INTELLECTS COLLEGE KITUI DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY INTRODUCTION TO ICTTABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS 2 INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY. 4 DEFINITION OF TERMS 4 ABRIEF COMPUTER HISTORY 3 ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS, 8 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS 9 ROLE OF ICT IN A BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT in POSITIVE USE OF ICT IN THE SOCIETY B NEGATIVE EFrects oF ICT 1N THE SociETY B COMPUTER HARDWARE 15 HARDWARE CATEGORIES (FUNCTIONAL Pars) 16 1 INPUT DEVICES. 16 2. PROCESSING DEVICES 26 3. OUTPUTDEVICES. 30 4, STORAGE DEVICES AND MEDIA 36 5, COMMUNICATION DEVICES 49 TYPES OF COMPUTER CABLES 50 SERIAL AND PARALLEL TRANSMISSION PARALLEL TRANSMISSION s4 SERIAL TRANSMISSION. 55 COMPUTER HARDWARE SELECTION CRITERIA 5 COMPUTER SOFTWARE — INTRODUCTION 57 SYSTEM SOFTWARE 37 APPLICATION SOFTWARE. 6. CHOOSING APPROPRIATE COMPUTER SOFTWARE. 8 BASIC COMPUTER NETWORKING 65 ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORKING. 6s ‘TYPES OF NETWORKS. 6 NETWORK COMPONENTS 69 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES, 80 INTERNET AND WORLD WIDE WEB. 86 ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-MAIL) 3 DATA PROCESSING 107 DATA PROCESSING CYCLE 107 DATA PROCESSING MODES 109 ELEMENTS OF DATA HIERARCHY 110 FILE ORGANIZATION AND ACCESS METHODS mL DATA SECURITY 114 ‘THREATS AND HAZARDS TO DATA. a METHODS OF SECURING DATA 1d HARDWARE SAFETY. 7 SOFTWARE SAFETY us COMPUTER CRIMES/CYER CRIME 120 COMPUTER SAFETY AND ERGONOMICS 132 ERGONOMICS. 132 ELECTROMAGNETIC HYPERSENSITIVITY SYNDROME (EHS) 4 ©Stevo 2019 2COMPUTER CARE & MAINTENANCE. ETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL ISSUES IN ICT UNETHICAL BEHAVIOUR IN ICT MEASURES TO FIGHT UNETHICAL USE OF ICT SOURCES OF ICT LEGISTLATIONS. Data Prornenion Act CONFLICT MANAGEMENT. IMPORTANCE OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT CAUSES OF CONFLICT METHODS OF DEALING WITH CONFLICTS ‘TECHNIQUES OF STIMULATE CONFLICTS. SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN ICT. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION KEYS TO SUCCESSFUL EFFORTS. (CHALLENGES OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN ICT. EMERGING TRENDS AND ISSUES IN ICT 1 E-LEARNING 2 E-COMMERCE 3, CLOUD COMPUTING. 4, DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS OF ICT. 5, E-GOVERNMENT 6 EHEALTH E-EMPLOYMENT, E-ENVIRONMENT \GRICULTURE EMERGING ISSUES IN ICT. 9. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ©Stevo 2019 3 137 138 138 139 140 140 140 1 12 143 13 43 13 144 Wa ry 14s 4s 146 146 7 7 48 8 148INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY DEFINITION OF TERM i) Computer A computer is an electronic device that accepts and processes data into information and under the control of instructions stored in its own memory and output or store the results for future use. NB: An electronic device is a device that depends on the principles of electronics and uses the manipulation of electron flow for its operation ii) Data Data are raw, unprocessed and unorganized (unstructured) facts and figures that are relatively ‘meaningless to the user. E.g. number of hours worked by an employee. iii) Information Information is derived from data. This is data that is processed, organized/structured and presented in a given context so as to make it useful. e.g), multiplying the hours worked by the hourly rate to get each employee's gross eaming, Information is an important component in decision making, For example froma students test scores, the following information can be derived a) Class’ average score ») Most improved student c) Median Score etc, USES OF INFORMATION (a) Decision-making When managers are ready (0 make choices (decisions) they need good, accurate and up-to-date information. If they act without relevant information it could lead to disaster, and failure. (b) Monitoring and control Businesses will compare actual performance against its predicted (budgeted) performance, Then they vill act upon it iv) Information Communication Technology/Technologies (ICT) ICT is an umbrella term that covers any software or hardware product that can store, retrieve, ‘manipulate, transmit or receive information electronically in a digital form. Examples include personal computers, digital television, email, robots, radio, cellular phones and networking hardware For our study, we are concerned with computer (hardware and software) and telecommunications technology (data, image, and voice networks) ¥) Information System (IS) An Information System (IS) is a combination of hardware, software, personnel, data and procedures that interact to support and improve day-to-day operations in an organization, These EStevo 2019 4‘The Audit Commission has identified six key characteristics of good quality data a) Accuracy Data should be sufficiently accurate for the intended use and should be captured only once, although it may have multiple uses. Data should be captured at the point of activity b) Validity Data should be recorded and used in compliance with relevant requirements, including the correct application of any rules or definitions. This will ensure consistency between periods and with similar organizations, measuring what is intended to be measured. ) Timeliness Data should be captured as quickly as possible after the event o activity and must be available for the intended use within a reasonable time period, Data must be available quickly and frequently enough to support information needs and to influence service or management decisions: 4) Relevance Data captured should be relevant to the purposes for which it is tobe used. This will require a periodic review of requirements to reflect changing needs. ©) Completeness Data requirements should be clearly specified based on the information needs of the organization and data collection processes matched to these requirements, f) Uniqueness In order to add value to an organization, information must be unique and distinctive. A BRIEF COMPUTER H rORY The abacus, which emerged about 5,000 years ago in Asia Minor and is still in use today, may be considered the first computer. This device allows users to make computations using a system of sliding beads arranged on a rack, it was simply a counting device. The Abacus It took long for the next significant advance in computing devices to emerge. In 1642, BlaisePascal (1623-1662), the 18-year-old son of a French tax collector, invented what he called a numerical wheel calculator to help his father with his duties but which used eight movable dials to add sums up. It was not until the 1940s that the electronic computers emerged. In the 1820s, Charles Babbage designed the “Difference Engine’, a machine which could perform mathematical calculations. A six-wheeled model was initially constructed and demonstrated to a number of audiences, He also worked on another invention, the more complex Analytical Engine, a revolutionary device which was intended to be able to perform any arithmetical calculation using punched cards that would deliver the instructions, as well as a memory unit to store numbers and many other fundamental components of today's computers. Lady Ada produced programs to be used by the analytical machine, She is claimed to be possibly the first programmer ive Generations of Modern Computers Moder computers can be classified into five generations Fi 1946-1959. t generation First generation of computers started with using vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes like electric bulbs produced a lot of heat and were prone to frequent fusing of the installations, therefore, were very expensive and could be afforded only by very large organizations. The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) was announced in 1946. It cost almost $500,000 (approximately $6,000,000 today). The computer contained 17,468 vacuum tubes and consumed 150 kW of electricity Another example of computers in this generation was the UNIVersal Automatic Computer I (UNIVAC) which used 5200 vacuum tubes and weighed 13 metric tons. It consumed 125 kW, and could perform about 1,905 operations per second Buss Vacuum Tubes In this generation mainly batch processing of data was done. In this generation Punched cards, Paper tape, Magnetic tape Input & Output device were used. It is said that this computer weighed 30 tons, and had 18,000 vacuum tubes which were used for processing. When thiscomputer was tumed on for the first time lights dimmed in sections of Philadelphia, Computers of this generation could only perform a single task at a time, and they had no operating system. NB: Batch processing- Executing a series of non-interactive jobs all at one time. Second generation: 1959-1965. Computers in this generation using the transistor were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first generation machines made of vacuum tubes, In this generation, magnetic cores were used as primary memory and magnetic tape and. magnetic disks as secondary storage devices Aff Tf Transistor In this generation assembly languages and high level programming languages like FORTRAN and COBOL were used. Examples of computers in this generation include IBM 300 series and the ATLAS NB: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical power The difference between a transistor and @ vacuum tube is that a transistor uses a sandwich of silicon instead of tube filled with gas to do the switching. Silicon falls into a family of elements that are neither conductor nor insulator; they're called semiconductors. This type of element will be either a conductor or an insulator depending on some condition. In the case of transistors, an electrical current will cause the silicon to be a conductor Third Generation: 1965-1971. The third generation of computers is marked by the use of Integrated Circuits (IC's) in place of transistors, A single IC has many transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated circuitry. The I.C was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient. In this generation Remote processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, Multi-programming Operating System were used. High level language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/I, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation NB: © A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a cireuit element © A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used10 store energy electrostatically in an electric field. Fourth Generation: 1971-1980. The fourth generation of computers is marked by the use of Very Large Seale Integrated (VLSI) cireuits, VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation Fourth Generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution. In this generation Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating System were used. ‘Al the High level languages like C and C++, DBASE ete. were used in this generation Fifth Generation: 1980-todate. In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra. Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components or more. ‘This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and Al (Artificial Intelligence) software AL is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets means and method of making computers think like human beings. All the Higher level languages like C and C++, Java, Net ete are used in this generation ‘THE TREND IN THE COMPUTER'S TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTION > Continual decrease in computer size > Improved speed and power of processing > Decrease in computer's power consumption and its related facilities cost > Number of components per circuit (IC) greatly increased ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS + Processing capability!Speed - Computers have higher processing speeds than other means of processing, measured as number of instructions executed per second * Accuracy ~ Computers are not prone to errors. So long as the programs are correct, they will always give correct output. A computer is designed in such a way that many of the inaccuracies, which could arise due to the malfunctioning of the equipment, are detected and their consequences avoided in a way, which is completely transparent to the user * Consistency ~ Given the same data and the same instructions computers will produce exactly the same answer every time that particular process is repeated. Reliability - Computer systems are built with fault tolerance features, meaning that failure of one of the components does not necessarily lead to failure of the whole system. + Memory capability ~ A computer has the ability to store and access large volumes of data. © Computer can operate in risky environments e.g, volcanic sites, lethal chemical plants, where it’s EStevo 2019 8risky for humans to operate. + Computers help to reduce paper work significantly Computers can work continuously without getting bored or tired Helps to cut on wage bills by reducing manpower DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS IN BUSINESS * Initial cost of installation is high Can result to retrenchment of staf? Computerization projects are not always cost-effective In case the computers break down or malfunction, it might be extremely difficult to revert back to the old manual system. For this reason, stand by procedures are necessary, but expensive. Can compromise security of data stored or being transmitted Computerization leads to cyber-crime e.g, pornography etc They present a health hazard for example eye strain, trigger-finger syndrome and addiction Due to the rapid change in the computer technology, the computer and related facilities can become outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss and cost of upgrading. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS. ‘Computers can be classified in different ways as shown below: Classification by size and capability 8) Supercomputers. The largest and most powerful» Used to process large amounts of data very quickly. They use extremely fast processors that are built for speed and are used for processor~ intensive calculations such as nuclear reaction simulations and global weather pattern mode! Useful for meteorological or astronomical applications. Examples include Cray and Fujitsu. b) Mainfiame computers Large computers in terms of price, power and size. Require a carefully controlled environment and specialist staff to operate and used for centralized processing for large commercial organizations. They’ are designed to provide maximum throughput for a simultaneous variety of workloads. They. can also support a large number of terminals and have large on-line secondary storage capacities. Manufacturers include Intemational Business Machine (IBM). ©) Minicomputers, Their size, speed and capabilities lie somewhere between mainframes and microcomputers, Used as departmental computers in large organizations or as the main computer in medium-sized organizations, Manufacturers of minicomputers include IBM and International Computer Limited (ICL), 4) Microcomputers, These are the personal computers commonly used for office and leisure activities i.e. they are designed for an individual. Examples include Hewlett Packard (HP), Compaq and Dell. They include desktops, laptops, palmtops and notebooks. EStevo 2019 9Examples of computers in this category include: OTHERS LAPTOPS ‘* Are among the smallest in modem world and have very large-scale circuit integration, They have low memory and are portable. The main difference between the microcomputer and the laptop is the size. They are portable Expandability and the number of devices supported by the laptops are also limited They run on battery power, but can also be plugged into a wall outlet They typically have a built-in LCD display that folds down to protect the display when the computer is carried around. ‘+ They also feature a built-in keyboard and some kind of built-in pointing device (such as a touch pad), PERSONAL DIGITAL ASSISTANT (PDA) * It is ahandheld microcomputer that trades off power for small size and greater portability + They typically use a touch-sensitive LCD screen for both output and input (the user draws characters and presses icons on the screen with a stylus). PDAs communicate with desktop computers and with each other either by cable connection, infrared (IR) beam, or radio waves + PDAs are normally used to keep track of appointment calendars, to-do lists, address books, and for taking notes. . PALMTOP OR HANDHELD PC ‘¢ It isa very small microcomputer that also sacrifices power for small size and portability These devices typically look more like a tiny laptop than a PDA, with a flip-up screen and +small keyboard. ‘+ They may use Windows CE or similar operating system for handheld devices, Some PDAs and palmtops contain wireless networking or cell phone devices so that users can check e-mail or surf the web on the move. Classification by way of processing data (Type of data handled) This is by how the computer represents and processes the data. a) Digital computers b) Digital computers process data represented in binary format using the numbers 0 and 1. They are used for both business data processing and scientific purposes since digital computation results in greater accuracy than analog computers. They also can perform complex computations. They are the most commonly used type of computers Analog computers These are used for scientific, engineering, and process-controlled purposes. Outputs are represented in the form of graphs. Analogue computers process data represented by physical variables and output physical magnitudes in the form of smooth graphs. These physical changes include changes in electronic voltages, pressure changes, temperature changes etc. Analog values, unlike digital values, are typically many values in a range. Examples of analogue devices include car speedometer and the slide rule ©) Hybrid computers are computers that have the combined features of digital and analog computers; EStevo 2019 10hybrid computing offers both speed and precision, They offer an efficient and economical method of working out special problems in science and various areas of engineering, Consider the difference between two common types of light switches: a standard light switch and a dimmer switch. The standard light switch has only two values: on and off. As a rule, at any one time the switch will be in either one position or the other. This is similar to digital electrical signals, which have discrete values (like on and off), By way of comparison, the dimmer switch starts at off, but can be changed gradually to stronger and stronger intensities, up to the full on setting, At any one instant, a dimmer switch can have a setting almost anywhere between on and off. This is similar to an analog electrical signal, which may be on or off or somewhere in between. NB/ The main feature that distinguishes digital from analog computers is the nature of the signals, Digital signals have two diserete states. on or off. Analog signals are continuous. An analog signal's voltage may be constant or vary with time. Classification by purpose This is a classification by the use to which the computer is put a) » Special purpose’ Dedicated computers are used for a certain specific function e.g. in medicine. engineering, manufacturing. Embedded systems are examples of special purpose computers. General-purpose computers can be used for a wide variety of tasks eg. accounting, word processing etc ROLE OF ICT IN A BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT The use of ICT and technology has affected every aspect of business, transforming not only the way that business is conducted but also creating new business sectors and jobs, Examples are companies like Google, Amazon, Safaricom M-Pesa and e-Bay Some examples of the nature of this change include: © Marketing and e-Commerce: The use of websites has allowed companies to develop new and cheaper ways of reaching new markets, offering customers the opportunity of buying goods and services whenever they want and often at reduced cost, while also enhancing the level of customer service Finance: Practically all companies now use software programmes e.g. Sage, QuickBooks and Excel to manage their accounts. This has allowed them to look at financial information when required. monitor and respond to their customers purchasing pattems. The result of this has been for many companies a reduction in their accountancy fees. Out of office working: For many businesses the need for staff to be away’ from the office attending meetings or to be based in another geographical location has grown alongside employee demands for more flexible working pattems, However effective communication and ability to access information remains critical to the productivity of these staff members. Therefore through the use of technology many companies now use a range of technologies to enable this. These include mobile phones, e-mail broadband, laptops, etc, thus ensuring that companies are able to be flexible and adaptive depending on their business needs Networks: Virtually all businesses now have or have access to a computer. The existence of two or more computers in an office almost always leads to the creation of a network. The main advantage of doing so is that resources can be shared e.g. printers, intemet access, files/information can be managed Stevo 2019 uland shared amongst workstations and the security of information can be better managed through a network. Increasingly, networks are not just confined to the office but are being adopted so that they allow home/remote working that supports changing business needs Inventory management Inventory management systems track the quantity of each item a company maintains, triggering an order of additional stock when the quantities fall below a predetermined amount stomer Relationship Management tomer Relationship Management systems store every interaction a company has with a customer for future reference. The customer has a better, more focused experience and the company benefits from improved productivity Payroll Systems A payroll system is used to maintain pay accounts of employees, easily and quickly Human Resource Management HRIS help in recruitment, Human Resource Planning, wage and Salary planning, personnel record Stevo 2019 12keeping and training and development. POSITIVE USE OF ICT IN THE SOCIETY 1. Industry and commerce ‘lt has made the industry and commerce more efficient, productive and reliable ‘Leading companies use computer technology as a competitive tool to develop new products and services They are used in manufacturing to schedule operations and process control 2. Health care ‘* Used in medical automation in the areas of automatic diagnosis, electro-cardiogram screening and ‘monitoring, ‘Storage of medical records on patients, ‘© Used in inter-country aided surgeon operations 3. Goverment Institutions ‘Used heavily in government ministries such as finance, planning & education to store records and improve work efficiency 4, Education and research ‘*Used in education as training aid, and in research institutions, Long distance learning (e-learning) has replaced the old international correspondence courses offered by postage. ‘It is used in aviation to train pilots using flight simulators. ‘*Engineers and architects use computers to design, test and re-design, 5. Communication Industry ‘In telecommunication industry, itis used in control of exchange switch ‘Railway corporations rely heavily on computers to co-ordinate the movement of their wagons and goods Air traffic controllers use it for airspace surveillance using radar equipment 6. Police and defense ‘*Computers are currently used in fighting crime ‘Police are capable of keeping database of finger prints which are automatically analysed by computers ‘Integration of computer technology and defense has produced modern military 7. Home and leisure (entertainment) ‘* Computer can be used for home shopping here are also entertainment information for those looking for leisure as well as a host of games ‘They have also been used to help handicapped e g. instant speech are turned into text on the screen to help deaf, while text are tured into simulated speech for the blind, 8. Employment ‘* Employment in the computer industry world wide has increased by 20% during 1980s to higher percentages ‘In South East Asia countries, 60% of employment opportunities are today in the computing industry Negative Effects of ICT in the Society 1, Lack of Social Skills The use of online social media outlets causes us to meet face-to-face with much less frequency resulting ina lack of muuch needed social skills, We lose the ability to read body’ language and social cues in other people 2. Excessive use of ICT poses a health hazard ©Stevo 2019 1B‘Technology creates the perfect recipe for depression with the lack of human contact, overeating and lack of exercise. This will lead to depression, obesity, sleep disorders, eye strain, back pains ete Other resultant disorders include Internet addiction disorder (IAD) commonly called problematic internet use (PIU) or compulsive internet use (CIU). Other overlapping terms include intemet overuse problematic computer use or pathological computer use ~ and even iDisorder. These terms refer to excessive computer use that interferes with daily life Internet addiction includes a) Cybersexual addiction: compulsive use of adult websites for cybersex and cyber pom b) Cyber-relationship addiction: Over-involvement in online relationships, ©) Net compulsions: Obsessive online gambling, shopping or day-trading, 4) Information overload: Compulsive web surfing or database searches, €) Computer addiction: Obsessive computer game playing, 3. Pollution E-waste is not always disposed of properly, causing deadly chemicals to leach into the ground. Plants that manufacture the electronics are emitting toxic fumes into the air. 4. Higher energy consumption People don’t turn their devices off: they keep computers on or plugged in, mobile devices charging and. televisions plugged in. Also manufacturing all of these high tech toys causes an increase in greenhouse ‘gas emissions 5. Lack of Social Boundaries Much in the same way that people over share on social media sites, there is an increasing tendency to cross social boundaries. Cyber stalking someone or sending unsolicited nude photos are examples of crossing social boundaries, 6. Encourages the culture of violence After people lose empathy and are accustomed to violence, it becomes the social norm. EStevo 2019 14COMPUTER HARDWARE Hardware refers to the physical, tangible computer equipment and devices, which provide support for major functions such as input, processing (computation and control), output, secondary storage (for data and programs), and communication 2 2 @ 5 6 =| | ~ i a 5 7 D Monitor 3) system unit © Speaker @ Keyboard 2 Modem @) Mouse ©) Printer Basic Computer Parts System Unit The system unit is the core of a computer system, Usually it's a rectangular box placed on or underneath your desk. Inside this box are many electronic components that process data, The most important of these components is the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor, which acts as the "brain" of your computer. Another component is random access memory (RAM), which temporarily stores information that the CPU uses while the computer is on. The information stored in RAM is erased when the computer is tured off. Almost every other part of your computer connects to the system unit using cables. The cables plug into specific ports (openings), typically on the back of the system unit, Hardware that is not part of the system s sometimes called a peripheral device. Peripheral devices can be external such as a mouse, keyboard, printer, monitor, external Zip drive or scanner or internal, such as a CD-ROM drive, CD-R drive or internal modem, Internal peripheral devices are often referred to as integrated peripherals. There are two types according to shape: tower and desktop. A motherboard (mainboard, system board, planar board or logic board) is the main printed circuit board found in computers and other expandable systems. It holds many of the crucial electronic components of the system, such as the central processing unit (CPU) and memory, and provides connectors for other peripherals. The Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) is a high speed connection to the motherboard for video cards. The Stevo 2019 15AGP port is faster than a PCI card and doesn’t use the system memory. The Power Supply Power supplies, often referred to as "switching power supplies", use switcher technology to convert the AC input to lower DC voltages, a form that is usable by the Personal computer. The typical voltages supplied are: + 3.3 volts © 5 volts © 12volts The 3.3- and 5-volts are typically used by digital circuits, while the 12-volt is used to run motors in disk drives and fans. The main specification of a power supply is in watts Uninterruptible Power Supply An uninterruptible power supply, also uninterruptible power source, UPS or battery/flywheel backup is an electrical apparatus that provides emergency power to a load when the input power source, typically mains power, fails. The device allows the computer to keep running for at least a short time when the primary power source is lost. It also provides protection from power surges. A UPS contains a battery that "kicks in" when the device senses a loss of power from the primary source. HARDWARE CATEGORIES (Functional Parts) A computer system is a set of integrated devices that input, output, process, and store data and information Computer systems are currently built around at least one digital processing device, There are five main hardware components in a computer system: Input, Processing, Storage, Output and Communication devices. 1. INPUT DEVICES Most computers cannot accept data in forms customary to human communication such as speech or hand- ©Stevo 2019 16written documents, It is necessary, therefore, to present data to the computer in a way that provides easy conversion into its own electronic pulse-based forms. This is commonly achieved by typing data using the keyboard or using an electronic mouse or any other input device a) THE KEYBOARD Keyboard (similar to a typewriter) is the main input device ofa computer (refer to figure 2.2). It contains three types of keys-- alphanumeric keys, special keys and function keys. Alphanumeric keys are used to type all alphabets, numbers and special symbols like $, %, @, A etc. Special keys such as , , , , ete. are used for special functions. Function keys such as , , etc. are used to give special commands depending upon the software used e.g. F5 reloads a page of an internet browser. The function of each and every key can be well understood only after working on a PC. When any key is pressed, an electronic signal is produced. This signal is detected by a keyboard encoder that sends a binary code corresponding to the key pressed to the CPU. There are many types of keyboards but 101 keys keyboard is the most popular one How the keys are organized The keys on your keyboard can be divided into several groups based on function Typing (alphanumeric) keys. These keys include the same letter, number, punctuation, and symbol keys found on a traditional typewriter. + Special (Control) keys. These keys are used alone or in combination with other keys to perform certain actions. The most frequently used control keys are CTRL, ALT, the Windows key4¥, and ESC + Function keys. The function keys are used to perform specific tasks. They are labelled as F1, F2, F3, and so on, up to F12. The functionality of these keys differs from program to program. + Cursor Movement (Navigation) keys. These keys are used for moving around in documents or WebPages and editing text. They include the arrow keys, HOME, END, PAGE UP, PAGE DOWN, DELETE, and INSERT and ARROW KEYS. + Numeric keypad. The numeric keypad is handy for entering numbers quickly. The keys are grouped Stevo 2019 7together in a block like a conventional calculator or adding machine. py 0 0000 0000 0000 OOO--- ‘Key names ‘A Funetion keys B ~ Alphanumeric keys C~ Control keys D — Navigation keys/cursor movement keys E-Numeric keypad The above illustration shows how these keys are arranged on a typical keyboard. Your keyboard layout may differ Exercise With the help of your tutor, idemtify all the keys in each of the categories listed above and their general tasks, b) THE MOUSE A mouse is a small device used to point to and select items on your computer screen, Although mice come in many shapes, the typical mouse does look a bit like an actual mouse. I's small, oblong, and connected to the system unit by a long wire that resembles a tail and the connector which can either be PS/2 or USB, Some newer mice are wireless. A mouse usually has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary button. Many mice also have a wheel between the two buttons, which allows you to scroll smoothly through screens of information. ‘When you move the mouse with your hand, a pointer on your screen moves in the same direction, (The pointer’s appearance might change depending on where it's positioned on your screen.) When you want to select an item, you point to the item and then click (press and release) the primary button. Pointing and clicking with your mouse is the main way to interact with your computer. There are several types of mice: Mechanical mouse, optical mouse, optical-mechanical mouse and laser mouse. Basic parts A mouse typically has two buttons: a primary button (usually the left button) and a secondary button (usually the right button). The primary button is the one you will use most often. Most mice also include a scroll Stevo 2019 18wheel between the buttons to help you scroll through documents and WebPages more easily. On some mice, the scroll wheel can be pressed to act as a third button, Advanced mice might have additional buttons that can perform other functions, ] Primary button @) Scrollwheel_ _@) Secondary button Holding and moving the mouse bl Place your mouse beside your keyboard on a clean, smooth surface, such as a mouse pad. Hold the mouse gently with your index finger resting on the primary button and you thumb resting on the side, To move the ‘mouse, slide it slowly in any direction, Don't twist it—keep the front of the mouse aimed away from you. As you move the mouse, a pointer (see picture) on your screen moves in the same direction, If you run out of room to move your mouse on your desk or mouse pad, just pick up the mouse and bring it back closer to you ing, and dragging Pointing to an item on the screen means moving your mouse so the pointer appears to be touching the item ‘When you point to something, a small box often appears that describes the item, For example, when you point to the Recycle Bin on the desktop, a box appears with this information: "Contains the files and folders Stevo 2019 19that you have deleted." Pointing to an object often reveals a des ive message about it The pointer can change depending on what you're pointing at. For example, when you point to a ink in your web browser, the pointer changes from an arrow Lito a hand with a pointing finger © Most mouse actions combine pointing with pressing one of the mouse buttons, There are four basic ways to use your mouse buttons: clicking, double-clicking, right-clicking, and dragging, Clicking (single-clicking) To click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the primary button (usually the left button) Clicking is most often used to select (mark) an item or open a menu. This is sometimes called single-clicking or left-clicking Double-clicking To double-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then click twice quickly. Ifthe two clicks are spaced too far apart, they might be interpreted as two individual clicks rather than as one double-click. Double-clicking is most often used to open items on your desktop. For example, you can start a program or open a folder by double-clicking its i¢on on the desktop. Right-clicking To right-click an item, point to the item on the screen, and then press and release the secondary button (usually the right button) Right-clicking an item usually displays a list of things you can do with the item. For example, when you right-click the Recycle Bin on your desktop, Windows displays a menu allowing you to open it, empty it, Stevo 2019 20delete it, or see its properties. If you are unsure of what to do with something, right-click it Open b Explore Empty Recycle Bin Create Shortcut Delete Properties Right-clicking the Recycle Bin opens a menu of related commands Dragging You can move items around your screen by dragging them. To drag an object, point to the object on the screen, press and hold the primary button, move the object to a new location, and then release the primary button. Dragging (sometimes called dragging and dropping) is most often used to move files and folders to a different location and to move windows and icons around on your screen, Using the scroll wheel If your mouse has a scroll wheel, you can use it to scroll through documents and WebPages. To scroll down, roll the wheel backward (toward you), To scroll up, roll the wheel forward (away from you). ‘The mouse as an input deyice-every movement or click you make with the mouse sends a specific input signal to the computer. These commands allow you to open programs, drag objects, and perform many other functions on your computer. Mouse Types i. Opto-Mechanical Type This type of mouse contains a round ball that makes contact with two rollers—one for the x-axis (the horizontal) and one for the y-axis (the vertical). Moving the mouse causes the ball to roll, and because the ball is in contact with the two rollers, it causes them to turn, These rollers are connected to wheels with small holes in them. Each wheel rotates between the arms of a U-shaped optical sensor. The holes allow a light to shine through the wheel onto the optical sensor in flashes as the wheel turns. By the speed and patterns of the light pulses, the mouse senses the speed and direction it is moving and sends its interpretation of those Stevo 2019 2movements to the computer and the mouse control software. Wheel L 7 Roller “ie Photo sensor / f 7S Rollers (in contact with mouse ball) Mouse ii, Optical Mouse An optical mouse looks the same as any other computer mouse, except there is no mouse “ball.” Instead, the optical mouse uses a special mouse pad and a beam of laser light, The beam of light shines onto the mouse pad and reflects back to a sensor in the mouse. The mouse pad has small lines crossing it that can reflect the it into the sensor in different ways. It is in this fashion that the optical mouse detects direction and speed ‘of movements, c) TRACKBALLS A trackball is basically an opto-mechanical mouse turned upside down. Instead of moving the mouse on a table, you move the mouse ball (or, proper! . which otherwise remains stationary. ¢) COMPUTER TERMINAL. A terminal is a form of input and output device. A terminal can be connected toa mainframe or other type of computers called a host computer or server. There are four types of terminals Stevo 2019 22namely dumb, intelligent, network and Internet ¢ Dumb Terminal = Used to display, send, and receive text = It cannot process data independently Eg, a terminal used by an airline reservation clerk to access a mainframe computer for flight information is an example of a dumb terminal ¢ Intelligent/Smart Terminal - Includes a processing unit, memory, and secondary storage. It has a processor and does its own processing, It can also submit jobs to be processed by a server or mainframe, but it can stand alone as a non-connected machine = Ituses communications software and a telephone hookup or other communications link. E.g. a microcomputer connected to a larger computer by a modem or network link is an example of an intelligent terminal « Network Terminal = Also known as a thin client or network computer. = Itis_a low cost alternative to an intelligent terminal = Most network terminals do not have a hard drive, - This type of terminal relies on a host computer or server for application or system software. ¢ Internet Terminal - Itis also known as a web terminal, = It provides access to the Internet and displays web pages on a standard television set. = Itis used almost exclusively in the home. + Point-of-sale (P.OS) terminals (electronic cash registers) use both keyboard and direct entry POS software records each sale when it happens, so that inventory records are always up-to-date, + Keyboard Entry can be used to type in information Direct Entry can be used to read special characters on price tags. Point-of-sale terminals can use wand teaders or platform scanners as direct entry devices, © Wand readers or scanners reflect light on the characters. ‘* Reflection is changed by photoelectric cells to machine-readable code. ‘* Encoded information on the product's barcode e.g. price appear on terminal's digital J Bar code readers’ d) Direct data entry devices Direct entry creates machine-readable data that can go directly to the CPU. It reduces human error that Stevo 2019 23may occur during keyboard entry. Direct entry devices include pointing, scanning, vé put devices and gaming devices. (i) The mouse as an input device - every movement or click you make with the mouse sends a specific input signal to the CPU. These commands allow you to open programs, drag objects, and perform many other functions on your computer Pen input devices e.g. Light pen, stylus pen ete Pen input devices are used to select or input items by touching the screen with the pen. Light pens accomplish this by using a white cell at the tip of the pen. When the light pen is placed against the monitor, it closes a photoelectric circuit. The photoelectric circuit identifies the spot for entering or modifying data. It allows the user to point to displayed objects or draw on the screen in a similar way to a touch screen but with greater positional accuracy. Engineers who design microprocessor chips or airplane parts use light pens. A stylus (or stylus pen) is a small pen-shaped instrument that is used to input commands to a computer screen, mobile device or graphics tablet, With touch screen devices, a user places a stylus on the surface of the screen to draw or make select-ions by tapping the stylus on the screen Stylus pen (iii) Touch sensitive screen Touch sensitive screens, or touch screens, allow the user to execute programs or select menu items by touching a portion of aspecial screen. Behind the plastic layer of the touch screen are crisscrossed invisible beams of infrared light, Touching the screen with a finger can activate actions or commands, Touch screens are often used in ATMs, information centers, restaurants, and convenience stores. They are popularly used at gas stations for customers to select the grade of gas or request a receipt at the pump (in developed countries), as well as in fast-food restaurants to allow clerks to easily enter orders (iv) Scanning Devices Scanning devices, or scanners, can be used to input images and character data directly into a computer. The scanner digitises the data into machine-readable form. The scanning devices used in direct-entry include the following: > Image Scanner — converts images on a page to electronic signals. > Fax Machine ~ converts light and dark areas of an image into format that can be sent over telephone lines (analog signals). > Bar-Code Readers ~ photoelectric scanner that reads vertical striped marks printed on items. > Character and Mark Recognition Devices — scanning devices used to read characters and marks on documents. There are three kinds of character and mark recognition devices > Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) Magnetic ink character recognition, or MICR, readers are used to read the numbers printed at the bottom of cheques in special magnetic ink. These numbers are an example of data that is, Stevo 2019 24both machine readable and human readable. The technology allows MICR readers to scan and read the information directly into a data-collection device. The use of MICR readers increases the speed and accuracy of processing checks esata we 30061201 vemye Wikimedia Foundahon $/ 100.55 One Hundred Dollars and —————55//,83.6 geen HOUMZ3LS672 OOLZILSE7# Zhe > Op Character Recognition (OCR) Itis the electronic conversion of scanned images of handwritten, typewritten or printed text into machine-encoded text, It is widely used as a form of data entry from original paper data source such as. documents, sales receipts, mail, or any number of printed records. It is a common method of digitizing printed texts so that they can be electronically searched, stored more compactly, displayed on-line, and used in machine processes. > Optical-Mark Recognition (OMR) This is the process of capturing human-marked data from document forms such as surveys and tests. Optical mark recognition readers are often used for test scoring since they can read the location of marks on what is sometimes called a mark sense document. This is how, for instance, standardized tests, such as. the KCPE, SAT or GMAT are scored. NBY/ Scanners are generally.classified into two: flatbed scanners and handheld scanners, Flatbed scanners are named after the flat bed of glass that the item to be scanned would lie upon, they resemble the top half of a photocopier (v) Voice—input devices Voice-Input Devices can also be used for direct input into a computer. Speech recognition can be used for data input when it is necessary to keep your hands free. For example, a doctor may use voice recognition software to dictate medical notes while examining a patient, Voice recognition can also be used for security purposes to allow only authorized people into certain areas or to use certain devices, * Voice-input devices convert speech into a digital code. ‘© The most widely used voice-input device is the microphone. * Amicrophone, sound card, and software form a voice recognition system. (vi) Gaming Equipment Games players have a wide range of hardware available to them to help them drive, fly, score, and shoot Stevo 2019 25more realistically than by using a mouse. The most common are joysticks but they can also choose steering wheels, gamepads, and headsets. Joystick Gamepad 2. PROCESSING DEVICES FUNCTIONAL/LOGICAL PARTS OF A DIGITAL COMPUTER The system unit houses the processing components of the computer system. All other computer system Stevo 2019 26devices are called peripherals, and are connected directly or indirectly into the system unit ‘Computer System System Unit Arithmetic & Logic Unit + a 4 Control Unit | zt é 2 Input [i | J Main Memory {Output Devices] (Primary storage) Devices : + + ' : ‘ | [Becondary Storage) [ Communication : Devices te Key ——+ Flow of Information > Flow of Instructions devices — Displays information processed by the computer system. land executes the id constant rate. cessing, Output (iv) Storage devices — Permanent storage of data and programs before and after it is processed by the computer system. (v) Communication devices — Enable communication with other computers. () Central Processing Unit (CPU) This is the part of the computer that processes data. Consists of the control unit and the arithmetic and Stevo 2019 27logic unit and the buses. © Control Unit © Controls execution of programs © It fetches instructions from memory, interprets and send the instructions to other components. Instructions to the CPU are stored in memory, and the CPU functions by following a cycle of fetching an instruction, decoding it and executing it, This process is known as the fetch-decode-execute cycle. Maintains order and controls activity in CPU Directs sequence of operations ‘Communicates with Input-Output devices for transfer of data/results into/from storage Does not process or store data. °° * Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) — Performs actual processing of data using program instructions i.e. arithmetic and logical operations. The arithmetic/logic unit can perform four kinds of arithmetic operations, or mathematical calculations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, As its name implies, the arithmetic/logic unit also performs logical operations. A logical operation is usually a comparison. It also does branching on prefixed conditions + Registers: Temporary Storage Areas Registers are temporary (volatile) storage areas for instructions or data inside the CPU and that can keep up with the processor. Registers work under the direction of the control unit to accept, hold, and transfer instructions or data and perform arithmetic or logical comparisons at high speed. Computers usually assign special roles to certain registers, including these registers © Am accumulator, which collects the result of computations. © An address register, which keeps track of where a given instruction or piece of data is stored in memory. The memory address of an instruction is incremented with every fetch- execute cycle so that no instruction is fetched twice. Each storage location in memory is identified by an address, just as each house on a street has an address © A storage register, which temporarily holds data taken from or about to be sent to memory oA general-purpose register, which is used for several functions © CPU Buses: these components are the information highway for the CPU. Buses are bundles of tiny wires that carry data and instructions between components. The three most important buses are the address, the data, and the control buses. An address bus is a computer bus (a series of lines connecting two or more devices) that is used to specify a physical address. When a processor or DMA-enabled device needs to read or write to a memory location, it specifies that memory location on the address bus (the value to be read or written is sent on the data bus). A control bus is (part of) a computer bus, used by CPUs for communicating with other devices within the computer. While the address bus carries the information on which device the CPU is communicating with and the data bus carries the actual data being processed, the control bus Stevo 2019 28carries commands from the CPU and returns status signals from the devices, 64-bit Athlon Microprocessor by AMD (ii) Main Memory Primary storage, also called main memory, although not a part of the CPU, is closely related to the CPU. Main memory holds portions of the operating system, program instructions and data before and after execution by the CPU, All instructions and data pass through main memory locations, Memory is located physically close to the CPU to reduce access time, that is, the time it takes the CPU to retrieve data from memory. Although the overall trend has been increased memory acess time, memory has not advanced as quickly as processors Memory access time is often measured in milliseconds, or one thousandths of a second. iii) CACHE MEMORY ACPU cache is a type of memory used by the central processing unit of a computer to reduce the average time to access memory. The cache is a smaller, faster memory which stores copies of the data from frequently used main memory locations. Most CPUs have an internal cache memory (in-built in the processor) which is referred to as Level / (L1) cache. This can be supplemented by external cache memory fitted on the motherboard and Stevo 2019 29referred to as Level-2 cache memory or secondary cache. Cache memory uses SRAM chips. ‘NB/ Some computers come equipped with COPROCESSORS. A coprocessor is a special-purpose processing unit that assists the CPU in performing certain types of operations. For example, a math coprocessor performs ‘mathematical computations, particularly floating-point operations, Math coprocessors are also called numeric and floating-point coprocessors. Most computers come with a floating-point coprocessors built in, Note, however, that the program itself must be written to take advantage of the coprocessor. If the program contains no coprocessor instructions, the coprocessor will never be utilized. In addition to math coprocessors, there are also graphics coprocessors for manipulating graphic images These are often called accelerator boards. (ii) Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) A graphics processing unit (GPU), also occasionally called visual processing unit (VPU), is a specialized electronic circuit designed to rapidly manipulate and alter memory to accelerate the creation of images for ‘output to a display. The GPU is the part of the Video Adaptor Card that makes it work Used primarily for 3-D applications, a graphics processing unit is a single-chip processor that creates lighting effects and transforms objects every time a 3D scene is redrawn. These are mathematically-intensive tasks, which otherwise, would put quite a strain on the CPU, Lifting this burden from the CPU frees up cycles that can be used for other jobs 3. OUTPUT DEVICES Results are taken from main storage and fed to an output device. This may be a printer, in which case the information is automatically converted to a printed form called hard copy or to a monitor screen for a soft copy information Output is human-readable information. Input (data) is processed inside the computer's CPU into meaningful output (information). Output devices translate the machine-readable information into human- readable information a) PUNCHED CARDS: A punched card is a piece of stiff paper that contained either commands for controlling a computer or data for data processing 6h. Both commands and data were represented by the presence or absence of holes in predefined positions. Characters are coded onto an 80-column card in columns Stevo 2019 30by combining punches in different locations, a special card reader reads the cards and translates them into transactions for the computer. These are now used only for older applications. Early digital computers also used punched cards, often prepared using keypunch machines, as the primary medium for input of both computer programs and data Cane ceueeeeacmene ccc eHUcu ee ceuecee ee HU AUNe UA Ce ee UaE eee Ce ss5SNSESSSSHSSMESSSONSS559NSSSSNSSS5SNSSSSSNSESSHSSSESHSSSSSBSSSESESESSESSS55 cvseassvseesseMeecsmemsoseMesopsessecsuceenesnccusensssscecseescece ste HoT AANA ATTA sMeneonsceneMnssesd ese 0 seransaey sasassasassvsassosazissassbassasisoosibsssssvaoyai gy b) PRINTERS — Outputs printouts on paper often referred to as hard-copy output Categorized according to: (1) Printing Capacity - Character printers ~ Print one character at a time. ~ Line printers ~ Print one line at a time. ~ Page printers — Print a whiole page at a time. (iii) Mode of Printing - Impact Printers = Non-Impact Printers Impact Printers Impact printers create an image by using some mechanism to physically press an inked ribbon against the page, causing the ink to be deposited on the page in the shape desired. These printers are typically loud, but remain in use today because of their unique ability to function with multipart forms. Multipart forms are sheets of paper with embedded carbon paper so that printing on the top sheet provides several copies simultaneously when the multiple parts are split 2) Dot matrix printers Dot matrix printers which use a print head that runs back and forth, or in an up and down motion, on the page and prints by impact, striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, much like the print mechanism on a typewriter. The print head typically has 9 or 24 pins. Each character is made from a matrix of dots. The images are relatively of poor quality since dots are visible upon close inspection. They are inexpensive to buy compared to other types and have one of the lowest printing costs per page. They are, however, noisy Stevo 2019 31and low-end models are slow (speed varies with price). b) Daisy-Wheel Printer The daisy wheel is a disk made of plastic or metal on whieh characters stand out in relief along the outer edge To print a character, the printer rotates the disk until the desired letter is facing the paper. Then a hammer strikes the disk, forcing the character to hit an ink ribbon, leaving an impression of the character on the paper. You can change the daisy wheel to print different fonts. Daisy-wheel printers cannot print graphics, and in general they are noisy and slow, printing from 10 to about 75 characters per second. As the price of laser and ink-jet printers has declined, and the quality of dot-matrix Stevo 2019 32printers has improved, daisy-wheel printers have become obsolete A daisy wheel Non-Impact Printers This type of printers print by “shooting” or burn tiny droplets of ink or toner onto paper a) Ink jet printers These form images by “shooting” tiny droplets of ink on paper. They offer relatively good image quality so many small dots that they are not noticeable, even upon close inspection, They are relatively quiet compared to dot matrix and most cam print Colour images. They are the most commonly used. b) Laser jet printers They form images using copier technology. When a document is sent to the printer, a laser beam "draws" the document ona selenium-coated drum using electrical charges. After the drum is charged, itis rolled in toner, a dry powder type of ink. The toner adheres to the charged image on the drum, The toner is transferred onto a piece of paper and fused to the paper with heat and pressure, After the document is printed, the electrical charge is removed from the drum and the excess toner is collected. These printers have excellent image quality — so many small dots that they are not noticeable, even upon close inspection. They are quieter than ink jet printers. c) Thermal Printers Thermal printing produces a printed image by selectively heating coated thermo-chromic paper (paper that is coated with a chemical that changes color when exposed to heat), or thermal paper as it is commonly known, when the paper passes over the thermal print head. The coating turns black in the areas where it is heated, producing an image. It is very quiet and not widely used by home PC users. Some very expensive colour Stevo 2019 33models are available. “Ink” in these computers is wax crayons C) PLOTTERS. Printers make images one line at a time and move from top to bottom during the printing process. Plotters, on the other hand, draw the image as humans would, with a pen; one shape at a time. Plotters are most ofien used with CAD software to produce blueprints or technical diagrams, It would be quite expensive to make a printer that can print on paper as wide as these drawings require. Because a plotter uses a pen (or several pens in a holder) on a cable carrier, it is easy (and relatively inexpensive) to make a very wide plotter. Plotters are typically used for design output. They are special-purpose output devices used to produce charts, maps, architectural drawings and three-dimensional representations. They can produce high-quality multi-colour documents or large size documents, Plotters produce documents such as blueprints or schematics. In the past, plotters were used in applications such as computer-aided design, though they have generally been replaced with wide-format conventional printers. D) MONITORS/VDU (Visual Display Unit) Output device for soft-copy output (temporal screen display of output which lasts as long as the monitor’s power is on). They are the most frequently used output devices. Some are used on the desktop; others are portable. Two important characteristics of the monitor are size and clarity. A monitor displays information in visual form, using text and graphies. The portion of the monitor that displays the information is called the screen. Like a television screen, a computer screen can show still or Stevo 2019 34moving pictures The monitor forms images from tiny dots, called pixels, Pixels are arranged in a rectangular form. The sharpness of image (screen resolution) depends upon the number of pixels. There are several types of monitors: CRT MONITORS The cathode ray tube (CRT) technology uses a vacuum tube containing one or more electron guns (a source of electrons or electron emitter) and a fluorescent screen used to view images. It has a means to accelerate and deflect the electron beam(s) onto the screen to create the images. Disadvantages of CRT monitors 1, Sharpness CRT monitors produce images with softer edges that are not as sharp as an LCD at its native resolution Imperfect focus and color registration also reduce sharpness 2. Interference from magnetic fields They are affected by magnetic fields from other equipment including other CRTs. 3. Brightness Relatively bright but not as bright as LCDs. Not suitable for very brightly lit environments. 4. Screen Shape Some CRTs have a rounded, spherical or cylindrical shape screen which distorts images when viewed from acute angles. Newer CRTs are flat 5. Emissions CRTs give off electric, magnetic radiations. There is considerable controversy as to whether any of these pose a health hazard, particularly magnetic fields. The most authoritative scientific studies conclude that they are not harmful but some people remain unconvinced 6. Physical They are large, heavy, and bulky. 7. Electricity Consumption They consume a lot of electricity and produce a lot of heat TFT MONITORS Short for thin film transistor, a type of LCD flat-panel display screen, in which each pixel is controlled by from one to four transistors, The TFT technology provides the best resolution of all the flat-panel techniques, but itis also the most expensive LCD MONITORS Short for liquid erystal display, a type of display used in digital watches and many portable computers. LCD displays utilize two sheets of polarizing material with a liquid crystal solution between them. An electric current passed through the liquid causes the crystals to align so that light cannot pass through them. Each Stevo 2019 35