∈ B and x < A
Complement x ∈ A0 ⇔ x < A
T
Indexed Intersection x ∈ Ai ⇔ ∀i, i ∈ I ⇒ x ∈ Ai
i∈I
S
Indexed Union x ∈ Ai ⇔ ∃i, i ∈ I and x ∈ Ai
i∈I


Two convenient ∀x ∈ A, φ (x) ⇔ ∀x, x ∈ A ⇒ φ(x)


abbreviations ∃x ∈ A, φ (x) ⇔ ∃x, x ∈ A and φ(x)
S
Partition of a set P is a partition of A ⇔ (∀S ∈ P, S , ∅ and S ⊆ A) and A = S
S∈P
and ∀S ∈ P, ∀T ∈ P, S = T or S ∩ T = ∅
solution set of W {s : W(s)} where W is a lambda expression that returns a
statement
∗
Set builder notation and indexed union and intersection are quantifiers that bind the variables y and i in their respective
definitions. Thus, for example, y and i can be replaced by alpha substitution.
∗∗
To solve a statement is to find its solution set. The values of s in the solution set must have the same type as the input
to W. For multivariable statements the solution set is the set of all ordered tuples that make it true.

Cartesian Products
Name Definition


Ordered Pairs x, y = (u, v) ⇔ x = u and y = v


Ordered n-tuple (x1 , . . . , xn ) = y1 , . . . , yn ⇔ x1 = y1 and · · · and xn = yn


Cartesian Product A × B = x, y : x ∈ A and y ∈ B
Cartesian Product A1 × · · · × An = {(x1 , . . . , xn ) : x1 ∈ A1 and · · · and xn ∈ An }
Power of a Set An = A × A × · · · × A where there are n occurrences of A in the
Cartesian product

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Functions
Name Definition



Def of function f : A → B ⇔ f ⊆ A × B and ∀x, ∃!y, x, y ∈ f
f
Alt. function notation A→B⇔ f: A→B


Def of f (x) f : A → B ⇒ f (x) = y ⇔ x, y ∈ f
Domain f : A → B ⇒ A is the domain of f
Codomain f : A → B ⇒ B is the codomain of f
Function equality f = g ⇔ f : A → B and g : A → B and ∀a ∈ A, f (a) = g(a)

Image (of a set) f : A → B and S ⊆ A ⇒ f (S) = f (x) : x ∈ S
Range f : A → B ⇒ f (A) is the range of f
Identity Map idA : A → A and ∀x, idA (x) = x
f g g◦ f


Composition A → B and B → C ⇒ A −→ C and ∀x, g ◦ f (x) = g f (x)


Injective (one-to-one)6 f is injective ⇔ ∀x ∈ A, ∀y ∈ A, f (x) = f y ⇒ x = y
Surjective (onto)1 f is surjective ⇔ ∀y ∈ B, ∃x ∈ A, y = f (x)
Bijective f is bijective ⇔ f is injective and f is surjective
Inverse g is an inverse of f ⇔
f : A → B and g : B → A and f ◦ g = idB and g ◦ f = idA
Invertible f is invertible ⇔ ∃g, g is an inverse of f

Inverse Image f : A → B and S ⊆ B ⇒ f inv (S) = x ∈ A : f (x) ∈ S
Binary Operation Any function ∗ : G × G → G is called a binary operation on G
∗
Another way to define a function is to say that it is a triple, ( f, A, B) where f is a lambda expression, A is a set of
elements the type f can be applied to, and B is a set of elements of the type f outputs. Note that f (a) represents the
same element in both definitions.

Famous Sets of Numbers

Name Definition

The Natural Numbers N = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . }

The Integers Z = { . . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . }
n o
The Rational Numbers Q = ba : a ∈ Z, b ∈ N,b > 0, and gcd (a, b) = 1

The Real Numbers R = x : x can be expressed as a decimal number

The Complex Numbers C = x + yi : x, y ∈ R where i2 = −1
The positive real numbers R+ = { x : x ∈ R and x > 0 }
The negative real numbers R− = { x : x ∈ R and x < 0 }
The positive reals in a set A A+ = A ∩ R +
6
Where f : A → B.

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Famous Sets of Numbers (cont.)

Name Definition

The negative reals in a set A A− = A ∩ R −

The first n positive integers In = { 1, 2, . . . , n }
The first n + 1 natural numbers On = { 0, 1, 2, . . . , n }

Sequences
Definition. A finite sequence is a function t : In → A where n is a natural number and A is a set.
An infinite sequence is a function t : N+ → A where A is a set. In either case, t (k) is called the kth
term of the sequence.

Remark. It is often convenient to say that t is a finite (resp infinite) sequence if t : On → A (resp.
t : N → A). In this case we say that t (k) is the k + 1st term of the sequence.

Notation. If t : In → A is a finite sequence we write

t1 , t2 , t3 , . . . , tn

as another notation for t, where tk = t (k) for all k ∈ In . Similarly if t : N+ → A we write

t1 , t2 , t3 , . . .

for t where tk = t (k) for all k ∈ N+ .

Remark. Sometimes for readability we might want to enclose a sequence in parenthesis. For
example, we might write “Let t = (1, 2, 3, 4)” instead of “Let t = 1, 2, 3, 4”. In this sense there is
really no distinction between n-tuples and finite sequences.

Notation. We use an overbar to indicate an infinite repeating sequence, i.e.

t0 , t1 , . . . , tk−1 , tk , . . . , tk+n−1

denotes the sequence infinite sequence t such that ti = tk+((i−k) Mod n) for all i > n.

0.3 Appendix D: Equivalence Relations

Definition. Let A be a set. We say that R is a relation on A if and only if R ⊆ A × A.

Notation. Let R be a relation on A. For any x, y ∈ A, we write

x R y ⇔ x, y ∈ R (infix notation)

and



R x, y ⇔ x, y ∈ R (prefix notation)

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Definition. Let R be a relation on A. Then

1. R is reflexive if and only ∀x ∈ A, x R x
2. R is symmetric if and only ∀x ∈ A, ∀y ∈ A, x R y ⇒ y R x
3. R is transitive if and only ∀x ∈ A, ∀y ∈ A, ∀z ∈ A, x R y and y R z ⇒ x R z

Definition. Let R be a relation on A. Then R is an equivalence relation if and only if R is reflexive,

symmetric, and transitive.

Definition. Let R be an equivalence relation on A and a ∈ A. Then the equivalence class of a, denoted,
[a]R , is the set
[a]R = { x : x R a } (equivalence class)

Notation. We often abbreviate [a]R by [a] when the relation R is clear from context.

Theorem (Burning!!). Let R be an equivalence relation on A and a, b ∈ A. Then

[a] = [b] ⇔ a R b.

Corollary. Let R be an equivalence relation on A. Then A is a disjoint union of equivalence classes,

i.e., [
A= [a]
a∈A

and
∀a, b ∈ A, [a] = [b] or [a] ∩ [b] = ∅

We summarize these definitions along with a few others regarding relations in the following table.

Relations
Name Definition

Def of relation ∼ is a relation from A to B ⇔ ∼ ⊆ A × B

Relation on a set ∼ is a relation on A ⇔ ∼ ⊆ A × A


Infix notation x ∼ y ⇔ x, y ∈ ∼



Prefix notation ∼ x, y ⇔ x, y ∈ ∼
Reflexive relation7 ∼ is reflexive ⇔ ∀x ∈ A, x ∼ x
Symmetric relation7 ∼ is symmetric ⇔ ∀x ∈ A, ∀y ∈ A, x ∼ y ⇒ y ∼ x
Transitive relation7 ∼ is transitive ⇔ ∀x ∈ A, ∀y ∈ A, ∀z ∈ A, x ∼ y and y ∼ z ⇒ x ∼ z
Equivalence Relation ∼ is an equivalence relation ⇔ ∼ is reflexive, symmetric, and
transitive.

7
Where ∼ is a relation on a set A

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Relations (cont.)

Name Definition

Equivalence Class∗ ∼ is an equivalence relation and a ∈ A ⇒ [a]∼ = { x ∈ A : x ∼ a }

∗
We often abbreviate [a]∼ by [a] when the relation ∼ is clear from context.

0.4 Appendix C: Math Induction

The Natural Numbers
It is possible to define the Natural Numbers and addition, multiplication, and < for those numbers
from scratch. One famous way of doing that was developed by Giuseppe Peano at the end of the
19th century. It defines constants 0, +, ·, σ and N.

Peano Postulates
Name Axiom

(N0) existence of zero 0∈N

(N1) existence of successors ∀n, σ(n) ∈ N
(N2) uniqueness of predecessor ∀n, ∀m, σ(n) = σ(m) ⇒ m = n
(N3) zero is first ∀n, 0 , σ(n)
(N4) induction P (0) and (∀k, P (k) ⇒ P (σ(k))) ⇒ ∀n, P (n)
(A0) additive identity ∀n, n + 0 = n
(A1) successor addition ∀n, ∀m, m + σ(n) = σ(m + n)
(M0) multiplication by zero ∀n, n · 0 = 0
(M1) successor multiplication ∀n, ∀m, m · σ(n) = m + m · n
(I) order ∀n, ∀m, m ≤ n ⇔ ∃k, m + k = n

In all of the axioms the quantified variables have natural number type, so that in particular we can
only apply the ∀− rule for expressions which also are type natural number. In N4 above and in the
following, P (n) is a statement about a natural number variable n (i.e., P is a lambda expression that
returns a statement when applied to a natural number variable n). Axiom N4 is called mathematical
induction, or simply induction. While not strictly necessary, the following definitions are useful.

Definition (base ten representation). We define the usual base ten representations of natural
numbers such that 1 = σ(0), 2 = σ(1), 3 = σ(2), 4 = σ(3),. . . and so on.

Definition (less than). ∀m, ∀n, m < n ⇔ m ≤ n and m , n.

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Theorem. For all n ∈ N,

σ(n) = n + 1

Strong Induction

Theorem (Strong Induction). Let P (n) be any statement about a natural number variable n. Then



P (0) and ∀k, ∀ j ≤ k, P(j) ⇒ P (σ(k)) ⇒ ∀n, P (n) .

Note that for both standard induction and strong induction we can replace the P(0) with P(a) for
some a ∈ N in which case the resulting conclusion is valid for all n ≥ a. This gives us the following
flavors of induction which can be stated in recipe notation.

Induction
induction strong induction
P(0) (show) P(0) (show)
Let k ∈ N (variable declaration) Let k ∈ N (variable declaration)
Assume P(k) Assume ∀ j ≤ k, P(j)
P(k + 1) (show) P(k + 1) (show)
← ←
← ←
........................................................ ........................................................
∀n, P(n) (conclude) ∀n, P(n) (conclude)

induction from a strong induction from a

P(a) (show) P(a) (show)
Let k ≥ a (variable declaration) Let k ≥ a (variable declaration)
Assume P(k) Assume ∀ j ∈ {a, a + 1, . . . , k}, P(j)
P(k + 1) (show) P(k + 1) (show)
← ←
← ←
........................................................ ........................................................
∀n ≥ a, P(n) (conclude) ∀n ≥ a, P(n) (conclude)

1 Arithmetic in Z Revisited
1.1 Integers

Theorem (Well Ordering Axiom). Every nonempty set of natural numbers contains a least element,
i.e.
∀S ⊆ N, S , ∅ ⇒ ∃m ∈ S, ∀n ∈ S, m ≤ n.

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Lemma. The minimum of a set of natural numbers is unique.

Notation. If S is a nonempty set of natural numbers, we denote its least element by min (S).

Remark. It can be shown that the following are equivalent: Math Induction, Strong Math Induction,
and the Well Ordering Axiom.

Theorem (Division Algorithm for Integers). Let a, b ∈ Z, and b > 0 . Then there exist unique
integers q, r ∈ Z such that
a = qb + r and 0 ≤ r < b

Definition. In the Division Algorithm Theorem, we call q the quotient and r the remainder when
a is divided by b. In this situation we also define

a quo b = q
a mod b = r

Number Theory
Well ordering theorem def of min
S⊆N (show) S⊆N (show)
S,∅ (show) S,∅
........................................................ ........................................................
For some m ∈ S, (constant declaration) min(S) ∈ S (conclude)
∀s ∈ S, m ≤ s (conclude)
S⊆N (show)
S,∅ (show)
s∈S (show)
........................................................
min(S) ≤ s (conclude)

Division Algorithm (existence) Division Algorithm (uniqueness)

a, b ∈ Z (show) a, b, q, r ∈ Z (show)
b>0 (show) b>0 (show)
........................................................ a = bq + r and 0 ≤ r < b (show)
For some q, r ∈ Z, (constant declaration) ........................................................
a = bq + r (conclude) q = a quo b (conclude)
0≤r<b (conclude) r = a mod b (conclude)

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1.2 Divisibility in Z
Definition (divides). Let a, b ∈ Z and b , 0. Then

b | a ⇔ ∃q ∈ Z, a = qb

Definition (even and odd). Let a ∈ Z. We say that a is even if and only if 2 | a, and we say that a is
odd if and only if a is not even.

Lemma. Let a, b ∈ Z. If b | a and a , 0 then b ≤ | a |.

Definition (gcd). Let a, b, d ∈ Z, a , 0 or b , 0. Then we say d = gcd (a, b) if and only if

1. d > 0
2. d | a and d | b
3. ∀c ∈ Z, c | a and c | b ⇒ c ≤ d

Theorem (Bézout’s Lemma). Let a, b ∈ Z not both zero, and d = gcd (a, b). Then ∃s, t ∈ Z, sa+tb =
d and d is the smallest positive integer of this form.

Corollary (alt def of gcd). Let a, b, d ∈ Z, a , 0 or b , 0. Then d = gcd (a, b) if and only if
1. d > 0
2. d | a and d | b
3. ∀c ∈ Z, c | a and c | b ⇒ c | d

All identifiers in the following recipes have type integer.

Divisibility in Z
divides divides
a, b, q ∈ Z (show) a, b ∈ Z (show)
a = qb (show) b|a (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
b|a (conclude) For some q ∈ Z, (constant declaration)
a = qb (conclude)

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Divisibility in Z (cont.)

gcd gcd
a, b, d ∈ Z (show) d = gcd(a, b) (show)
a , 0 or b , 0 (show) ........................................................
d>0 (show) a , 0 or b , 0 (conclude)
d | a and d | b (show) d>0 (conclude)
Let c ∈ Z (variable declaration) d|a (conclude)
Assume c | a and c | b d|b (conclude)
c≤d (show) d = gcd(a, b) (show)
← c|a (show)
← c|b (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
d = gcd(a, b) (conclude) c≤d

Bézout’s Lemma Bézout’s Lemma

a, b ∈ Z (show) a, b, u, v ∈ Z (show)
a , 0 or b , 0 (show) a , 0 or b , 0 (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
For some s, t ∈ Z, (constant declaration) gcd(a, b) | u · a + v · b (conclude)
gcd(a, b) = s · a + t · b (conclude)

1.3 Primality in Z

Definition. Let p ∈ Z − { 0, ±1 }. We say that p is prime if and only if ∀c ∈ Z, c | p ⇒ c ∈ ±1, ±p

Definition. Let p ∈ Z. We say p is composite if and only if p < { 0, ±1 } and p is not prime.

Remark. Notice that the numbers 0, 1, − 1 are neither prime nor composite. Hence “composite” does
not mean “not prime”.

Theorem. Let a, b, c ∈ Z. If a | bc and gcd(a, b) = 1 then a | c.

Lemma (mutual divisors). Let a, b ∈ Z. If a | b and b | a then a = ±b.

Theorem (alt def of prime). Let p ∈ Z − { 0, ±1 }. Then

p is prime ⇔ ∀b, c ∈ Z, p | bc ⇒ p | b or p | c

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Theorem (not prime). Let p ∈ Z− { 0, ±1 }. Then


p is not prime ⇔ ∃a, b ∈ Z, p = ab and a, b < ±1, ±p

Corollary (composite). Let p ∈ Z − { 0, ±1 }.

p is composite ⇔ ∃a, b ∈ Z, p = ±ab and 1 < a, b < | p |

Theorem. Every integer except 0, ±1 is a product of primes.

Note: Here a “product” can have only one factor.

Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic). Every integer n except 0, ±1 can be expressed

uniquely as a product of primes in the form
e
n = ±2e1 3e2 5e3 7e4 · · · pkk

where pi is the ith positive prime, k and ek are positive integers, and each ei ∈ N.

Notation. It is commonplace to write the prime factorization of an integer by omitting any prime
factor whose exponent is zero in the expression given by the Fundamental Theorem. Thus we can
say that the prime factorization of n is
e
n = ±pe11 pe22 · · · pkk

where p1 < p2 < · · · < pk are positive primes and e1 , ..., ek ∈ Z+

The free variables in the following proof recipes have type integer.

Primality in Z
prime prime
p ∈ Z − {0, ±1} (show) p is prime (show)
Let c ∈ Z (variable declaration) ........................................................
Assume c | p p < {0, ±1} (conclude)
c ∈ {±1, ±p} (show) p is prime (show)
← c|p (show)
........................................................
←
........................................................ c ∈ {±1, ±p} (conclude)
p is prime (conclude)

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Primality in Z (cont.)

alt. def. of prime alt. def. of prime

p ∈ Z − {0, ±1} (show) p, b, c ∈ Z (show)
Let b, c ∈ Z (variable declaration) p is prime (show)
Assume p | bc p | bc
p | b or p | c (show) ........................................................
← p | b or p | c (conclude)
←
........................................................
p is prime (conclude)

composite composite
c is not prime (show) p is composite (show)
c < {0, ±1} (show) ........................................................
........................................................ p is not prime (conclude)
p is composite (conclude) p < {0, ±1} (conclude)
For some a, b, (constant declaration)
1 < a, b < | p | and p = ±ab (conclude)

Fund. Thm. of Arithmetic (existence) Fund. Thm. of Arithmetic (uniqueness)

n ∈ Z − {0} (show) n ∈ Z − {0} (show)
........................................................ k, m ∈ N (show)
For some k ∈ N, p1 , . . . , pk , e1 , . . . , ek ∈ N+ , p1 , . . . , pk , q1 , . . . , qm are primes (show)
(constant declaration) e1 , . . . , ek , d1 , . . . , dm ∈ Z+ (show)
p1 , . . . , pk are primes (conclude) 1 < p1 < p2 < · · · < pk (show)
1 < p1 < p2 < · · · < pk (conclude) 1 < q1 < q2 < · · · < qm (show)
e
n = ±pe11 pe22 · · · pkk (conclude) n = ±pe11 pe22 · · · pkk
e
(show)
n = ±qd11 qd22 · · · qdmm (show)
........................................................
k=m (conclude)
p1 = q1 , p2 = q2 , . . . , pk = qk (conclude)
e1 = d1 , e2 = d2 , . . . , ek = dk (conclude)
(and the signs match)

2 Congruence in Z and Modular Arithmetic

2.1 Congruence in Z
Definition. Let a, b, n ∈ Z and n > 0.

a≡b⇔n|a−b
n

Remark. The textbook writes a = b (mod n) for a ≡ b.

n

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Theorem. ≡ is an equivalence relation on Z.

n

Definition. Let n ∈ N and n > 1. Then

n o
Zn = [x] : x ∈ Z

Remark. Note that in the definition of Zn , [x] is the equivalence class of x with respect to ≡.
n

Corollary. Let n ∈ N with n > 1.

1. Let a ∈ Z. If r is the remainder when a is divided by n then [a] = [r] (and a ≡ r).
n o n
2. Zn = [0], [1], [2], . . . , [n − 1] and the n elements are distinct.

In the following table all variables have type integer, n is a positive integer, and the equivalence
classes are for the relation ≡.
n

Congruence in Z
≡ ≡
n n
n|a−b (show) a≡b (show)
........................................................ . . .n. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a≡b (conclude) n|a−b (conclude)
n

Zn Zn
x ∈ Zn (show) k, j ∈ {0, 1, 2, · · · , n − 1} (show)
........................................................ k, j (show)
For some a ∈ Z, (constant declaration) ........................................................
x = [a] (conclude) [k] , [j] (conclude)

class representative (existence) class representative (uniqueness)

x ∈ Zn (show) 0 ≤ i, j ≤ n − 1 (show)
........................................................ [i] = [ j] (show)
For some k, (constant declaration) ........................................................
0≤k≤n−1 (conclude) i= j (conclude)
x = [k] (conclude)

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2.2 Arithmetic in Zn

Theorem. Let a, b, c, d, n ∈ Z, n > 1. If a ≡ b and c ≡ d then

n n

a+c≡b+d
n

and
a·c≡b·d
n

Corollary. Let a, b, c, d, n ∈ Z, n > 1. If [a] = [b] and [c] = [n] then

[a + c] = [b + d]

and
[a · c] = [b · d]

Definition. Let X be a set. A binary operator on X is a function f : X × X → X.

Remark. We usually use infix notation when applying binary operators to their arguments, i.e., we
write (a f b) instead of f (a, b).

Definition. Let n ∈ N+ .
n o
⊕ = ((A, B), C) : ∃a, b ∈ Z, A = [a], B = [b], and C = [a + b]
n o
= ((A, B), C) : ∃a, b ∈ Z, A = [a], B = [b], and C = [a · b]

(where the equivalence classes are with respect to ≡.)

n

Theorem. ⊕, are binary operators on Zn , i.e., ⊕ : Zn × Zn → Zn and : Zn × Zn → Zn .

Remark. This theorem allows us to use infix notation to write the definitions more conveniently in
this form:

[a] ⊕ [b] = [a + b]
[a] [b] = [a · b]

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Theorem (Ring Properties of Zn ). For all A, B, C ∈ Zn ,

1. A ⊕ (B ⊕ C) = (A ⊕ B) ⊕ C (associativity of ⊕)
2. A⊕B=B⊕A (commutativity of ⊕)
3. [0] ⊕ A = A ⊕ [0] = A (identity of ⊕)
4. ∃X ∈ Zn , A ⊕ X = [0] (inverse of ⊕)
5. A (B C) = (A B) C (associative of )
6. A (B ⊕ C) = (A B) ⊕ (A C) (distributivity of , ⊕)
7. A B=B A (commutativity of )
8. A [1] = [1] A = A (identity of )

Lemma (mult by 0 in Zn ). Let n ∈ Z+ and A ∈ Zn . Then [0] A = [0]

Again in this table, n is a positive integer and all equivalence classes are with respect to ≡.
n

Arithmetic in Zn
modular arithmetic modular arithmetic
a, b, c, d ∈ Z (show) a, b ∈ Z (show)
a≡b (show) ........................................................
n [a] ⊕ [b] = [a + b] (conclude)
c≡d (show)
. . n. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [a] [b] = [a · b] (conclude)
a+c≡b+d (conclude)
n
a·c≡b·d (conclude)
n

2.3 Algebra in Zn
As is frequently the convention, write will sometimes write st as an abbreviation for s t as long
as it is clear what the missing multiplication is from context.
Any number that has a multiplicative inverse is called a unit. Two nonzero numbers whose product
is zero are called zero divisors. In these terms the following theorem says that p is prime precisely
when Zp has no zero divisors, and equivalently, every nonzero element of Zp has a multiplicative
inverse.

Theorem. Let p ∈ Z and p > 1. The following are equivalent.

1. p is prime n o
2. ∀a ∈ Zp − [0] , ∃x ∈ Zp , ax = [1]
3. ∀a, b ∈ Zp , ab = [0] ⇒ a = [0] or b = [0]

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Theorem (solving linear equations Zn ). Let n ∈ N+ , a, b ∈ Zn , r, s ∈ Z, a = [r], b = [s], a , [0],

d = gcd(r, n), and x a variable of type Zn .
1. If n is prime then ax = b has a unique solution in Zn .
2. If n is not prime and d | b then ax = b has d solutions in Zn .
3. If n is not prime and d ∤ b then ax = b has no solutions in Zn .

Solving Linear Equations in Zn

Zp for prime p Zp for prime p
p is prime (show) p is prime (show)
a ∈ Zp − [0] (show) a, b ∈ Zp (show)
........................................................ a b = [0] (show)
For some c ∈ Zp , (constant declaration) ........................................................
a c = [1] (conclude) a = [0] or b = [0] (conclude)

Zp for prime p Zp for prime p

Let a ∈ Zp − [0] (variable declaration) Let a, b ∈ Zp (variable declaration)
∃x ∈ Zp , a x = [1] (show) Assume a b = [0]
← a = [0] or b = [0] (show)
........................................................ ←
p is prime (conclude) ←
........................................................
p is prime (conclude)

3 Rings
3.1 Definition and Examples of Rings
Definition (ring). A ring is a triple (R, +, ·) where R is a set and +, · are binary operations on R such
that for all x, y, z ∈ R,
1. x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z (associativity of +)
2. x+y= y+x (commutativity of +)
3. ∃t ∈ R, ∀x ∈ R, t + x = x = x + t (identity of +)
4. ∃u ∈ R, x + u = t (inverse of +)
5. x · (y · z) = (x · y) · z (associative of ·)
6. x · (y + z) = (x · y) + (x · z) and (y + z) · x = (y · x) + (z · x) (distributivity of ·, +)

Remark. The t in #4 refers to any t described in #3, so that technically #4 should say:

∀t ∈ R, (∀x ∈ R, t + x = x = x + t) ⇒ ∀x ∈ R, ∃u ∈ R, x + u = t

Lemma (uniq of add ident). Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and t, u ∈ R. If ∀x ∈ R, t + x = x = x + t and

u + x = x = x + u then t = u (i.e., the additive identity of a ring is unique).

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Notation. We write 0R for the unique additive identity of a ring (R, +, ·).

Notation. We also usually abbreviate a · b as ab.

Notation. We often refer to the ring (R, +, ·) as the ring R.

Lemma (uniq of add inv). Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and u, v, x ∈ R. If u+x = 0R = x+u and v+x = 0R = x+v
then u = v (i.e. the additive inverse of x in a ring is unique)

Notation. We write − x for the additive inverse of x in a ring R.

Definition
  (of subtraction). Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and a, b ∈ R. Then a − b is defined to be
−
a+ b .

Types of Rings
Definition (commutative ring). A ring (R, +, ·) is a commutative ring if and only if ∀a, b ∈ R, ab = ba.

Definition (ring with identity). A ring (R, +, ·) is a ring with identity if and only if ∃i ∈ R, ∀x ∈
R, ix = x = xi.

Lemma (uniq of mult ident). Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and u, v ∈ R. If

∀x ∈ R, ux = x = xu and vx = x = xv

then u = v (i.e. the multiplicative identity for a ring is unique).

Notation. If R is a ring with identity we write 1R for the unique multiplicative identity of R.

Lemma (uniq of mult inverse). Let (R, +, ·) be a ring with identity 1R and x, u, v ∈ R. If

ux = 1R = xu and vx = 1R = xv

then u = v (i.e. a multiplicative inverse of an element of a ring is unique).

Notation. If R is a ring with identity we write x−1 for the unique multiplicative inverse of x in R.

Definition (integral domain). A ring (R, +, ·) is an integral domain if and only if it is a commutative
ring with identity 1R , 0R and ∀a, b ∈ R, ab = 0R ⇒ a = 0R or b = 0R .

Definition (field). A ring (R, +, ·) is a field if and only if is a commutative ring with identity 1R , 0R
and ∀a ∈ R − { 0R } , ∃x ∈ R, ax = 1R (i.e., every nonzero element has a multiplicative inverse).

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Rings
ring ring
+: R × R → R (show) (R, +, ·) is a ring (show)
·: R × R → R (show) x, y, z ∈ R (show)
Let x, y, z ∈ R (variable declaration) ........................................................
x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z (show) x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z (conclude)
x+y= y+x (show) x+y= y+x (conclude)
∃0R ∈ R, ∀x, 0R + x = x = x + 0R (show) 0R ∈ R (conclude)
∃ − x ∈ R, − x + x = x + (− x) = 0R (show) 0R + x = x = x + 0R (conclude)
−x ∈ R (conclude)
x · (y · z) = (x · y) · z (show) − x + x = x + (− x) = 0
x · (y + z) = x · y + x · z (show) R (conclude)
(y + z) · x = y · x + z · x (show) x · (y · z) = (x · y) · z (conclude)
← x · (y + z) = (x · y) + (x · z) (conclude)
........................................................
(R, +, ·) is a ring

commutative ring commutative ring

(R, +, ·) is a ring (show) (R, +, ·) is a commutative ring (show)
Let x, y ∈ R (variable declaration) x, y ∈ R (show)
x·y= y·x (show) ........................................................
← x·y= y·x (conclude)
........................................................
(R, +·) is a commutative ring (conclude)

ring with identity ring with identity

(R, +, ·) is a ring (show) (R, +, ·) is a ring with identity (show)
i∈R (show) x∈R (show)
Let x ∈ R (variable declaration) ........................................................
i·x=x=x·i (show) 1R ∈ R (conclude)
← 1R · x = x = x · 1R (conclude)
........................................................
(R, +·) is a ring with identity (conclude)
1R = i (conclude)

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Rings (cont.)

integral domain integral domain

(R, +, ·) is a commutative ring (show) (R, +, ·) is an integral domain (show)
(R, +, ·) is a ring with identity (show) ........................................................
1R , 0R (show) (R, +, ·) is a commutative ring (conclude)
Let x, y ∈ R (variable declaration) (R, +, ·) is a ring with identity (conclude)
Assume x · y = 0R 1R , 0R (conclude)
x = 0R or y = 0R (show) (R, +, ·) is an integral domain (show)
← x, y ∈ R (show)
← x · y = 0R (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
(R, +·) is an integral domain (conclude) x = 0R or y = 0R (conclude)

field field
(R, +, ·) is a commutative ring (show) (R, +, ·) is a field (show)
(R, +, ·) is a ring with identity (show) ........................................................
1R , 0R (show) (R, +, ·) is a commutative ring (conclude)
Let x ∈ R − {0R } (variable declaration) (R, +, ·) is a ring with identity (conclude)
∃y ∈ R, x · y = 1R 1R , 0R (conclude)
← (R, +, ·) is a field (show)
........................................................ x∈R (show)
(R, +, ·) is a field (conclude) ........................................................
−
x 1∈R (conclude)
− −
x · x 1 = x 1 · x = 1R (conclude)

subtraction
(R, +, ·) is a ring (show)
x, y ∈ R (show)
........................................................
x − y = x + (− y) (conclude)

Subrings
Definition (subring). Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and S ⊆ R. (S, +, ·) is a subring of (R, +, ·) if and only if
(S, +, ·) is a ring (where + and · denote the restrictions of the original +, · to S).

Theorem (subring thm). Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and S ⊆ R and S , ∅. If

1. ∀a, b ∈ S, a − b ∈ S
2. ∀a, b ∈ S, ab ∈ S
then (S, +, ·) is a subring of (R, +, ·).

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Cartesian Product of Rings

Theorem (Cartesian Product of Rings). Let (R, +, ·), (S, ∔, •) be rings and define

(r, s) ⊕ (u, v) = (r + u, s ∔ v)
(r, s) (u, v) = (r · u, s • v)

for any (r, s) , (u, v) ∈ R × S. Then (R × S, ⊕, ) is a ring.

Remark. In the previous theorem if we use + for the addition in both rings R, S and abbreviate
products by concatentation, then the previous definitions become simply

(r, s) ⊕ (u, v) = (r + u, s + v)
(r, s) (u, v) = (ru, sv)

Subrings and Cartesian Product Rings

subring subring
(R, +, ·) is a ring (show) (S, +, ·) is a subring of (R, +, ·) (show)
S⊆R (show) ........................................................
Let x, y ∈ S (variable declaration) S⊆R (conclude)
x+y∈S (show) (S, +, ·) is a ring (conclude)
x·y∈S (show)
←
(S, +, ·) is a ring (show)
........................................................
(S, +, ·) is a subring of (R, +, ·) (conclude)

Cartesian product ring Cartesian product ring

(R, +, ·) is a ring (show) (R, +, ·) is a ring (show)
(S, ∔, •) is a ring (show) (S, ∔, •) is a ring (show)
Let r, s ∈ R and u, v ∈ S (variable declaration) (R × S, ⊕, ) is the Cartesian product ring of R
(r, s) ⊕ (u, v) = (r + s, u ∔ v) (show) and S (show)
(r, s) (u, v) = (r · s, u • v) (show) r, s ∈ R and u, v ∈ S (show)
← ........................................................
........................................................ (r, s) ⊕ (u, v) = (r + s, u ∔ v) (conclude)
(R × S, ⊕, ) is a ring (conclude) (r, s) (u, v) = (r · s, u • v) (conclude)

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Subrings and Cartesian Product Rings (cont.)

subring theorem
(R, +, ·) is a ring (show)
S⊆R (show)
S,∅ (show)
Let x, y ∈ S (variable declaration)
x−y∈S (show)
x·y∈S (show)
←
........................................................
(S, +, ·) is a subring of (R, +, ·) (conclude)

3.2 Algebra in Rings

Theorem (the Algebra Theorem I). Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and a, b, c ∈ R. Then
1. a+b=a+c⇔b=c
2. a+b=c⇔a=c−b
3. a + c = c ⇔ a = 0R
4. a = b ⇔ a − b = 0R

Theorem (the Sign Theorem). Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and a, b ∈ R. Then

1. a · 0R = 0R = 0R · a
2. a (− b) = − (ab) = (− a) b
3. − (− a) = a

4. − (a + b) = (− a) + (− b)

5. − (a − b) = − a + b

6. (− a) (− b) = ab
7. If R has identity then (− 1R ) a = − a

Corollary (to the Sign Theorem). Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and a, b, c ∈ R. If a , 0R and a = bc then
b , 0R and c , 0R .

Definition (exponentiation and multiples). Let n ∈ N+ , (R, +, ·) a ring, and a ∈ R.

an = a · a · · · · · a
| {z }
n factors

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and
na = a + a + · · · + a
| {z }
n summands

Lemma. Let (R, +, ·) be a ring with identity and a, x, y ∈ R.

ax = 1R and ya = 1R ⇒ x = y

Corollary (uniqness of multiplicative inverse). Let (R, +, ·) be a ring with identity and a, x, y ∈ R.

ax = xa = 1R and ya = ay = 1R ⇒ x = y

i.e., multiplicative inverses are unique.

Definition (multiplicative inverse). Let (R, +, ·) be a ring with identity and a, x ∈ R. If ax = xa = 1R

we say x is the multiplicative inverse of a and define a−1 to be this unique element x.

Definition (unit). Let (R, +, ·) be a ring with identity and a ∈ R. If a has a multiplicative inverse
then we say a is a unit in R.

Definition (U (R)). Let (R, +, ·) be a ring with identity. The set of all units of R is denoted U (R).

Definition (associate). Let (R, +, ·) be a commutative ring with identity and a, b ∈ R. We say a is an
associate of b if and only if a = ub for some u ∈ U (R). If a is an associate of b we write a  b.

Theorem (the Algebra Theorem II). Let (R, +, ·) be a ring with identity and a, b, x, y ∈ R, and
a ∈ U (R). Then
1. ax = b ⇔ x = a−1 b
2. xa = b ⇔ x = ba−1 
−1
3. a−1 ∈ U (R) and a−1 =a

Remark. Remember the BAN ON FRACTIONS! You may not write ba instead of a−1 b or ba−1
because in a non-commutative ring these last two expressions might not be equal! So the symbol
b
a is undefined for elements in an arbitrary ring.

Theorem (the Algebra Thm III). Let (R, +, ·) be an integral domain, a, b, c ∈ R, and a , 0R . Then

ab = ac ⇒ b = c

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Definition (zero divisor). Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and a ∈ R. Then a is called a zero divisor of R if
and only if
a , 0 and ∃b ∈ R, b , 0R and (ab = 0R or ba = 0R )

Theorem (fields are integral domains). Every field is an integral domain.

Remark. As usual in mathematics, we will often omit parenthesis for associative operations such
as the addition and multiplication in a ring. We also use the precendence of operators with the
ring multiplication having a higher precedence than ring addition so that e.g. a + bc means a + (bc)
and not (a + b)c.

Algebra in Rings
unit & inverse unit & inverse
(R, +, ·) is a ring with identity (show) (R, +, ·) is a ring with identity (show)
a, x ∈ R (show) a is a unit of (R, +, ·) (show)
ax = xa = 1R (show) ........................................................
........................................................ a−1 ∈ R (conclude)
a is a unit of (R, +, ·) (conclude) a · a−1 = a−1 · a = 1R (conclude)
x = a−1 (conclude)

associate associate
(R, +, ·) is a comm. ring with identity (show) (R, +, ·) is a comm. ring with identity (show)
a, b ∈ R (show) a, b ∈ R (show)
u ∈ U (R) (show) ab (show)
a = ub (show) ........................................................
........................................................ For some u ∈ U (R), (constant declaration)
ab (conclude) a = ub (conclude)

zero divisor zero divisor

(R, +, ·) is a ring (show) (R, +, ·) is a ring (show)
a, b ∈ R (show) a∈R (show)
a , 0R and b , 0R (show) a is a zero divisor of (R, +, ·) (show)
a · b = 0R or b · a = 0R (show) ........................................................
........................................................ For some b ∈ R − {0R }, (constant declaration)
a is a zero divisor (conclude) a · b = 0R or b · a = 0R (conclude)

3.3 Ring Homomorphisms

Recall that we will frequently refer to a ring (R, +, ·) by its set, i.e., we will call it the ring R when
+, · are understood.

Definition. Let (R, +, ·), (S, ⊕, ) be rings. Then ring R is isomorphic to ring S if and only if there
exists a function f : R → S such that

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1. ∀a, b ∈ R, f (a + b) = f (a) ⊕ f (b)

2. ∀a, b ∈ R, f (a · b) = f (a) f (b)
3. f is bijective
Such a map f is called an isomorphism.

Notation. For rings R, S, we write R  S to mean R is isomorphic to S.

Lemma. The identity map is a ring isomorphism.

Theorem.  is an equivalence relation on any set of rings.

Definition. Let (R, +, ·) , (S, ⊕, ) be rings and f : R → S. The map f is a homomorphism (or ring
homomorphism) if and only if
1. ∀a, b ∈ R, f (a + b) = f (a) ⊕ f (b)
2. ∀a, b ∈ R, f (a · b) = f (a) f (b)

Remark. An isomorphism is a bijective homomorphism.

Remark. Note that in most situations we use +,· for the addition and multiplication (and conca-
tentation for ·) in both R and S so that requirements #1,#2 in the defintions of isomorphism and
homomorphism above would be written:
1. ∀a, b ∈ R, f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b)
2. ∀a, b ∈ R, f (a · b) = f (a) · f (b)
in this notation.

Theorem (composition of homomorphisms). The composition of ring homomorphisms is a ring

homomorphism.

Corollary. The composition of ring isomorphisms is a ring isomorphism.

Theorem (inverse of an isomorphism). If f is a ring isomorphism then f −1 is a ring isomorphism.

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Theorem (Homomorphism Properties). Let f : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Let a, b ∈ R.

1. f (0R ) = 0S
2. f (− a) = − f (a)
3. f (a − b) = f (a) − f (b)
Additionally, and if R has identity and f is surjective then
4. S has identity
5. f (1R ) = 1S  
6. If u is a unit in R then f (u) is a unit in S and f u−1 = f (u)−1 .

Corollary (homomorphic image). Let f : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Then f (R) is a subring

of S.

Ring Homomorphisms
ring homomorphism ring homomorphism
(R, +, ·) is a ring (show) (R, +, ·) is a ring (show)
(S, ⊕, ) is a ring (show) (S, ⊕, ) is a ring (show)
f: R→S (show) f : R → S is a ring homomorphism (show)
Let x, y ∈ R (variable declaration) x, y ∈ R (show)
f (x + y) = f (x) ⊕ f (y) (show) ........................................................
f (x · y) = f (x) f (y) (show) f (x + y) = f (x) ⊕ f (y) (conclude)
← f (x · y) = f (x) f (y) (conclude)
........................................................
f is a ring homomorphism (conclude)

ring isomorphism ring isomorphism

f is a ring homomorphism (show) f is a ring isomorphism (show)
f is bijective (show) ........................................................
........................................................ f is a ring homomorphism (conclude)
f is a ring isomorphism (conclude) f is bijective (conclude)

4 Arithmetic in F[x]
4.1 Polynomials
Definition (eventually zero). Let (R, ⊕, ) be a ring. An infinite sequence of elements of R,

a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an , . . .

is said to be eventually zero if and only if there exists N ∈ N such that for all i ≥ N, ai = 0R .

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Definition (polynomial). Let (R, ⊕, ) be a ring. A polynomial with indeterminate x and coeffi-
cients in R is an expression of the form

a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn

where n ∈ N, a0 , . . . , an ∈ R, and x is a symbol that is neither a variable nor a constant. If an , 0R

then n is called the degree of the polynomial and an is called the leading coefficient. In this
situation we write deg(P) = n (where P is the polynomial) and LC(P) = an . The eventually zero
sequence
a0 , a1 , . . . , an , 0R , 0R , . . .
is called the sequence of coefficients of the polynomial. We define coeff(P, i) to be ai in this case.

Remark. deg (0R ) is undefined.

Remark. Note that given a polynomial a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn we define ai = 0R for i > n.

Remark. We can also write our polynomials using summation notation:

X
n
a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + · · · + an xn = ai xi
i=0

If some coefficient ai = 0R we can omit the summand ai xi when writing the polynomial. Similarly,
if R has identity, we can abbreviate 1R xi as simply xi . Finally, we can also permute the order of the
summands in a polynomial to obtain another equivalent expression.

Definition. Two polynomials are equal if and only if their corresponding sequence of coefficients
are equal.

Definition (R[x]). Let (R, ⊕, ) be a ring. Then R[x] is the set of all polynomial with indeterminate
x and coefficients in R.

Remark. Notice that we can consider R to be a subset of R[x] by identifying a ∈ R with the constant
polynomial a in R[x].

Definition. Let (R, ⊕, ) be a ring and P, Q ∈ R[x]. Then there exist a0 , . . . , an , b0 , . . . , bm ∈ R such
that P = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn and Q = b0 + b1 x + · · · + bm xm . Define ak = 0R for k > n, bk = 0R for
k > m, and s = max(m, n). Then

P + Q = (a0 ⊕ b0 ) + (a1 ⊕ b1 ) x + · · · + (as ⊕ bs ) xs

 
M i 
 
P · Q = 0 b0 + 1 b0 ⊕ a0 b1 x + · · · + 
(a ) (a ) aj bi−j  xi + · · · + (an bm ) xn+m
 
j=0

Remark. This is just the ordinary addition and multiplication of polynomials, except with the
coefficients in an arbitrary ring. We usually write +, · (or concatentation) for ⊕, when it is clear
from context.

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Theorem (R[x] is a ring). (R[x], +, ·) is a ring.

Lemma (properties of R[x]). Let (R, ⊕, ) be a ring n ∈ N and a0 , . . . , an ∈ R. Then

1. 0R[x] = 0R
2. − (a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ) = − a0 + (− a1 ) x + · · · + (− an ) xn
3. If R has identity then so does R[x] and 1R[x] = 1R
4. If R is commutative then so is R[x]

Remark. We also write a0 − a1 x − · · · − an xn as another expression for the polynomial a0 + (− a1 ) x +

· · · + (− an ) xn (and allow any combination of these two notations).

Remark. The book uses f (x) to denote an arbitrary element of R[x], but this notation can easily be
confused with the value of a function f at x, so we will simply write f for an arbitrary polynomial
in R[x].

Theorem (additivity of degree (Tepid!!)). Let R be a ring and f, g ∈ R[x] − { 0R }. If R is an

integral domain, then
deg( f · g) = deg( f ) + deg(g)

Corollary. If R is an integral domain then so is R[x].

Corollary (F[x] is int dom). If F is a field then F[x] is an integral domain.

Division Algorithm in F[x]

Theorem (Div Alg in F[x]). Let F be a field, f, g ∈ F[x], and g , 0F[x] . Then there exist unique
polynomials q, r ∈ F[x] such that

f = qg + r and either r = 0F[x] or deg(r) < deg(g)

Remark. In the Division Algorithm Theorem for polynomials, we call q the quotient and r the
remainder when f is divided by g just as we did in the integer case.
In the following recipies, (R, ⊕, ) is a ring.

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Polynomials
polynomial polynomial equality
f ∈ R[x] − { 0R } (show) f, g ∈ R[x] (show)
........................................................ Let i ∈ N (variable declaration)
For some n ∈ N, a0 , . . . , an ∈ R, (constant coeff( f, i) = coeff(g, i) (show)
declaration) ←
f = a0 + · · · + an xn and an , 0R (conclude) ........................................................
f =g (conclude)

degree degree
f = a0 + a1 x + · · · an xn ∈ R[x] (show) f ∈ R[x] (show)
an , 0R (show) deg( f ) = n (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
deg( f ) = n (conclude) coeff( f, n) , 0R (conclude)
∀i > n, coeff( f, i) = 0R (conclude)

4.2 Divisibility in F[x]

Definition (divides). Let F be a field and f, g ∈ F[x] with f , 0F[x] . Then

f | g ⇔ ∃q ∈ F[x], g = q f

If f | g we say f divides g.

Lemma. Let F be a field, f, g ∈ F[x], f , 0F[x] , and c ∈ F − { 0F }. Then

f | g ⇒ cf | g

n o
Lemma. Let F be a field, f, g ∈ F[x] − 0F[x] . If f | g then deg( f ) ≤ deg(g).

Definition. Let F be a field, f ∈ F[x]. We say f is monic if and only if LC( f ) = 1F .

Lemma. Let F be a field, f ∈ F[x] − { 0F }, and c = LC( f ). Then c−1 ∈ F and c−1 f is monic.

Definition (gcd). Let F be a field, f, g, d ∈ F[x], and either f , 0F[x] or g , 0F[x] . Then d = gcd( f, g)
if and only if
1. d is monic
2. d | f and d | g
3. ∀c ∈ F[x], c | f and c | g ⇒ deg(c) ≤ deg(d)

Remark. Technically the symbol gcd (a, b) is not well defined until we show that there is only one
such polynomial in the following theorem. Until then we can say that d is a gcd(a, b) if it satisfies
the three properties listed above.

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Theorem (Bézout for polynomials). Let F be a field, f, g, d ∈ F[x], ( f , 0F[x] or g , 0F[x] ), and
d = gcd( f, g). Then ∃s, t ∈ F[x], s f + tg = d and d is the unique monic polynomial of smallest degree
that is of this form.

Corollary (alt def of gcd). Let F be a field, f, g, d ∈ F[x], and either f , 0F[x] or g , 0F[x] . Then
d = gcd( f, g) if and only if
1. d is monic
2. d | f and d | g
3. ∀c ∈ F[x], c | f and c | g ⇒ c | d

Theorem. Let F be a field, f, g, h ∈ F[x]. If f | gh and gcd( f, g) = 1F then f | h.

Theorem (Euclidean Algorithm II). Let F be a field, f, g, q, r ∈ F[x] and g , 0F[x] . If f = qg + r

and (r = 0F[x] or deg(r) ≤ deg(g)) then

gcd( f, g) = gcd(g, r)

In the following recipes, F is a field.

Divisibility in F[x]
divides divides
a, b, q ∈ F[x] (show) a, b ∈ F[x] (show)
a = qb (show) b|a (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
b|a (conclude) For some q ∈ F[x], (constant declaration)
a = qb (conclude)

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Divisibility in F[x] (cont.)

gcd gcd
a, b, d ∈ F[x] (show) d = gcd(a, b) (show)
a , 0F or b , 0F (show) ........................................................
d is monic (show) a , 0F or b , 0F (conclude)
d | a and d | b (show) d is monic (conclude)
Let c ∈ F[x] (variable declaration) d|a (conclude)
Assume c | a and c | b d|b (conclude)
deg(c) ≤ deg(d) (show) d = gcd(a, b) (show)
← c|a (show)
← c|b (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
d = gcd(a, b) (conclude) deg(c) ≤ deg(d)

Bézout’s Lemma Bézout’s Lemma

a, b ∈ F[x] (show) a, b, u, v ∈ F[x] (show)
a , 0F or b , 0F (show) a , 0F or b , 0F (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
For some s, t ∈ F[x], (constant declaration) gcd(a, b) | u · a + v · b (conclude)
gcd(a, b) = s · a + t · b (conclude)

4.3 Primality (Irreducibilty) in F[x]

Theorem (units in R[x]). Let (R, +, ·) be an integral domain. Then

U (R[x]) = U (R)

i.e., the units in R[x] are the constant polynomials u where u is a unit of R.

Corollary (units in F[x]). Let F be a field. The units of F[x] are the nonzero constant polynomials,
i.e., U (F[x]) = F − { 0F }.

n o
Lemma (alt def of ). Let F be a field, f, g ∈ F[x] − 0F[x] . Then

f | g and g | f ⇔ f  g

Theorem ( is equiv reln).  is an equivalence relation on R.

Lemma. (associates have same degree) Let F be a field and a, b ∈ F[x] − { 0F }. If a  b then deg(a) = deg(b).

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Definition (irreducible). Let F be a field and p ∈ F[x] − F. We say p is irreducible if and only if
∀c ∈ F[x], c | p ⇒ c ∈ U (F[x]) or c  p.

Definition. Let F be a field and p ∈ F[x]. We say p is reducible if and only if p is non-constant and
p is not irreducible.

Remark. The definitions of irreducible and reducible in F[x] correspond to the definitions of prime
and composite in Z.

Theorem (alternate def of reducible). Let F be a field and p ∈ F[x]. We say p is reducible if and
only if there exist g, h ∈ F[x] such that
1. p = gh
2. 0 < deg(g) < deg(p)

Remark. Note that in the previous theorem, since 0 < deg(g) < deg(p) it follows that 0 < deg(h) <
deg(p) also.

Corollary (linear polynomials are irreducible). Let F be a field and p ∈ F[x]. If deg(p) = 1 then p
is irreducible.

Theorem (alternate def of irreducible). Let F be a field and p ∈ F[x]. The following are equivalent
(T.F.A.E.).
1. p is irreducible
2. ∀b, c ∈ F[x], p | bc ⇒ p | b or p | c
3. ∀r, s ∈ F[x], p = rs ⇒ r ∈ U (F[x]) or s ∈ U (F[x]).

Remark. In #3 we are identifying F − { 0F } with the nonzero constant polynomials in F[x].

Corollary. Let F be a field, p, a1 , . . . , an ∈ F[x], and p irreducible. Then

p | a1 a2 · · · an ⇒ p | ai for some i ∈ { 1, 2, . . . , n }

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Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic for F[x]). Let F be a field. Every nonconstant
polynomial f ∈ F[x] can be expressed as a product of irreducible polynomials in the form
e
n = cpe11 pe22 pe33 · · · pkk

where c ∈ F, each pi is a distinct monic irreducible polynomial in F[x], and each ei ∈ N. This expression
is unique up to reordering of the factors.

Note that in the following we identify F with the constant polynomials in F[x]. For example,
F[x] − F is the set of polynomials with positive degree.

Irreducibility in F[x]
irreducible irreducible
p ∈ F[x] − F (show) p is irreducible (show)
Let c ∈ F[x] (variable declaration) ........................................................
Assume c | p deg p > 0 (conclude)
c ∈ U (F[x]) or c  p (show) p is irreducible (show)
← c|p (show)
........................................................
←
........................................................ c ∈ U (F[x]) or c  p (conclude)
p is irreducible (conclude)

alt. def. of irreducible alt. def. of irreducible

p ∈ F[x] − F (show) p, b, c ∈ F[x] (show)
Let b, c ∈ F[x] (variable declaration) p is irreducible (show)
Assume p | bc p | bc
p | b or p | c (show) ........................................................
← p | b or p | c (conclude)
←
........................................................
p is irreducible (conclude)

alt. def. of irreducible alt. def. of irreducible

p ∈ F[x] − F (show) p, b, c ∈ F[x] (show)
Let b, c ∈ F[x] (variable declaration) p is irreducible (show)
Assume p = bc p = bc
b ∈ U (F[x]) or c ∈ U (F[x]) (show) ........................................................
← b ∈ U (F[x]) or c ∈ U (F[x]) (conclude)
←
........................................................
p is irreducible (conclude)

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Irreducibility in F[x] (cont.)

reducible reducible
c is not irreducible (show) c is reducible (show)
c<F (show) ........................................................
........................................................ c is not irreducible (conclude)
c is reducible (conclude) c<F (conclude)

Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic for Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic for

Polynomials (existence) Polynomials (uniqueness)
f ∈ F[x] − F (show) f ∈ F[x] − F (show)
........................................................ k, m ∈ N (show)
For some k ∈ N, c ∈ F − 0F , c, d ∈ F − { 0F } (show)
p1 , . . . , pk ∈ F[x], p1 , . . . , pk , q1 , . . . , qm
e1 , . . . , ek ∈ N+ , (constant declaration) are monic irreducibles (show)
p1 , . . . , pk are irreducible (conclude) e1 , . . . , ek , d1 , . . . , dm ∈ N+ (show)
p1 , . . . , pk are monic (conclude) f = c · pe11 pe22 · · · pkk
e
(show)
e
f = c · pe11 pe22 · · · pkk (conclude)
f = d · qd11 qd22 · · · qdmm (show)
........................................................
k=m (conclude)
c=d (conclude)
p1 = q1 , p2 = q2 , . . . , pk = qk (conclude)
e1 = d1 , e2 = d2 , . . . , ek = dk (conclude)
(for some order of the factors)

4.4 Polynomial Functions

Definition (polynomial function). Let R be a commutative ring and f = a0 + a1 x + · · · + an xn ∈ R[x].
Define f : R → R by ∀r ∈ R, f (r) = a0 + a1 r + · · · + an rn . The function f is called the polynomial
function induced by f (or the function associated with f ).

Definition (root). Let R be a commutative ring, f ∈ R[x], and a ∈ R. We say a is a root of f if and
only if f (a) = 0R .

Theorem (Remainder Theorem). Let F be a field, f ∈ F[x], and a ∈ F. Then there exists q ∈ F[x]
such that
f = q · (x − a) + f (a)
i.e. the remainder when f is divided by x − a is f (a).

Corollary (Factor Theorem). Let F be a field, f ∈ F[x], and a ∈ F. Then a is a root of f if and only if
(x − a) is a factor of f .

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Corollary (to the Remainder Theorem II). Let F be a field, f ∈ F[x]. If deg( f ) ≥ 2 and f is
irreducible then f has no roots in F.

Corollary (to the Remainder Theorem III). Let F be a field, f ∈ F[x]. If deg f = 2 or deg( f ) = 3
then
f is irreducible ⇔ f has no roots in F.

Corollary (to the Remainder Theorem IV). Let F be a field, f ∈ F[x] − { 0F }, and n = deg( f ).
Then f has at most n roots in F.

Corollary (to the Remainder Theorem V). Let F be an infinite field and f, g ∈ F[x]. Then

f =g⇔ f =g

Polynomial Functions
Remainder Theorem Remainder Theorem
f ∈ F[x] (show) f ∈ F[x] (show)
a∈F (show) F is infinite (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
For some q ∈ F[x] f =g⇔ f =g (conclude)
f = q · (x − a) + f (a) (conclude)

Factor Theorem Factor Theorem

f ∈ F[x] (show) f ∈ F[x] (show)
f (a) = 0F (show) (x − a) | f (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
(x − a) | f (conclude) f (a) = 0F (conclude)

5 Congruence in F[x] and Congruence Class Arithmetic

5.1 Congruence in F[x]
Definition (≡). Let F be a field, f, g, p ∈ F[x], and p , 0F .
p

f ≡g⇔p| f −g
p

Remark. The textbook writes f = g mod p for f ≡ g.
p

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Theorem. ≡ is an equivalence relation on F[x].

p

Definition (F[x]p ). Let p ∈ F[x] − { 0F }. Then

 n o
F[x] (p) = [ f ] : f ∈ F[x]

Remark. Note that in the definition of F[x]/(p), [ f ] is the equivalence class of x with respect to ≡.
p
We will write F[x]p = F[x]/(p).

Corollary (the set F[x]p ). Let p ∈ F[x] − { 0F } and f ∈ F[x].

a. If r is the remainder when f is divided by p then [ f ] = [r] (and f ≡ r).
p
n o n o
b. F[x]p = [0F ] ∪ [ f ] : f ∈ F[x] and deg( f ) < deg(p) and these elements are distinct.

In the following table, all free variables have type F[x] and equivalence classes are with respect to
≡.
p

Congruence in F[x]
≡ ≡
p p
p| f −g (show) f ≡g (show)
........................................................ . . .p. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
f ≡g (conclude) p| f −g (conclude)
p

F[x]p F[x]p

z ∈ F[x]p (show) k, j ∈ f ∈ F[x] : f = 0F or deg( f ) < deg(p)
........................................................ (show)
For some f ∈ F[x], (constant declaration) k, j (show)
z = [f] (conclude) ........................................................
[k] , [j] (conclude)

class representative (existence) class representative (uniqueness)


z ∈ F[x]p (show) i, j ∈ { 0F } ∪ f ∈ F[x] : deg( f ) < deg(p)
........................................................ (show)
For some k, (constant declaration) [i] = [ j] (show)
k = 0F or deg(k) ≤ deg(p) (conclude) ........................................................
z = [k] (conclude) i= j (conclude)

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5.2 Arithmetic in F[x]p

Theorem (polynomial modular arithmetic). Let F be a field, f, g, h, i, p ∈ F[x], and deg(p) > 0. If
f ≡ h and g ≡ i then
p p
f +g≡h+i
p

and
f ·g≡h·i
p

Definition. Let F be a field, f, q, r, p ∈ F[x], and deg(p) > 0. If f = pq + r, and either r = 0F or

deg(r) < deg(p)) then we define
f Mod p = r

Definition. Let F be a field, p ∈ F[x], and deg(p) > 0.

n o
⊕ = ((A, B), C) : ∃ f, g ∈ F[x], A = [ f ], B = [g] and C = [ f + g]
n o
= ((A, B), C) : ∃ f, g ∈ F[x], A = [ f ], B = [g] and C = [ f · g]
(where the equivalence classes are with respect to ≡).
p

Theorem. ⊕, are binary operators on F[x]p .

Remark. This theorem allows us to use infix notation to write the definitions more conveniently in
this form:
     
f ⊕ g = f +g
     
f g = f ·g

 
Theorem (F[x]p is a ring). Let F be a field, p ∈ F[x], and deg(p) > 0. Then F[x]p , ⊕, is a
commutative ring with identity, and 1F[x]p = [1F ].

Notation. As in Zn , we will often abbreviate [ f ] ∈ F[x]p as f . We will also often abbreviate ⊕ as +

and as ×, ·, or concatenation.

Theorem (F is a subring of F[x]p ). Let F be a field, p ∈ F[x], deg(p) > 0, and define

F∗ = { [c] : c ∈ F }

Then F∗ is a subring of F[x]p which is isomorphic to F.

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Remark. We often identify c ∈ F with [c] ∈ F[x]p and simply say that F is a subring of F[x]p .

Theorem (units in F[x]p ). Let F be a field, p, f ∈ F[x], deg(p) > 0. Then

 
[ f ] ∈ U F[x]p ⇔ gcd( f, p) = 1F

Arithmetic in F[x]p
modular arithmetic modular arithmetic
a, b, c, d, p ∈ F[x] (show) a, b ∈ F[x] (show)
a≡b (show) ........................................................
p [a] ⊕ [b] = [a + b] (conclude)
c≡d (show) [a] [b] = [a · b] (conclude)
. . p. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a+c≡b+d (conclude)
p
a·c≡b·d (conclude)
p

5.3 Finite fields

Theorem (F[x]p for irreducible p). Let F be a field, p ∈ F[x], deg(p) > 0. The following are
equivalent (T.F.A.E.).
1. p is irreducible.
2. F[x]p is a field.
3. F[x]p is an integral domain.

Definition. Let F be a field, p, f ∈ F[x], deg(p) > 0, n ∈ N+ , a0 , . . . , an ∈ F, and f = a0 +a1 x+· · ·+an xn .
Define f : F[x]p → F[x]p by

∀r ∈ F[x]p , f (r) = [a0 ] + [a1 ] r + · · · + [an ] rn

Remark. If we identify F with F∗ ⊆ F[x]p , then this function f is just an extension of our original
function f from F to F[x]p .

Theorem (extension field). Let F be a field, p ∈ F[x], and p irreducible. Then F[x]p is an extension
field of F which contains a root of p.

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Corollary (existence of extension fields). Let F be a field, f ∈ F[x], and deg(p) > 0. There exists
an extension field K of F containing a root of f .

6 Ideals and Quotient Rings

6.1 Congruence in Rings
Definition (ideal). Let R be a ring and I ⊆ R. Then I is an ideal of R if and only if
1. I is a subring of R
2. ∀r ∈ R, ∀a ∈ I, ra ∈ I and ar ∈ I

Theorem (ideal generated by c1 , . . . , cn ∈ R). Let R be a commutative ring with identity and
c1 , . . . , cn ∈ R. The set
I = { r1 c1 + r2 c2 + · · · + rn cn : r1 , . . . , rn ∈ R }
is an ideal of R.

Definition (principle and finitely generated ideals). The ideal I in the previous theorem is called
the ideal generated by { c1 , . . . , cn }. If n = 1 then I is called a principal ideal. Since { c1 , . . . , cn } is a
finite set, we say that I is finitely generated.

Definition (congruence modulo ideals). Let R be a ring, a, b ∈ R, and I an ideal of R.

a≡b⇔a−b∈I
I

Remark. The textbook writes a = b (mod I) for a ≡ b.

I

Theorem. ≡ is an equivalence relation on R.

I

Definition (R/I). Let R be a ring and I and ideal of R. Then

n o
R/I = [r] : r ∈ R

Remark. Note that in the definition of R/I, [r] is the equivalence class of r with respect to ≡.
I

Theorem (equivalence class mod I). Let R be a ring, a ∈ R, and I an ideal of R. Then

[a] = { a + i : i ∈ I }

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Definition. Let R be a ring, a ∈ R, and I an ideal of R. The set

a + I = { a + i : i ∈ I } = [a]

is called the left coset of a mod I. The notation a + I is called coset notation for the equivalence
class [a].

Remark. I hate coset notation.

Ideals and Quotient Rings

ideal ideal
IvR (show) I is an ideal of ring R (show)
Let r ∈ R and a ∈ I (variable declaration) ........................................................
ra ∈ I (show) IvR (conclude)
ar ∈ I (show) I is an ideal of ring R (show)
← a∈I (show)
........................................................ r∈R (show)
I is an ideal of ring R (conclude) ........................................................
ar ∈ I (conclude)
ra ∈ I (conclude)
congruence mod an ideal congruence mod an ideal
I an ideal of ring R (show) I an ideal of ring R (show)
a, b ∈ R (show) a, b ∈ R (show)
a−b∈I (show) a≡b (show)
........................................................ . . .I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a≡b (conclude) a−b∈I (conclude)
I

6.2 Arithmetic in R/I

Theorem (modular arithmetic in R/I). Let R be a ring, a, b, c, d ∈ R, and I an ideal of R. If a ≡ b

I
and c ≡ d then
I
a+c≡b+d
I

and
ac ≡ bd
I

Definition. Let R be a ring and I an ideal of R. Define

n o
⊕ = ((A, B), C) : ∃a, b ∈ R, A = [a], B = [b], and C = [a + b]
n o
= ((A, B), C) : ∃a, b ∈ R, A = [a], B = [b], and C = [a · b]

(where the equivalence classes are with respect to ≡).

I

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Theorem. ⊕, are binary operators on R/I.

Remark. This theorem allows us to use infix notation to write the definitions more conveniently in
this form:

[a] ⊕ [b] = [a + b]
[a] [b] = [a · b]

or equivalently in left coset notation:

(a + I) ⊕ (b + I) = (a + b) + I
(a + I) (b + I) = ab + I

Theorem (R/I is a ring). Let R be a ring and I an ideal of R. Then (R/I, ⊕, ) is a ring.

Definition (quotient ring). Let R be a ring and I an ideal of R. Then (R/I, ⊕, ) is called a quotient
ring.

Theorem (properties of quotient rings). Let R be a ring and I an ideal of R.

1. If R is commutative then so is R/I.
2. If R has identity then so does R/I and 1R/I = [1R ]

Notation. As in Zn , and F[x]p we will often abbreviate [a] as a. We will also often abbreviate ⊕ as
+ and as ×, ·, or concatentation.

Homomorphisms and Quotient Rings

Definition (kernel). Let f : R → S be a ring homomorphism. The kernel of f is the set

Ker( f ) = x ∈ R : f (x) = 0S

Theorem (Ker is an ideal). Let f : R → S be a ring homomorphism. Ker( f ) is an ideal of R.

Theorem (injectivity vs Kernel). Let f : R → S be a ring homomorphism.

f is injective ⇔ Ker( f ) = { 0R }

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Definition (quotient map). Let R be a ring, I an ideal of R, and define f : R → R/I by ∀r ∈ R, f (r) =
[r]. The map f is called the quotient map (or natural homomorphism).

Theorem. A quotient map is a surjective ring homomorphism.

Theorem (First Isomorphism Thm). Let f : R → S be a surjective ring homomorphism. Then

S  R/ Ker( f )

Arithmetic in Quotient Rings

Kernel Kernel
f : R → S a ring homomorphism (show) f : R → S a ring homomorphism (show)
a ∈ Ker f (show) f (a) = 0R (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
f (a) = 0R (conclude) a ∈ Ker f (conclude)

Quotient Ring
f : R → S a ring homomorphism (show)
f is surjective (show)
........................................................
S  R/ Ker f (conclude)

7 Groups
7.1 Groups
Definition (group). Let G be a set and ∗ : G × G → G a binary operator. The pair (G, ∗) is a group
if and only if
1. ∀a, b, c ∈ G, a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c (associative)
2. ∃e ∈ G, ∀a ∈ G, a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a (identity)
3. ∀a ∈ G, ∃d ∈ G, a ∗ d = e = d ∗ a (inverses)

Remark. We will often abbreviate abbreviate a ∗ b by ab. We will also often refer to the group (G, ∗)
as simply G.

Remark. The e in condition #3 refers to any e satisfying condition #2, so technically it should be
written
∀e ∈ G, (∀a ∈ G, a ∗ e = a = e ∗ a) ⇒ (∀a ∈ G, ∃d ∈ G, a ∗ d = e = d ∗ a)

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Types of Groups
Definition (abelian group). A group (G, ∗) is abelian if an only if ∀a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b = b ∗ a (i.e., ∗ is
commutative).

Definition (finite group). A group (G, ∗) is finite if and only if G is a finite set.

Definition (cardinality). If S is a finite set, the # (S) denotes the number of elements in the finite
set S. Two sets (finite or infinite) have the same cardinality if an only if there is a bijection between
them.

Remark. The book writes | S | for the number of elements in S, but we will use #(S).

Definition (order of a group). If (G, ∗) is a finite group then #(G) is called the order of the group.

Examples of Groups

Theorem (additive group of a ring). Let (R, +, ·) be a ring. Then (R, +) is a group.

Theorem (group of units in a ring). Let (R, +, ·) be a ring with identity. Then (U (R) , ·) is a group.

Corollary (group of units in a field). Let (F, +, ·) be a field. Then (F − { 0F } , ·) is a group.

Definition (permutation). Let T be a set. A permutation of T is a bijection f : T → T.

Definition (In ). Let n ∈ N. Define In = { 1, 2, . . . , n }.

Definition (symmetric group). Let n ∈ N+ . Then


Sn = α : α is a permutation of In

i.e. Sn is the set of all permutations of In .

Theorem (symmetric group). The pair (Sn , ◦) is a group.

Notation (table notation). Let f ∈ Sn . We can describe f in table notation by defining

 
 1 2 · · · n 
f =   ⇔ ∀i ∈ I , f (i) = a
 n i
a1 a2 · · · an

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Theorem (cardinality of Sn ). #(Sn ) = n!

Definition (symmetry operation). Let X ⊆ Rn . A symmetry operation of X is a bijection f : X → X

which preserves the distances between points, i.e., ∀a, b ∈ X, d(a, b) = d( f (a), f (b)).

Remark. Note: in geometry a symmetry operation is called an isometry.

Definition. Let X ⊆ Rn . Then


Sym(X) = α : α is a symmetry operation of X

i.e., Sym(X) is the set of all symmetry operations of X.

Theorem (group of symmetries). The pair (Sym(X), ◦) is a group.

Definition (dihedral group). Let Pn be a regular n-gon in R2 . Define

Dn = Sym (Pn )

(Dn , ◦) is called a dihedral group.

Theorem (direct product). Let (G, ∗) and (H, ·) be groups and define : (G × H) × (G × H) → G × H
by
(a, b) (c, d) = (a ∗ c, b · d)
for all (a, b), (c, d) ∈ G × H. Then (G × H, ) is a group.

Definition (direct product group). The group (G × H, ) is called the direct product of the groups
G and H.

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Groups
Group Group
∗:G×G→G (show) (G∗) is a group (show)
e∈G (show) a, b, c ∈ G
Let a, b, c ∈ G (variable declaration) ........................................................
a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c (show) ∗:G×G→G (conclude)
a∗e=e∗a=a (show) a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c (conclude)
u∈G (show) eG ∈ G (conclude)
a∗u=u∗a=e (show) eG ∗ a = a ∗ eG = a (conclude)
← a−1 ∈ G (conclude)
........................................................ a ∗ a−1 = eG = a−1 ∗ a = a (conclude)
(G, ∗) is a group (conclude)

7.2 Properties of Groups

Theorem (basic group properties). Let (G, ∗) be a group.

1. G has a unique identity element.
2. Every element of G has a unique inverse
3. ∀a, b, c ∈ G, ab = ac ⇒ b = c
4. ∀a, b, c ∈ G, ba = ca ⇒ b = c

Notation. Let (G, ∗) be a group. Then eG denotes the unique identity element of G.

Notation. Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. Then a−1 denotes the unique inverse of a.

Theorem (Inverse Theorem). Let (G, ∗) be a group and a, b ∈ G.

 −1
1. a−1 =a
2. (ab)−1 = b−1 a−1
3. e−1
G
= eG

Definition (powers). Let (G, ∗) be a group, a ∈ G, and n ∈ N+ . Then

an = a · a · · · · · a
| {z }
n factors

and
a−n = a−1 · a−1 · · · · · a−1
| {z }
n factors
and
a0 = eG

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Theorem (power laws). Let (G, ∗) be a group, a ∈ G, and n, m ∈ Z. Then

an am = an+m

and
(an )m = anm

Remark. Note that (ab)n is not always equal to an bn in a group.

Notation (Additive notation). For abelian groups we sometimes write ∗ as + and an as na and a−1
as − a.

Definition (order of an element). Let (G, ∗) be a group, k ∈ N+ , and a ∈ G. We say a has order k if
and only if k is the smallest positive integer such that ak = eG . In other words, a has order k if

ak = eG and ∀j ∈ N+ , a j = eG ⇒ j ≥ k

If a has order k for some k ∈ N+ we say a has finite order, otherwise we say a has infinite order. If
a has finite order we define | a | to be the order of a.

Theorem (order theorem). Let (G, ∗) be a group, a ∈ G, and k, j, n ∈ N+ .

1. a−1 = | a |
2. If a has infinite order then ak = a j ⇒ k = j
3. If | a | = n then ak = eG ⇒ n | k
4. If | a | = n then ak = a j ⇔ k ≡ j
n
5. If | a | = n and there exists t, d ∈ N+ such that n = td then |at | = d

Corollary (to order theorem). Every element of a finite group has finite order.

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Properties of Groups
order of an element order of an element
n∈ N+ (show) a has order n in group G (show)
a∈G (show) ........................................................
an = eG (show) an = eG (conclude)
Let m ∈ N+ (variable declaration) a has order n in group G (show)
Assume am = eG am = eG (show)
........................................................
n≤m (show)
n|m (conclude)
←
←
........................................................
a has order n (conclude)

7.3 SubGroups
Definition (subgroup). Let (G, ∗) be a group and H ⊆ G. Then (H, ∗) is a subgroup of (G, ∗) if and
only if (H, ∗) is a group (where ∗ denotes the restriction of the original ∗ to H).

Definition (proper subgroup). Let (H, ∗) be a subgroup of (G, ∗). Then (H, ∗) is a proper subgroup
of (G, ∗) if and only if H , G and H , { eG }.

Notation (v). We sometimes write “H v G” as a shorthand for “H is a subgroup of G”.

Theorem (subgroup theorem). Let (G, ∗) be a group, H ⊆ G, and H , ∅. Then (H, ∗) is a subgroup
of (G, ∗) if and only if
1. ∀a, b ∈ H, ab ∈ H
2. ∀a ∈ H, a−1 ∈ H

Theorem (subgroup theorem II). Let (G, ∗) be a group and H ⊆ G a finite nonempty set. Then
(H, ∗) is a subgroup of (G, ∗) if and only if

∀a, b ∈ H, ab ∈ H

Lemma (subgroup identity). Let H v G. Then eG ∈ H and eH = eG .

Definition (center). Let (G, ∗) be a group. The center of G is the set


Z(G) = a ∈ G : ∀g ∈ G, ag = ga

Theorem (center is a subgroup). The center of a group is a subgroup of the group.

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Cyclic groups
Definition (cyclic subgroup). Let (G, ∗) be a group and a ∈ G. Define

hai = { an : n ∈ Z }

The set hai is called the cyclic subgroup generated by a.

Theorem (cyclic groups are abelian). Let (G, ∗) be a group, a ∈ G. Then (hai , ∗) is an abelian
subgroup of (G, ∗).

Theorem (elts of hai). Let (G, ∗) be a group, a ∈ G.

n o
1. If |a| = n for some n ∈ N then hai = eG , a, a2 , a3 , . . . , an−1
n o
2. If |a| = ∞ then hai = . . . , a−3 , a−2 , a−1 , eG , a, a2 , a3 , . . .
and in both cases the elements listed are distinct.

Theorem. Any finite subgroup of the group of units of a field is cyclic.

Theorem. Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

Definition. Let S ⊆ G and (G, ∗) be a group. The subgroup generated by S is the smallest subgroup
of G which contains S. It is denoted by hSi.

Theorem (subgroup generated by S). Let S ⊆ G and (G, ∗) a group. Then hSi is the set of all
products of elements of S and their inverses.

Notation 5. If S ⊆ G we write S−1 for the set of all inverses of elements of S, i.e.,
n o
S−1 = s−1 : s ∈ S

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Subgroups and Cyclic Groups

subgroup subgroup
H⊆G (show) H⊆G (show)
Let a, b ∈ H (variable declaration) H is finite (show)
a∗b∈H (show) Let a, b ∈ H (variable declaration)
a−1 ∈ H (show) a∗b∈H (show)
← ←
........................................................ ........................................................
(H, ∗) is a subgroup of (G, ∗) (conclude) (H, ∗) is a subgroup of (G, ∗) (conclude)

subgroup generated by S finitely generated subgroup

S⊆G (show) k, n ∈ N+ (show)
Let a ∈ G (variable declaration) s1 , . . . , sn ∈ G (show)
b1 , . . . , bn ∈ S ∪ S−1 (show) Let g ∈ G (variable declaration)
a = b1 ∗ b2 ∗ · · · ∗ bn (show) g ∈ h{ s1 , . . . , sn }i
← ←
........................................................ ........................................................
G = hSi (conclude) (G, ∗) is finitely generated (conclude)

abelian abelian
Let a, b ∈ G (variable declaration) (G, ∗) is abelian (show)
a∗b=b∗a (show) a, b ∈ G
← ........................................................
........................................................ a∗b=b∗a (conclude)
(G, ∗) is abelian (conclude)

7.4 Group Homomorphisms

Definition (group morphisms). Let (G, ∗), (H, ·) be groups and f : G → H. The map f is a homo-
morphism (or group homomorphism) if and only if

∀a, b ∈ G, f (a ∗ b) = f (a) · f (b)

If a group homomorphism is bijective it is called an isomorphism (or group isomorphism). If

there exists an isomorphism mapping G to H we say the groups G and H are isomorphic groups
and write G  H.

Theorem (classification of cyclic groups). Every infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to (Z, +).
Every finite cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to (Zn , +).

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Theorem (properties of group homomorphisms). Let (G, ∗), (H, ·) be groups, f : G → H a group
homomorphism, and a ∈ G. Then
1. f (eG ) = eH
 
2. f a−1 = f (a)−1
3. ( f (G), ·) is a subgroup of (H, ·)
4. If f is injective then G  f (G)

Theorem (Cayley’s Theorem). Every group is isomorphic to a group of permutations.

Corollary (Cayley’s theorem for finite groups). Every group of order n is isomorphic to a subgroup
of Sn .

Group Homomorphisms
group homomorphism group homomorphism
(G, ∗) is a group (show) (G, ∗) is a group (show)
(H, ·) is a group (show) (H, ·) is a group (show)
f: G→H (show) f : G → H is a group homomorphism (show)
Let x, y ∈ G (variable declaration) x, y ∈ G (show)
f (x ∗ y) = f (x) · f (y) (show) ........................................................
← f (x ∗ y) = f (x) · f (y) (conclude) f (eG ) = eH
........................................................ (conclude)
f is a group homomorphism (conclude) f (x−1 ) = f (x)−1 (conclude)

group isomorphism group isomorphism

f is a group homomorphism (show) f is a group isomorphism (show)
f is bijective (show) ........................................................
........................................................ f is a group homomorphism (conclude)
f is a group isomorphism (conclude) f is bijective (conclude)

7.5 (Section 8.1) Congruence and Lagrange’s Theorem

Definition (congruence modulo subgroups). Let (K, ∗) be a subgroup of (G, ∗) and a, b ∈ G.

a ≡ b ⇔ a ∗ b−1 ∈ K
K

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Theorem. ≡ is an equivalence relation.

K

Theorem (group cosets). Let (K, ∗) be a subgroup of (G, ∗) and a ∈ G. Then

[a] = { ka : k ∈ K }

Definition. Let (K, ∗) be a subgroup of (G, ∗) and a ∈ G. Then the set

Ka = { ka : k ∈ K } = [a]

is called the right coset of a mod K (or a right coset of K). The notation Ka is called coset notation
for the equivalence class [a].

Theorem (cosets are the same size). Let (K, ∗) be a subgroup of (G, ∗) and a ∈ G. Then there exists
a bijection f : K → Ka. Thus, if K is finite, then every coset of K has the same number of elements.

Definition. Let (K, ∗) be a subgroup of (G, ∗). Define [G : K] to be the number of distinct right cosets
of K. The number [G : K] is called the index of K in G.

Theorem (Lagrange). Let (K, ∗) be a subgroup of a finite group (G, ∗). Then

#(G) = #(K)[G : K]

Corollary (order). Let (G, ∗) be a finite group of order n, a ∈ G, and K a subgroup of G.

1. #(K) | n
2. | a | | n
3. an = eG

Classification of Groups I

Theorem (Classification I). If (G, ∗) is a group, p ∈ N is prime, and #(G) = p then G  Zp .

Theorem (Classification II). If (G, ∗) is a group and #(G) = 4 then G  Z4 or G  Z2 × Z2 .

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Theorem (Classification III). If (G, ∗) is a group and #(G) = 6 then G  Z6 or G  S3 .

Congruence and Lagrange’s Theorem

≡ ≡
K K
(G, ∗) is a group (show) (G, ∗) is a group (show)
(K, ∗) is a subgroup of G (show) (K, ∗) is a subgroup of G (show)
a, b ∈ G (show) a, b ∈ G (show)
a ∗ b−1 ∈ K (show) a≡b (show)
........................................................ ..K
......................................................
a≡b (conclude) a ∗ b−1 ∈ K (conclude)
K

Lagrange Lagrange
(G, ∗) is a group (show) (G, ∗) is a group (show)
(K, ∗) is a subgroup of G (show) a∈G (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
#(G) = #(K)[G : K] (conclude) | a | | #(G) (conclude)
#(K) | #(G) (conclude) a#(G) = eG (conclude)

7.6 (Section 7.5) Symmetric and Alternating Groups

Definition (cycle notation). Let k, n ∈ N+ , a1 , . . . , ak ∈ In be distinct, and p ∈ Sn . Define cycle
notation for p by writing p = (a1 a2 · · · ak ) if and only if


ai+1 if x = ai and i < k



∀x ∈ { 1, . . . , n } , p(x) = 
a1 if x = ak


x otherwise

The permutation (a1 a2 · · · ak ) is called a k -cycle.

Definition (disjoint cycles). Two cycles (a1 a2 · · · ak ) , (b1 b2 · · · bm ) ∈ Sn are disjoint if and only if
{ a1 , . . . , an } ∩ { b1 , . . . , bm } = ∅.

Theorem (disjoint cycles commute). If σ, τ ∈ Sn are disjoint cycles then στ = τσ.

Theorem (disjoint cycle factorization). Every element of Sn is a product of disjoint cycles.

Definition (transposition). A transposition is a 2-cycle.

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Corollary (products of transpositions). Every element of Sn is a product of transpositions.

Theorem (even and odd permutations). No element of Sn is both a product of an even number of
transpositions and also a product of an odd number of transpositions.

Definition. Let σ ∈ Sn . σ is even if it can be written as a product of an even number of transpositions.

σ is odd if it can be written as a product of an odd number of transpositions.

Definition (alternating group). Let n ∈ N+ . Define An = { σ ∈ Sn : σ is even. } The set An is called

the alternating group on n-letters.

Theorem (alternating group). An v Sn and if n ≥ 2 then # (An ) = n!

2.

8 Appendix: Some Useful Proof Recipes

Using the shortcuts that are allowed for semi-formal proofs, we can usually produce several
different derived rules of inference from a given definition. Here are some of the more useful ones
we will need frequently in our course.

Proof Recipes - Logic Extras

proof by cases (alternate or-) proof by cases (alternate or-)
P or Q (show) P or Q (show)
not Q (show) Assume Q
........................................................ →← (show)
P (conclude) ←
........................................................
P (conclude)

Proof Recipes - Set Theory

empty set empty set
........................................................ A,{} (show)
x<{} (conclude) ........................................................
For some c, (constant declaration)
c∈A (conclude)

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Proof Recipes - Set Theory (cont.)

finite set notation finite set notation

........................................................ x ∈ {x1 , . . . , xn } (show)
x1 ∈ {x1 , . . . , xn } (conclude) ........................................................
x2 ∈ {x1 , . . . , xn } (conclude) x = x1 or · · · or x = xn (conclude)
..
.
xn ∈ {x1 , . . . , xn } (conclude)

set builder notation set builder notation



φ (x) (show) x∈ y:φ y (show)
........................................................ ........................................................


x∈ y:φ y (conclude) φ (x) (conclude)

subset subset
Let x ∈ A (variable declaration) A⊆B (show)
x∈B (show) x∈A (show)
← ........................................................
........................................................ x∈B (conclude)
A⊆B (conclude)

set equality set equality

Let x ∈ A (variable declaration) A=B (show)
x∈B (show) ........................................................
← A⊆B (conclude)
Let y ∈ B (variable declaration) B⊆A (conclude)
y∈A (show)
←
........................................................
A=B (conclude)

power set power set

B⊆A (show) B ∈ P(A) (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
B ∈ P(A) (conclude) B⊆A (conclude)

intersection intersection
x∈A (show) x∈A∩B (show)
x∈B (show) ........................................................
........................................................ x∈A (conclude)
x∈A∩B (conclude) x∈B (conclude)

union union
x ∈ A or x ∈ B (show) x∈A∪B (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
x∈A∪B (conclude) x ∈ A or x ∈ B (conclude)

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Proof Recipes - Set Theory (cont.)

set difference set difference

x∈A (show) x∈A−B (show)
x<B (show) ........................................................
........................................................ x∈A (conclude)
x∈A−B (conclude) x<B (conclude)

complement complement
x<A (show) x ∈ A0 (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
x ∈ A0 (conclude) x<A (conclude)

indexed intersection indexed intersection

T
Let i ∈ I (variable declaration) x ∈ Ai (show)
x ∈ Ai (show) i∈I
i∈I (show)
← ........................................................
........................................................
T x ∈ Ai (conclude)
x ∈ Ai (conclude)
i∈I

indexed union indexed union

S
∃i ∈ I, x ∈ Ai (show) x ∈ Ai (show)
........................................................ . . . . .i∈I
...................................................
S
x ∈ Ai (conclude) For some j ∈ I, (constant declaration)
i∈I x ∈ Aj (conclude)

typed forall typed forall

Let x ∈ A (variable declaration) ∀x ∈ A, φ (x) (show)
φ(x) (show) a∈A (show)
← ........................................................
........................................................ φ(a) (conclude)
∀x ∈ A, φ (x) (conclude)

typed exists typed exists

a∈A (show) ∃x ∈ A, φ (x) (show)
φ(a) (show) ........................................................
........................................................ For some c ∈ A, (constant declaration)
∃x ∈ A, φ (x) (conclude) φ(c) (conclude)

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Proof Recipes - Set Theory (cont.)

partition partition
Let S ∈ P P is a partition of A (show)
S⊆A (show) S∈P (show)
← ........................................................
Let S, T ∈ P S⊆A (conclude)
Assume S , T
S∩T ={} (show) P is a partition of A (show)
← S, T ∈ P (show)
........................................................
←
S ∩ T = { } or S = T (conclude)
Let x ∈ A
For some S ∈ P,
P is a partition of A (show)
x∈S (show)
x∈A (show)
← ........................................................
........................................................
For some S ∈ P, (constant declaration)
P is a partition of A (conclude)
x∈S (conclude)

Proof Recipes - Cartesian Product

ordered pair ordered pair
x=u (show) (x, y) = (u, v) (show)
y=v (show) ........................................................
........................................................ x=u (conclude)
(x, y) = (u, v) (conclude) y=v (conclude)

ordered n-tuple ordered n-tuple

x1 = y1 (show) (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (y1 , . . . , yn ) (show)
.. ........................................................
. x1 = y1 (conclude)
xn = yn (show) ..
........................................................ .
(x1 , . . . , xn ) = (y1 , . . . , yn ) (conclude) xn = yn (conclude)

Cartesian product Cartesian product

x∈A (show) z∈A×B (show)
y∈B (show) ........................................................
........................................................ For some x ∈ A, y ∈ B, (constant declaration)
(x, y) ∈ A × B (conclude) z = (x, y) (conclude)

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Proof Recipes - Cartesian Product (cont.)

Cartesian product Cartesian product

x1 ∈ A1 (show) z ∈ A1 × · · · × An (show)
.. ........................................................
. For some x1 ∈ A1 , . . . , xn ∈ An , (constant decl.)
xn ∈ An (show) z = (x1 , . . . , xn ) (conclude)
........................................................
(x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ A1 × · · · × An (conclude)

Power of a set
........................................................
An = A × · · · × A (conclude)
| {z }
n copies

Proof Recipes - Functions

formal def of function formal def of function
f ⊆A×B (show) f: A→B (show)
Let x ∈ A x∈A (show)
∃!y ∈ B, (x, y) ∈ f (show) ........................................................
← f ⊆A×B (conclude)
........................................................ ∃!y ∈ B, (x, y) ∈ f (conclude)
f :A→B (conclude)

function application function application

f: A→B (show) f: A→B (show)
x∈A (show) (x, y) ∈ f (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
f (x) ∈ B (conclude) y = f (x) (conclude)

function equality identity map

f: A→B (show) x∈A (show)
g: A → B (show) ........................................................
Let x ∈ A (variable declaration) idA (x) = x
f (x) = g(x) (show)
←
........................................................
f =g (conclude)

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Proof Recipes - Functions (cont.)

image image
f: A→B (show) f: A→B (show)
S⊆A (show) S⊆A (show)
x∈S (show) y ∈ f (S) (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
f (x) ∈ f (S) For some x ∈ S, (constant declaration)
y = f (x) (conclude)

composition composition
f: A→B (show) f: A→B (show)
g: B → C (show) g: B → C (show)
........................................................ x∈A (show)
(g ◦ f ) : A → C (conclude) ........................................................
(g ◦ f )(x) = g( f (x)) (conclude)

injective injective
f: A→B (show) f: A→B (show)
Let x, y ∈ A (variable declaration) f is injective (show)
Assume f (x) = f (y) f (x) = f (y) (show)
x=y (show) ........................................................
← x=y (conclude)
←
........................................................
f is injective (conclude)

surjective surjective
f: A→B (show) f: A→B (show)
Let b ∈ B (variable declaration) f is surjective (show)
∃a ∈ A, f (a) = b (show) b∈B (show)
← ........................................................
........................................................ For some a ∈ A, (constant declaration)
f is surjective (conclude) b = f (a) (conclude)

bijective bijective
f is surjective (show) f is bijective (show)
f is injective (show) ........................................................
........................................................ f is surjective (conclude)
f is bijective (conclude) f is injective (conclude)

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Proof Recipes - Functions (cont.)

inverse function inverse function

f: A→B (show) f −1 : B → A (show)
f is bijective (show) ........................................................
........................................................ f: A→B (conclude)
f −1 :B→A (conclude) f is bijective (conclude)
f −1 ◦ f = idA (conclude) f −1 ◦ f = idA (conclude)
f ◦ f −1 = idB (conclude) f ◦ f −1 = idB (conclude)

inverse function inverse function

f −1 : B → A (show) f −1 : B → A (show)
y = f (x) (show) x = f −1 (y) (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
x = f −1 (y) (conclude) y = f (x) (conclude)

inverse image inverse image

f: A→B (show) f: A→B (show)
T⊆B (show) T⊆B (show)
f (x) ∈ T (show) x ∈ f inv (T) (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
x∈ f inv (T) f (x) ∈ T (conclude)

In the following recipes, let A be a set and ∼ a relation on A.

Proof Recipes - Equivalence Relations

reflexive reflexive
Let x ∈ A (variable declaration) ∼ is reflexive (show)
x∼x (show) x∈A (show)
← ........................................................
........................................................ x∼x (conclude)
∼ is reflexive (conclude)

symmetric symmetric
Let x, y ∈ A (variable declaration) ∼ is symmetric (show)
Assume x ∼ y x∼y (show)
y∼x (show) ........................................................
← y∼x (conclude)
←
........................................................
∼ is symmetric (conclude)

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 Modern Algebra Lecture Notes

Proof Recipes - Equivalence Relations (cont.)

transitive transitive
Let x, y, z ∈ A (variable declaration) ∼ is transitive (show)
Assume x ∼ y and y ∼ z x∼y (show)
x∼z (show) y∼z (show)
← ........................................................
← x∼z (conclude)
........................................................
∼ is transitive (conclude)

equivalence relation equivalence relation

Let x, y, z ∈ A (variable declaration) ∼ is an equivalence relation (show)
x∼x (show) ........................................................
Assume x ∼ y ∼ is reflexive (conclude)
y∼x (show) ∼ is transitive (conclude)
← ∼ is symmetric (conclude)
Assume x ∼ y and y ∼ z
x∼z (show)
←
←
........................................................
∼ is an equivalence relation (conclude)

equivalence class equivalence class

x∼y (show) x ∈ [y] (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
x ∈ [y] (conclude) x∼y (conclude)

Burning theorem Burning theorem

x∼y (show) [x] = [y] (show)
........................................................ ........................................................
[x] = [y] (conclude) x∼y (conclude)

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