MAKERERE

UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, DESIGN, ART AND

TECHNOLOGY

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Course name: Civil Engineering Infrastructure Maintenance

Course code: CIV 4102

Lecturer: Eng. David Kaddu

GROUP 1

NAME REG NO SIGNATURE

ARUHO ENOCK 20/U/0105

ASIIMIRE PRAISE 20/U/6711/PS

BUSUNGU CYPRIAN 20/U/21377/PSA

KIRABO CAROLYNE FAITH 20/U/0782

NAMAKULA MARTINA FLEUR 20/U/0094

NAMUKOSE PRISCILLA M. 20/U/0122

OMONA EDWIN 20/U/6740/PSA

TASHOBYA EMMANUEL 20/U/0249

QUESTION 1

Explain the Different data collection methods for Pavement condition surveys and
evaluation: management and treatment of results: how the results are treated:
Advantages and disadvantages of each;

There are two primary methods of conducting pavement condition surveys namely manual
condition surveys and automated condition surveys.

a) Manual surveys

Manual surveys are conducted by walking or traveling at slow speed and noting the existing
surface distress. Manual surveys may be limited to selected segments or span the entire
roadway length. Distresses are generally recorded on paper, but there is an increasing trend to
enter the survey results directly into computers or hand held devices. Rut depth and/or
faulting are typically estimated by taking manual spot measurements. There are two basic
methods for conducting manual pavement condition surveys, walking and windshield
surveys. Walking and windshield surveys are also commonly combined to provide a more
complete pavement network survey.

 Walking Survey

Walking surveys are completed by a rater who is trained to rate distresses according to the
agency's distress identification specifications. The rater walks down the side of the pavement
and fills out a pavement condition form that describes the amount, extent, and severity of
each distress present on the roadway. Walking surveys provide the most precise data about
the condition of the rated pavement provided the raters are well trained and experienced.

Data may be recorded using a hand held microcomputer, a pen based computer (electronic
clipboard), or a data collection sheet. The total quantities for each distress type and severity
are automatically tallied in the data collection devices. The inspector must sum them after
returning to the office if data collection sheets are used.

 Windshield Survey

A windshield survey is completed by driving along the road or on the shoulder of the road.
The pavement is rated by a rater through the windshield of the vehicle. This method allows
for a greater amount of coverage in less time; however, the quality of the pavement distress
data is compromised. The entire network could possibly be surveyed using this method or
samples may still be used.

The data is determined as the inspector travels along the road on a single management section
and is recorded on a data collection sheet, digitizing tablet, or laptop computer. At the end of
the management section, the data must be finalised by completing filling of the data
collection sheet or storing the collected data in the laptop computer.

 Walking + Windshield Survey

Combining a walking survey with a windshield survey is a good method to achieve detailed
pavement distress data and complete pavement surveys on a greater 15% of the network. This
method is acceptable only if the same procedure is used on every section in the network, and
a random method is used for selecting the sample where the walking survey will be
performed.

b) Automated surveys

Automated surveys typically incorporate the use of vans fitted with equipment for example;
lasers, high-speed cameras, and computers specifically designed for collecting pavement and
roadway features. Digital images of the transverse and longitudinal profiles of the roadway
surface are captured at highway speeds for use in assessing pavement condition. Data and
images collected through automated surveys require processing using either fully or semi-
automated methods.

 Semi-automated

For semi-automated processing, the resulting images are viewed at workstations by

personnel trained to rate visible cracks and other distresses. Proprietary software packages are
used for displaying the images and recording distresses. Sensor data are processed for
determining rut depth, IRI, and faulting.

 Fully automated

Fully automated processing includes using the collected images and pattern recognition
technology for automatically i.e., no user interference detecting distress. A number of service
or equipment providers have developed that use video and/or laser technology to detect and
classify pavement cracking in real-time at highway speeds. Other systems capture the
pavement images first and use automated post-processing to detect and classify cracks. As
with semi-automated processing, the sensor data is used to determine rut depth, IRI, and
faulting

There are several classes of automated data collection and interpretation as summarized
below:

i. Distress images are collected on film or high resolution video, image analysis techniques
are used to identify type, severity, and quantity of individual distress types while the
vehicle collects the data.
ii. Distress images are collected on film or high resolution video, image analysis techniques
are used to identify type, severity, and quantity of individual distress types in the office
after the vehicle collects the data.
iii. Distress images are collected on film or high resolution video, a trained observer is used
to identify type, severity, and quantity of individual distress types in the office while
viewing the images after the vehicle collects the data.
iv. Lasers are used to determine changes in surface texture and distance which are
interpreted to determine some distress types by computer algorithms.
v. Lasers or other methods are used to measure distance to determine specific distress types
such as rutting in asphalt concrete pavements.

Advantages of manual data collection

i. It can identify a wide range of pavement distresses

ii. It is fairly low cost since the equipment used are relatively cheap and easily
accessible.
iii. It does not require skilled labour since it can be performed by unskilled personnel
when they are guided on what to do.
Disadvantages of manual data collection

i. It is time consuming since it requires care to be taken during measurement of the

distresses.
ii. It is limited to distresses on the pavement surfaces.
iii. It cannot accurately quantify the distresses. Measured values are rough estimates.
Advantages of automated data inspection
 i. It can collect data at high speeds within a short time.
ii. It can be used to analyse the 2D and 3D representations of the pavement structure.
iii. It can identify and quantify distresses quickly.
Disadvantages of automated data inspection

i. It has a high initial cost used for purchase of necessary equipment.

ii. It requires skilled personnel for effective and efficient operation of equipment for data
collection.
QUESTION 2

With reference to pavement distresses, explain the causes, effects, the procedure for the
measurement, quantification, and correction mechanisms of the defects

i. Potholes
ii. Cracking
iii. Bleeding
iv. Shoving
v. Corrugations
vi. Rutting
vii. Stripping.

i. Potholes

Description

Potholes are small, localized, but deep pavement failures characterized by a round shape.
Potholes are caused by weak and wet sub base and/or subgrade. In freeze-thaw environments,
potholes are generally formed during the thaw. Potholes can cause damage to vehicles,
including tyre damage, wheel alignment issues, and suspension problems. They can also lead
to increased travel time and vehicle operating costs.

How to measure

Record the number of potholes and square meters of affected area at each severity level. i.e.,
low (<25mm deep), moderate (25-50mm deep), and high (>50mm deep). Pothole depth is the
maximum depth below the pavement surface. If a pothole occurs within an area of fatigue
cracking, the area of fatigue cracking is reduced by the area of the pothole. The minimum
area for a pothole is about 0.02 m². The actual plan dimensions and the actual area of the
pothole shall be recorded on the distress map sheets. Potholes not meeting minimum plan
dimensions are to be drawn on the distress map sheets and commented on but not included in
the measurement summaries.

Correction mechanism
Potholes are repaired by cleaning the damaged area, removing loose debris or water, and
filling it with asphalt patching material. The area is then compacted for a sturdy and smooth
surface.

ii. Cracking
These can be further broken down into different types of cracking namely;

 Longitudinal cracking

This is most often found at paving joints established during construction. The construction
joint is most generally specified at lane lines. As weathering of the pavement takes place, the
longitudinal joint ravels and eventually spalls. Longitudinal cracks found at locations other
than paving joints are due to thermal shrinkage from seasonal temperature changes.

How to measure

Record the length in meters of longitudinal cracking within the defined wheel paths at each
severity level. Record the length in meters of longitudinal cracking with sealant in good
condition at each severity level. The sealant is not considered to be in good condition unless
at least 1 m of continuous sealant in good condition is present. In cases where a crack is less
than 1 m in length, the sealant must be present and in good condition over the entire length
of the crack. Any wheel path longitudinal crack that has associated random cracking or
meanders and has a quantifiable area is rated as fatigue cracking.
  Transverse cracking

Transverse cracking is best described by cracks that form across the pavement perpendicular
to the centerline. Transverse cracking is caused by thermal shrinkage from seasonal
temperature changes and age hardening of the binder.

How to measure
Low; Cracks with a mean width ≤ 6 mm or sealed cracks with sealant material in good
condition and with a width that cannot be determined.
Moderate; Cracks with a mean width > 6 mm and ≤ 19 mm or any crack with a mean width
≤ 19 mm and adjacent low severity random cracking. Random cracking should be
considered adjacent when it is within 0.3 m of the primary distress.
High; Cracks with a mean width > 19 mm or any crack with a mean width ≤ 19 mm and
adjacent moderate to high severity random cracking. Random cracking should be considered
adjacent when it is within 0.3 m of the primary distress.

Record the affected area at each severity level in square meters. If fatigue cracking exists
within the block cracking area, the area of block cracking is reduced by the area of fatigue
cracking. Longitudinal boundary cracks in a block cracking area are not rated separately. An
occurrence should be at least 15 m long before rating as block cracking. Where block and
edge cracking exist and overlap, both should be rated.

Record the number and length (in meters) of transverse cracks at each severity level. Rate
the entire transverse crack at the highest severity level present for at least 10 percent of the
total length of the crack. Also, record the length (in meters) of transverse cracks with sealant
 in good condition at each severity level. Note: The length recorded is the total length of the
well-sealed crack and is assigned to the severity level of the crack. Record only when the
sealant is in good condition for at least 90 percent of the length of the crack. If the
transverse crack extends through an area of fatigue cracking, the length of the crack within
the fatigue area is not counted. The crack is treated as a single transverse crack but at a
reduced length. Transverse saw cuts on a “saw and seal” treated AC test section are rated as
transverse cracks. Cracks less than 0.3 m in length are not recorded.

 Block cracking

Block cracking is the combination of longitudinal and transverse cracking. As the cracks
worsen with time as a result of weathering, they join each other and form block cracking.

How to measure

Low; Cracks with a mean width ≤ 6 mm or sealed cracks with sealant material in good
condition and with a width that cannot be determined.
Moderate; Cracks with a mean width > 6 mm and ≤ 19 mm or any crack with a mean width ≤
19 mm and adjacent low severity random cracking. Random cracking should be considered
adjacent when it is within 0.3 m of the primary distress.
High; Cracks with a mean width > 19 mm or any crack with a mean width ≤ 19 mm and
adjacent moderate to high severity random cracking. Random cracking should be considered
adjacent when it is within 0.3 m of the primary distress.
Record the affected area at each severity level in square meters. If fatigue cracking exists
within the block cracking area, the area of block cracking is reduced by the area of fatigue
cracking. Longitudinal boundary cracks in a block cracking area are not rated separately. An
occurrence should be at least 15 m long before rating as block cracking. Where block and
edge cracking exist and overlap, both should be rated.

 Fatigue Cracking

It can be described as mostly longitudinal cracks found at the surface of the pavement within
a 3-ft-wide strip considered to be the wheel track. It ranges from a single longitudinal crack
to a series of interconnected longitudinal cracks, also referred to as alligator cracking. Fatigue
cracking is commonly considered to be the most alarming distress found in flexible
pavement. This type of cracking starts at the bottom of the pavement structure and is
transmitted to the surface. By the time alligator cracking can be detected by visual inspection,
the pavement is generally considered to have failed.

How to measure

Low; An area of cracks with no or only a few connecting cracks; cracks are not spalled or
sealed; and pumping is not evident.
Moderate; An area of interconnected cracks forming a complete pattern; cracks may be
slightly spalled; cracks may be sealed; and pumping is not evident.
High; An area of moderately or severely spalled interconnected cracks forming a complete
pattern; pieces may move when subjected to traffic; cracks may be sealed; and pumping may
be evident.

Record affected area at each severity level in square meters. If different severity levels
existing within an area cannot be distinguished, rate the entire area at the highest severity
present. Where fatigue and edge cracking exist and overlap in the same area, both should be
rated. Note: An area of short closely spaced (< 0.3 m) transverse cracks in the wheel path
should be recorded as fatigue cracking.

 Edge Cracking

This is a series of short longitudinal or irregular-shaped cracks at the outer 15 in of the

pavement. Edge cracking is a result of a lack of support outside the pavement edge.

How to measure

Low; Cracks with no breakup or loss of material.

Moderate; Cracks with some breakup and loss of material for up to 10 percent of the length
of the affected portion of the pavement.
High; Cracks with considerable breakup and loss of material for more than 10 percent of the
length of the affected portion of the pavement.
 Record length in meters of pavement edge affected at each severity level. The combined
quantity of edge cracking cannot exceed the length of the section. Where edge cracking and
fatigue or block cracking exist and overlap in the same area, both should be rated. Cracking
can reduce the structural integrity of the pavement, leading to further deterioration and
potential failure. It can also cause noise and vibration issues for vehicles, as well as reduce
the overall ride quality.

Correction measures for cracks

Different methods can be used depending on the type and severity of cracks. For smaller
cracks, crack sealing is often used. This involves filling the cracks with a specialized sealant
to prevent moisture penetration and further damage. For larger cracks, techniques such as
routing and sealing or crack stitching may be required to fill them.

iii. Bleeding
Description

Bleeding is the flushing of excess asphalt cement to the surface of the pavement. Asphalt
cement concrete mixtures are more prone to bleed with hotter pavement surface
temperatures. Bleeding is a result of excess asphalt cement in the mix and/or low air voids in
the mix. Bleeding can result in a loss of skid resistance, leading to increased braking
distances and potential accidents. It can also cause environmental damage due to the release
of asphalt into the environment
How to measure

Record square meters of surface area that are affected. Note: Preventative maintenance
treatments (i.e., slurry seals, chip seals, fog seals, etc.) exhibit bleeding characteristics at
times. These occurrences should be noted but not rated as bleeding.

Correction mechanism

The correction mechanism typically involves applying a blotter material, such as sand or
aggregate, to absorb the excess asphalt binder. In severe cases, a fresh layer of asphalt overlay
may be needed.

iv. Shoving
Description

A longitudinal displacement of a localized area of the pavement surface. It is generally

caused by braking or accelerating vehicles and is usually located on hills or curves or at
intersections. It may have associated vertical displacement. Shoving can cause discomfort for
drivers and passengers, as well as reduce the overall ride quality. It can also contribute to
increased fuel consumption and vehicle wear

How to measure

Record the number of occurrences and square meters of affected surface area.

Correction mechanism
To address this issue, the affected pavement is typically removed through milling or
grinding, followed by the placement of a new layer of asphalt that is compacted correctly.

v. Corrugations
Description

Corrugations are transverse waves in the pavement profile, which are found most generally
at stop lights, at stop signs, or on hills. Corrugations are found in the wheel track and are the
result of the acceleration and deceleration of heavy trucks in a regular pattern on the roadway
surface. The stability of the asphalt mix can also be a contributing factor. Corrugations can
cause discomfort for drivers and passengers, as well as reduce the overall ride quality. They
can also contribute to increased fuel consumption and vehicle wear

How to measure

Record the number of occurrences and square meters of affected surface area. However,
severity levels can be defined by the relative effect of shoving on ride quality.

Correction mechanism

In order to rectify the issue at hand, it is customary to employ a correction method that
entails milling or grinding the affected area to eliminate any irregularities. Once this process
is complete, the surface is resurfaced using appropriate materials such as hot mix asphalt.
 vi. Rutting
Description

Rutting is the longitudinal deformation of the pavement structure within the wheel tracks.
Where found only in the uppermost portions of the pavement, it is caused by poor mixture
design and lack of stability. Where rutting is deep-seated and found throughout the depth of
the pavement structure, it is caused by inadequate pavement structure above the founding
layers or by a weak, wet subgrade. Rutting can cause damage to vehicles, including
suspension and steering components. It can also lead to increased travel time and vehicle
operating costs.

How to measure

Record the maximum rut depth to the nearest millimeter at 15-25-m intervals for each wheel
path, as measured with a 1.2-m straight edge.

Correction mechanism

To restore the original profile of the road and improve its structural stability, it is
recommended to apply additional layers of asphalt to the affected area. This process involves
overlaying the damaged section with a new layer of asphalt, which not only restores the
road's original profile but also reinforces its structural integrity. By doing so, the road can be
restored to its original condition, minimizing the risk of further damage and ensuring the
safety of motorists.
vii. Stripping
Description

Stripping is a loss of bond between aggregates and asphalt binder which typically progresses
upward from the bottom of an asphalt concrete layer. Stripping may be manifested by several
different types of distress, including premature rutting, shoving, raveling, and cracking.
Stripping can cause discomfort for drivers and passengers, as well as reduce the overall ride
quality. It can also contribute to increased fuel consumption and vehicle wear

How to measure

Although stripping of asphalt concrete core may not be visible upon a visual inspection of its
exterior, it is possible that the coring drill could damage the circumference of the core. To
determine whether stripping has occurred, it may be necessary to split the core apart and
inspect its interior. If stripping has indeed taken place, aggregates that are either partially
coated or uncoated will be visible.

Correction mechanism

To address the issue, damaged areas are removed, surfaces are cleaned, and new asphalt with
improved adhesion is applied.
QUESTION 3

Demonstrate the applicability and significance / importance of the following tools in

pavement maintenance and rehabilitation; provide practical examples for full marks;

a. Falling weight Deflectometer

b. Ground Penetrating Radar

c. Benkleman Beam

Demonstrate the applicability and significance/importance of the following tools in

pavement maintenance and rehabilitation; provide practical examples for full marks;
a. Falling weight Deflectometer
A Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) is a device used to measure the physical properties of
pavement. It is a non-destructive and non-intrusive process that is generally preferred over
other destructive testing methods because it is faster and does not involve the removal of
pavement material (Wang & Birken, 2022).
The FWD provides an accurate assessment of the structural condition of highways, local
roads, car parks and airport runways, and can also be used to test subgrades and sub-bases
during construction. It is also used to identify voids underneath the surface or how two
surfaces, typically concrete slabs, are in contact with each other
(Pavement Assessment | Falling Weight Deflecto

FWD helps assess the structural capacity of a road by simulating the dynamic load from
moving vehicles. It is a crucial tool in pavement maintenance, as it:
i. Provides a structural assessment. FWD measures the pavement's deflection under a
known load, giving engineers insights into its structural condition. This helps
determine if the road can withstand the weight and traffic it's subjected to. For
example, a city planner can use FWD to decide whether a busy urban road can handle
the increased load from heavier trucks. FWD provides the data needed to make
informed decisions on strengthening or rehabilitating the pavement.
ii. Detects damage. FWD identifies areas of distress or damage by measuring how much
the pavement flexes under load. This information is crucial for targeting specific areas
that need maintenance. For instance, if a highway section shows signs of distress,
FWD can pinpoint the exact locations needing attention. This prevents unnecessary
repairs and ensures resources are used efficiently.
 iii. Ensures quality control. FWD isn't just for existing roads; it's also useful during
construction. Contractors use it to ensure new pavements meet design specifications,
identifying issues early in the game. As an example, a construction company building
a new stretch of highway can employ FWD to verify that the pavement's structural
integrity aligns with the design. This ensures a durable and long-lasting road.
iv. Monitors performance. Pavement age and FWD are instrumental in monitoring how a
road performs over time. Regular assessments help predict when maintenance or
rehabilitation is needed, extending the road's lifespan.

b. Ground Penetrating Radar

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a tool used to assess road conditions whereby it provides
a profile of the existing road conditions. This procedure can be performed at high speeds up
to 50 mph, which reduces the need, for extensive traffic control and enhances safety. GPR
works by transmitting bursts of energy into the ground and analyzing the reflected images
using electromagnetic wave propagation theory. The amplitudes and arrival times of these
reflected pulses are associated with the properties of layers within the materials. At interfaces
between layers, some energy is reflected while some is absorbed depending on the contrast in
properties, between them (Ground Penetrating Radar – Pavement Interactive, n.d.).
Applicability
i. Detection of Subsurface Anomalies
Example: When inspecting a road with surface cracks, one suspects there might be issues
beneath the surface. GPR can help identify anomalies like voids, moisture ingress, or the
presence of different materials beneath the pavement.
ii. Thickness Assessment
Example: If a road has undergone several resurfacing projects over the years, and one
needs to know the thickness of each layer, GPR can provide a cross-sectional view of the
pavement, helping one assess layer thicknesses accurately.

iii. Mapping of Rebar and Utilities

Example: Before initiating a rehabilitation project and one wants to avoid damaging
utility lines or reinforcing bars within the pavement, GPR can locate and map these
features, ensuring a safer and more efficient rehabilitation process.
Significance / Importance
i. Cost-Effective Assessment
Example: Instead of excavating the entire pavement for inspection, GPR allows targeted
investigations. This not only saves time but also reduces costs associated with
unnecessary disruptions and repairs.

ii. Proactive Maintenance:

Example: GPR can identify early signs of pavement deterioration, allowing for proactive
maintenance. Detecting issues in their early stages can prevent major rehabilitation efforts
and extend the overall lifespan of the pavement.

c. Benkleman beam
The Benkelman Beam is a tool, in the field of pavement maintenance and rehabilitation. Its
main purpose is to measure how flexible pavements deflect under a load offering insights into
how the pavements behave.
Applicability
Deflection Measurement: The Benkelman Beam helps assess the pavement's structural
capacity by measuring the vertical deflection under the load of a standard truck axle. This is
crucial in determining the pavement's ability to withstand traffic loads.
Significance / Importance
Structural Evaluation: By analyzing deflection, engineers can evaluate the structural integrity
of a pavement. Excessive deflection may indicate a weakened structure, helping identify
areas in need of maintenance or rehabilitation.

Practical Example: Picture a city with a highway that has been experiencing traffic over the
years. To evaluate the condition of the pavement, engineers make use of the Benkelman
Beam. They place this device on the pavement, apply some weight, and then measure how
much it bends or deflects as a result. The data they collect helps them identify areas where
there might be support, which then guides their targeted efforts, for maintenance.
QUESTION 4

Provide an inventory of three methods applicable for the Design of overlays on both
flexible and rigid pavements.

PENDING
QUESTION 5

Illustrate the need for and the procedure for carrying out an EIA for a typical road
project to undergo rehabilitation, periodic maintenance, routine maintenance or a
reconstruction: impacts and mitigation measures.

EIA is “a systematic examination conducted to determine whether or not a project will have
any (adverse) impact on the environment” (Niwagaba, n.d.). The purpose of carrying out an
EIA is to clearly identify and understand the adverse effects of the planned project on the
environment and people, and subsequently prevent or minimize these effects through
mitigation measures. Below are the steps involved in conducting an EIA for a typical road
project:

i. Screening: This is the initial stage of the EIA process where the project is assessed to
determine whether or not it requires a full EIA or a simpler Environmental and Social
Impact Assessment (ESIA).
ii. Scoping: This phase involves identifying the key environmental, social, and cultural
characteristics of the area where the project is to be located and determining the
potential impacts of the project on these characteristics.
iii. Terms of reference (TOR) that outline the scope of the EIA study, including project
objectives, environmental and social baselines, potential impacts, and mitigation
measures. The TOR should also identify the stakeholders to be consulted during the
EIA process.
iv. Review the TORs to ensure they are comprehensive and address all relevant issues.
The review should involve all stakeholders, including the project developer, lead
agency, and affected communities.
v. EI Study: Conduct an EI study and gather information on the environmental and
social basis of the project, potential impacts, and mitigation measures. The study
should include field observations, a literature review, and sample collection and
analysis.
vi. Environmental Impact Statement (EIS): prepare an Environmental Impact
Statement that outlines the findings of the EI study, including potential impacts and
mitigation measures. The EIS should also include a description of any project
alternatives.
 vii. EIS Review and Comment: The review should involve all stakeholders, including
the project developer, lead agency, and affected communities. The comments should
be addressed in the final EIS.
viii. Approval of EIS: Approval should be based on the findings of the EI study and
comments received during the review process.

The final step is a decision on the project based on the approved EIS. The decision should
take into account the potential impacts and mitigation measures identified in the EIS.

For a typical road project, potential impacts and mitigation measures may include:

- Air quality: Construction activities can create dust and emissions that can affect air quality.
Mitigation measures may include using water to suppress dust, limiting vehicle speed, and
using dust suppressants.

- Water quality: Construction activities can create runoff that can affect water quality.
Mitigation measures may include the use of sediment control measures, minimizing the area
of exposed soil, and diverting runoff from sensitive areas.

- Noise: Construction activities can generate noise that can affect surrounding communities.
Mitigation measures may include using noise barriers, scheduling work off-peak and using
quieter equipment.

- Ecology: Construction activities can disrupt habitats and affect wildlife. Mitigation
measures can include afforestation, resilient habitat planning and livelihood diversification.

- Cultural heritage: Construction activities can affect cultural heritage sites. Mitigation
measures may include avoiding sensitive areas, conducting archaeological surveys, and
developing a heritage management plan.
REFERENCES