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Communication Systems
 Communication System

Communication system: A set-up used in transmission of information

from one place to another.

Irrespective of its nature, every communication system has

three essential elements:

Input Communication Output

Transmitter Receiver signal
signal Channel

Noise
 Communication System

Transmitter: It processes the incoming message signal so as to make it suitable for

transmission through channel and subsequent reception.

Parts of a transmitter:

Transmitting
Antenna
Input
Transducer Modulator Amplifier
signal

A device which convert signal of various physical

form into electrical signal, and vice versa.
Example: Microphone, photo detectors etc.
 Communication System

Transmitting
Antenna
Input
Modulator Amplifier
signal

Modulator: It modulates the output signal of transducer by superimposing it on high

frequency carrier wave so that the signal can be transmitted to long distance.
This process is known as “Modulation”.

Attenuation: It is the loss of strength of a signal while propagating through a medium.

 Communication System

Transmitting
Antenna
Input
Amplifier
signal

Amplifier: To compensate the attenuation of the signal, the amplification (i.e., the increase
of amplitude and hence the increase of strength) of the signal is required to be
done and it is done by using amplifier.
Transmitting antenna: The modulated and amplified signal is then radiated into space
with the help of an antenna called “Transmitting antenna”.
 Communication System

Input Communication
signal Channel

Noise
 Communication System

• The communication channel carries the modulated

wave from the transmitter to the receiver.

Free space Transmission lines

 Communication System

Input Communication
signal Channel

Noise

• Noise: It refers to the unwanted signals that tend to disturb the transmission and
processing of signals in a communication system.
 Communication System

The receiver receives the signal at receiving antenna and

modifies it to a recognizable form of output signal.

Parts of a receiver:

Receiving
antenna

Output
Demodulator Amplifier Transducer signal

Picks up the signal

Boosts up the signal

Separates the low frequency signal Converts this signal into

from the modulated signal suitable output signal
 Antenna

• An antenna is a structure that is capable of transmitting or receiving electromagnetic

waves.
• Transmitting antenna: It converts high frequency current into electromagnetic waves.
• Receiving antenna: It converts electromagnetic waves into high frequency current.

• To transmit a signal of wavelength 𝜆, the required

length of the antenna is:

𝜆
𝑙 ≥
4
 Transmission Medium

Transmitting Receiving
Antenna antenna
Input Output
Transmitter Receiver
signal signal

• A transmission medium (communication channel) is required to send a signal from

transmitting antenna to receiving antenna.

Guided Transmission Medium Unguided Transmission Medium

 Guided Transmission Medium

• This communication medium or channel is used in point-to-point communication between

a single transmitter and a receiver.

• Guided transmission medium is used in line

communication:
▪ Two wire transmission line Transmission lines
▪ Co-axial cable transmission
▪ Optical fiber cable communication
 Unguided Transmission Medium

• It is that communication medium which is used, where there is no point-to-point

communication between transmitter and receiver.
• A large number of receiver is present corresponding to a single transmitter.

• It is used in space communication and satellite communication.

 Propagation of Electromagnetic Wave

• Depending on the distance between transmitting antenna and receiving antenna, the
electromagnetic wave radiated by transmitter can be classified into three categories:

▪ Ground waves
▪ Sky waves
▪ Space waves
Ground Wave
• For transmitting the signals of longer wavelengths (i.e.,
lower frequencies), the antennas have large physical size,
and they are located on or very near to the ground.

• For such antennas, the wave glides over the surface of

Earth. This mode of propagation is called surface wave
propagation or Ground wave propagation.
• The ground has a strong influence on the
propagation of the signal. The wave induces
current in the ground over which it passes, and it is
attenuated as a result of absorption of energy by
the Earth.
• The attenuation of surface waves increases very
rapidly with increase in frequency.
• The maximum range of coverage depends on the
transmitted power and frequency (up to few 𝑀𝐻𝑧).
• In standard AM broadcast, ground based vertical
towers are generally used as transmitting
antennas.

Advantage: due to large wavelength, it bends over the

obstacle easily (diffraction)
 Sky Wave

• For ground wave propagation, the attenuation increases rapidly with increase in
frequency. Thus, it is not suitable for transmitting high frequencies.

• Sky wave propagation is used to

overcome this difficulty.

• Sky wave propagation:

A mode of propagation of EM
wave of high frequency (range:
few 𝑀𝐻𝑧 to 40 𝑀𝐻𝑧) by which long
distance communication can be
achieved by ionospheric reflection
of electromagnetic waves back
towards the Earth.
 Summary

• Ionization occurs due to the absorption of the ultraviolet and other high-energy radiation
coming from the sun by air molecules.
• At upper layers, air density is low → Low absorption of radiation → Low ionization.
• At lower layers, air density is high, but intensity of radiation is low → Low ionization.

• Higher the ionization lower will be

the refractive index of layer.

So, the signal travels from denser to

rarer medium and suffers TIR at a
certain layer.
Hence, TIR of signal at ionosphere is
the main reason of “Ionospheric
reflection”.
Space Wave

• For signals of frequencies

above 40 𝑀𝐻𝑧, the waves passes
through ionosphere and
communication is essentially
limited to line-of-sight paths.

• Because of line-of-sight nature

of propagation, direct waves
get blocked at some point by
the curvature of the Earth.
 Summary

• To send the signal beyond the horizon,

satellites are used.

• Therefore, the space waves are used

for the line-of-sight communication
as well as for the satellite
communication.
 Summary

Maximum distance for line of sight communication:

𝑑𝑀 = 2𝑅ℎ 𝑇 + 2𝑅ℎ𝑅 𝑅 = Radius of Earth

𝑑𝑀

𝑑𝑇 = 2𝑅ℎ 𝑇 𝑑𝑅 = 2𝑅ℎ𝑅

ℎ𝑇 ℎ𝑅
 If a carrier wave of 1000 𝑘𝐻𝑧 is used to carry the signal, the length of transmitting
antenna will be equal to:

Given: 𝑓 = 1000 𝐻𝑧

To find: The length of antenna

Solution:

To transmit or receive a signal of wavelength 𝜆, the minimum required height of the antenna is:

𝜆
𝑙=
4
𝑐
𝑙=
4𝜈
3 × 108
𝑙= 𝑚
4 × 1000 × 103

𝑙 = 75 𝑚
 In a line of sight communication, a distance of about 50 𝑘𝑚 is kept between the
transmitting and receiving antennas. If the height of the receiving antenna is 70 𝑚.
Find the minimum height of the transmitting antenna. (Given: Radius of the Earth
= 6.4 × 106 𝑚)
Given: ℎ𝑅 = 70 𝑚
𝑑𝑀 = 50 𝑘𝑚 = 50 × 103 𝑚
𝑅 = 6.4 × 106 𝑚
To find: ℎ 𝑇 = ?

Solution:

𝑑𝑀 = 2𝑅ℎ 𝑇 + 2𝑅ℎ𝑅

𝑑𝑀 = 2𝑅 ℎ 𝑇 + ℎ𝑅

50 × 103 = 2 × 6.4 × 106 ℎ 𝑇 + 70 50 5

= ℎ 𝑇 + 70
8
5
50 × 103 = 8 × 102 × 2 ℎ 𝑇 + 70
14 − 8.36 = ℎ𝑇
50 1
× 102 = ℎ 𝑇 + 70 ℎ 𝑇 = 5.64
8 2

50 5 ℎ 𝑇 = 31.8 ≈ 32 𝑚 ℎ 𝑇 = 32 𝑚
= ℎ 𝑇 + 70
8
 To double the covering range of a TV transmission tower, its height should be
multiplied by:

The range of a TV transmission tower, 𝑑 = 2𝑅ℎ 𝑇

For 𝑑 → 2𝑑, the required condition is: ℎ 𝑇 → 4ℎ 𝑇

So, to double the covering range of a TV transmission

tower, its height should be multiplied by 4.
 Message Signals

Message signals are electrical signals generated from the original

information to be transmitted using an appropriate transducer.

A message signal is a single valued function of time

that conveys the information.

Message Signals

Analog Signals Digital Signals

 Analog Signals

• Current or voltage value varies continuously with time.

Examples:
Speech, music, sound produced by a
vibrating tuning fork, variations in light
intensity etc. E
𝑇
2𝜋
𝜔 =
E = E0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) E0 𝑇
𝑡
• These are converted into current/ voltage
variations using suitable transducers. Sinusoidal signal
• The information bearing signals are
called base band signals.
 Digital Signals

• Current or voltage value varies discontinuously with time.

• The signal is usually represented in the

form of pulses. Each pulse has two
levels of current or voltage, represented Pulse
by 0 (low) and 1 (High). 𝑖, E Width
1 1 1
Examples:
Pulse
• Output of a digital computer Amplitude
0 0 0
• Electronic transmission of a document Pulse Pulse 𝑡
at a distant place via telephone line i.e., Rise Fall
FAX etc.
Digital Signal
• Both 0 and 1 are called “bits”.

• A collection of 8 bits is called a “byte”.

 Summary

• Bandwidth refers to the frequency range over which an equipment operates, or the
portion of the frequency spectrum occupied by the signal.

Bandwidth of signals:

Message Signal Frequency range Bandwidth

Speech signals 300 𝐻𝑧 to 3100 𝐻𝑧 2800 𝐻𝑧
Music signals 20 𝐻𝑧 to 20 𝑘𝐻𝑧 ~20 𝑘𝐻𝑧
Video signals 4.2 𝑀𝐻𝑧
T.V. signals 6 𝑀𝐻𝑧

Bandwidth of transmission medium:

Transmission media Frequency range Bandwidth

Coaxial cable 5 𝑀𝐻𝑧 to 1.2 𝐺𝐻𝑧 750 𝑀𝐻𝑧
Radio wave 540 𝑘𝐻𝑧 to 4.2 𝐺𝐻𝑧 ~4.1 𝐺𝐻𝑧
Optical fibre 1 𝑇𝐻𝑧 to 1000 𝑇𝐻𝑧 > 100 𝐺𝐻𝑧
 Need of Modulation

• Suppose we wish to transmit an electrical signal in the audio frequency (𝐴𝐹) range
(20 𝐻𝑧 𝑡𝑜 20 𝑘𝐻𝑧) over a long distance. We cannot do it, because of:

• Size of Antenna or Aerial:

For an audio frequency signal of frequency, 𝑓 = 15 𝑘𝐻𝑧

𝑐 3 × 108
Wavelength of signal, 𝜆 = = = 20000 𝑚
𝑓 15 × 103
𝜆
Length of a vertical antenna, 𝑙 = = 5000 𝑚
4

• To setup an antenna of vertical height 5000 𝑚 is impossible. Thus, we need to use high
frequencies for transmission (because 𝑓 ↑ ⟹ 𝜆 ↓ ⟹ 𝑙 ↓), and for this purpose, we need
modulation.
 Need of Modulation

• Effective Power radiated by antenna: • Mixing up of signals from different

transmitters:
𝑙 2
Power of signal, 𝑃 ∝
𝜆
Free space

For same value of 𝑙, higher value of 𝜆

produces lower value of 𝑃.

As high power signals are needed for good

transmission, wavelength 𝜆 should be small,
and for this purpose, frequency should be
high. To distinguish between the signals from
each user, communication at high
frequencies and allotting a band of
frequencies to each user is needed. This
is what is being done for different radio
and T.V. broadcast stations.
 Definition of Modulation

• Modulation is the phenomenon of superimposing the low frequency baseband message or

information signals (called the modulating signals) on a high frequency wave (called the
carrier wave).
• The resultant wave is known as “Modulated wave”.

Carrier wave

Continuous Discontinuous
(sinusoidal) wave (Pulsed) wave
 Types of Modulation

Continuous (sinusoidal) wave:

Any one of three characteristics (E0 , 𝜔, 𝜙) can
be varied in accordance with modulating
baseband signal, giving rise to:
E 𝑇
2𝜋 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
𝜔 =
E0 𝑇
𝑡
Frequency Modulation (FM)

Phase Modulation (PM)

E = E0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
 Types of Modulation

Discontinuous (Pulsed) wave:

The significant characteristics of a pulse can
be varied in accordance with the modulating
baseband signal, giving rise to:
Pulse
𝑖, E Width

1 1 1 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

Pulse
Amplitude
0 0 0
Pulse Pulse 𝑡 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
Rise Fall

Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

 Summary

• When a modulating audio frequency (AF) wave is superimposed on a high frequency

carrier wave in a manner that the frequency of modulated wave is same as that of the
carrier wave, but its amplitude is made proportional to the instantaneous amplitude
of the AF modulating signal, the process is called Amplitude Modulation (AM).

𝑐(𝑡) = A𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 𝑚(𝑡) = A𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡

𝑐(𝑡) 𝑚(𝑡)

𝑡 𝑡

Carrier wave Modulating signal

 Summary

Carrier wave Modulating signal Amplitude Modulated wave

𝐴
𝑐(𝑡) 𝑚(𝑡) 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐴𝑐
𝐴𝑚

𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑡 𝐴𝑚 𝑡 𝑡

𝑐(𝑡) = A𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 𝑚(𝑡) = A𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 𝑐𝑚 𝑡 = (A𝑐 + A𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

Frequency of AM wave is equal to the frequency of carrier wave.

 Summary

𝑚(𝑡) 𝐴 Envelope
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑚 𝑡 𝑡

𝑐𝑚 𝑡 = A𝑐 + A𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

• Variation of amplitude takes place with angular frequency 𝜔𝑚 .

• The envelope represents the frequency of the modulated signal.

 Maximum and Minimum Amplitude of AM Wave

𝐴 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐴𝑐 + 𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝑐 − 𝐴𝑚
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐴𝑐
𝐴𝑚

𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛

A𝑚𝑎𝑥 − A𝑚𝑖𝑛 A𝑚𝑎𝑥 + A𝑚𝑖𝑛

𝐴𝑚 = 𝐴𝑐 =
2 2
 Modulation Index

• Modulation index:

𝐴𝑚 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐴
𝜇= = 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑐
𝐴𝑚
• In practice 𝜇 is kept ≤ 1 to avoid
distortion. 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛

• Modulation index determines the 𝑡

quality of the transmitted signal.
• As the modulation index increases,
the audio signal on reception
becomes clearer.
 An amplitude modulated wave is represented by the expression
𝑣𝑚 = 5 1 + 0.6 sin 6280𝑡 sin 211 × 104 𝑡 𝑉. The minimum and maximum
amplitudes of the amplitude modulated waves are, respectively:

Given: 𝑣𝑚 = 5 1 + 0.6 sin 6280𝑡 sin 211 × 104𝑡 𝑉 Adding equation 1 and equation 2 , we get,

Solution:
2𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 16 𝑉
We know: 𝑐𝑚 𝑡 = A𝑐 + A𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

Comparing this general equation with the given equation, we 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 8 𝑉

get,

𝐴𝑐 = 5 𝑉 𝐴𝑚 = 3 𝑉 Substituting this value of 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 in equation 1 , we get,

We also know that:

𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 10 𝑉 − 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑐 = 𝐴𝑚 =
2 2
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 2 𝑉
𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
5= 3=
2 2

𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 10 𝑉 1 𝐴𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 6 𝑉 2

 Frequency Spectrum of AM Wave

The modulated signal (𝑐𝑚 (𝑡)) can be written as:

𝑐𝑚 𝑡 = (A𝑐 + A𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡) sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

𝐴𝑚
𝑐𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 1 + sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡
𝐴𝑐

𝑐𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐴𝑐 𝜇 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

𝜇𝐴𝑐
𝑐𝑚 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + cos 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 − cos 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡
2

𝜇𝐴𝑐 𝜇𝐴𝑐
𝑐𝑚 𝑡 = A𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + cos 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 − [cos 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡]
2 2
 Summary

𝐴c 𝐶

𝜇𝐴𝑐 𝐿𝑆𝐵 𝑈𝑆𝐵

2 𝜔𝑚 𝜔𝑚
frequency
(𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 ) 𝜔𝑐 (𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 )

𝐿𝑆𝐵 = Lower side band 𝑈𝑆𝐵 = Upper side band

𝜇𝐴𝑐 𝜇𝐴𝑐
𝑐𝑚 𝑡 = A𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + cos 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 − [cos 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡]
2 2

Bandwidth of AM wave = 𝑓𝑈𝑆𝐵 − 𝑓𝐿𝑆𝐵 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 − (𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 ) = 2𝑓𝑚

Bandwidth of AM wave = 2 × Frequency of modulating signal

 A signal of 5 𝑘𝐻𝑧 frequency is amplitude modulated on a carrier wave of frequency
2 𝑀𝐻𝑧. The frequencies of the resultant signal is/are :

Given: Modulating frequency, 𝑓𝑚 = 5 𝑘𝐻𝑧

Carrier wave frequency, 𝑓𝑐 = 2 𝑀𝐻𝑧

To find: Frequencies of resultant signal

Solution:

Frequency spectrum of a AM signal is given by,

𝜇𝐴𝑐 𝜇𝐴𝑐
𝑐𝑚 𝑡 = A𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + cos 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 − [cos 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡]
2 2

Therefore, frequencies of resultant signal are:

𝑓𝑐 = 2 𝑀𝐻𝑧 = 2000 𝑘𝐻𝑧

𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 = 2000 + 5 𝑘𝐻𝑧 = 2005 𝑘𝐻𝑧

𝑓𝑐 − 𝑓𝑚 = 2000 − 5 𝑘𝐻𝑧 = 1995 𝑘𝐻𝑧

 Power and Current Relation in AM Wave

Average power dissipated per cycle in the unmodulated carrier wave is:

1 𝑇 𝑉𝑐2 1 1 𝑇 2 2
𝑃𝑐 = න 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 0 𝑅 𝑅 𝑇 0 𝑐

𝐴2𝑐
𝑃𝑐 = Where 𝑅 = Resistance of the antenna
2𝑅

Total power dissipated per cycle in the modulated wave is:

𝜇2
𝑃𝑡 = 𝑃𝑐 1 +
2

If 𝐼𝑡 and 𝐼𝑐 is rms value of modulated current and unmodulated carrier current, respectively,
then,
𝑃𝑡 𝜇2 𝐼𝑡2 𝑅 𝐼𝑡 𝜇2
= 1+ = 2 = 1+
𝑃𝑐 2 𝐼𝑐 𝑅 𝐼𝑐 2
 Summary

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑡 + 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐵𝑥 𝑡 + 𝐶𝑥 2 (𝑡)

𝑚(𝑡) 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑦(𝑡) Bandpass Filter AM Wave

+ Square Law
A𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 Device Centered at 𝜔𝑐
𝑐 𝑡

A𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡

𝐴2𝑚 + 𝐴2𝑐 𝐶𝐴2𝑚 𝐶𝐴2𝑐

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝐵A𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐵A𝑐 sin 𝜔𝑐 𝑡 + 𝐶 − cos 2𝜔𝑚 𝑡 − cos 2𝜔𝑐 𝑡
2 2 2
+ 𝐶 A𝑚 A𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 + 𝐶 A𝑚 A𝑐 cos 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 𝑡

• The band pass filter rejects DC and the sinusoids of frequencies 𝜔𝑚 , 2𝜔𝑚 and
2𝜔𝑐 and retains the frequencies 𝜔𝑐 , 𝜔𝑐 − 𝜔𝑚 and 𝜔𝑐 + 𝜔𝑚 .

• The output of the band pass filter is therefore an AM wave.

 Detection of AM Wave

• Detection is the process of recovering the modulating signal from the modulated carrier
wave.

Receiving IF Output
antenna Amplifier Detector Amplifier signal
Stage

• Signal received from the receiving antenna is first passed through an amplifier because
the signal becomes weak in travelling from transmitting antenna to receiving antenna.

• For further processing, the signal is passed through intermediate frequency (IF) stage
preceding the detection. At this stage, the carrier frequency is changed to a lower frequency.

• The output signal from the detector may not be strong enough to be made use of and
hence is required to be amplified.
 Detection of AM Wave

Internal structure of detector:

AM Wave from Rectified 𝑚(𝑡)

Envelope
Rectifier
Detector
IF Stage wave

𝐴 𝐴 𝐴

𝑡 𝑡 𝑡

AM input wave Rectified wave Output

 The modulation frequency of an AM radio station is 250 𝑘𝐻𝑧, which is 10% of the
carrier wave. If another AM station approaches you for license, what broadcast
frequency will you allot?

Given: Modulation frequency, 𝑓𝑚 = 250 𝑘𝐻𝑧 So, immediate next available broadcast frequency
𝑓𝑚 = 10% 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑐 is:

Solution: 𝑓1,𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 𝑓𝑐 + 2𝑓𝑚 𝑓1,𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑓𝑐 − 2𝑓𝑚

The frequency of carrier wave: 𝑓1,𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 2500 − 500 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓1,𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 2500 + 500 𝑘𝐻𝑧
10
250 = × 𝑓𝑐 𝑓𝑐 = 2500 𝑘𝐻𝑧 𝑓1,𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 3000 𝑘𝐻𝑧 𝑓1,𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 2000 𝑘𝐻𝑧
100

For a given carrier wave of frequency 𝑓𝑐 with Therefore, if another AM station approaches us for
modulation frequency 𝑓𝑚 , the bandwidth is: license, the broadcast frequency which we can
allot is 2000 𝑘𝐻𝑧.
𝑓𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑓𝑐 + 𝑓𝑚

To avoid overlapping of bandwidths, next

broadcast frequencies can be:

𝑓1 = 𝑓𝑐 ± 2𝑓𝑚

𝑓2 = 𝑓𝑐 ± 3𝑓𝑚 and so on.