Module 4- Atomic structure

Combined science
 Index
Lesson # Lesson Page

1 Atoms and ions 3

2 Atomic and mass number and isotopes 6

3 History of the atomic model 9

4 Nuclear decay and half life 12

5 Half life practical 15

6 Types of radiation 18

7 Nuclear equations 21

8 Contamination vs radiation 24

Equation sheet

2
3
Lesson 1: Atoms and ions
Atomic structure

Everything, living and non-living, is made of atoms.

Atoms are tiny and have a radius of only 1 × 10-10
metres.

Most of the atom is made of empty space.

At the centre of an atom there is the nucleus, which is

one ten thousandth (1/10,000) of the radius of the
atom. The nucleus also contains almost all the mass of
the atom, and is composed of neutrons and protons.
The nucleus has a positive charge since protons have
positive charges and neutrons have no charge.

Around the nucleus there are electrons orbiting

around at different energy levels. The electron is
negatively charged.

Atoms are always neutral because their number of

protons is equal to the number of electrons, so the overall charge is zero.

The subatomic particles:

Ionisation and EM radiation absorption/emission

If an atom loses or gains an electron the charges are no longer balanced and the charged atom is called an ion. This
process is called ionisation.

When an atom absorbs electro-magnetic radiation and

electron can move further from the nucleus. This process is
called excitation.

If an electron moves closer to the nucleus it loses energy

and electro-magnetic radiation is emitted. This process is
called de-excitation.

4
Practice questions
1- Complete the following sentences using words from the list on the right.
a) A proton has ____________ charge.
b) A neutron has ____________ charge.
c) An electron has ____________ charge.
d) A proton and an electron have ____________ and ____________ charges.
2- What is the size of the radius of an atom?
3- What is most of the atom made up of?
4- What is the name of an atom that has lost an electron?
5- Complete the following sentences using words from the list on the right
a) Every atom contains a ____________ which is positively charged.
b) The nucleus of an atom is composed of ____________ and ___________
c) The ____________ in an atom move about in the space surrounding the nucleus.
d) An uncharged atom has equal numbers of ____________ and ____________
e) A charged atom is called an ____________
f) An uncharged atom becomes charged as a result of transferring ____________ to or from it.
6- An Oxygen atom contains 8 protons. How many electrons does it contain?
7- A Nitrogen atom contains 7 protons. How many electrons does it contain?
8- Explain why atoms are usually neutral.
9- The diagram represents an atom of beryllium.
a) The particle with a positive charge is ____________
b) The particle with the smallest mass is ____________
c) The particle with no charge is ____________
10- Some electromagnetic radiation (e.g. light) is being shone on some
rubidium atoms. What happens to the electrons of the rubidium atoms?
11- The electromagnetic radiation now stops being shone on the
rubidium atoms. What happens now?
12- Atoms contain three types of particles.

a) Draw a ring around the correct answer to complete the sentence. (1)

The particles in the nucleus of the atom are

b) Complete the table to show the

relative charges and relative masses of the atomic
particles. (4)

c) A neutral atom has no overall charge. Explain this in

terms of its particles. (2)

d) Complete the sentence.

An atom that loses an electron is called an
_____________________ and has an overall _________________________ charge. (2)
5
13- Each atom of radon has 86 protons and 136 neutrons.

a) How many electrons does each atom of radon have? (1)

b) How many particles are there in the nucleus of a radon atom? (1)

c) Which of the following statements

describes what can happen to an atom to change it
into an ion? (2)

14- Tritium ( ) is an isotope of hydrogen. Tritium

has a proton number of 1 and a mass number of 3.

i) The diagram below shows a simple model of a tritium atom. Complete the diagram by adding the names
of the particles indicated by the labels. (4)

ii) Explain how the nucleus of an ordinary hydrogen atom is different from the nucleus of a tritium atom.

Ordinary hydrogen atoms ( ) have a mass number of 1. (2)

15- The nucleus of the gold atom is surrounded by electrons in different

energy levels.
The figure on the right shows three of the energy levels around the nucleus
of a gold atom. The electron in energy level B absorbs electromagnetic
radiation.
Which energy level will the electron be in after it has absorbed the
electromagnetic radiation? A B or C? (1)

16- The diagram shows a lithium atom.

a) What is the mass number of this lithium atom? (1)

b) The atomic number is the number of protons in an atom. What is the

atomic number of a lithium atom? (1)

c) Complete the sentence. (1)

The electrons in an atom orbit in different energy ____________________ .
d) Give the reason why all atoms have a total charge of zero. (1)

e) What happens to the structure of an atom to change it into an ion? (1)

6
Lesson 2: Atomic and mass numbers and isotopes
The number of protons in an atom is called the atomic number.
The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom.
The neutron number can therefore be calculated by subtracting the atomic number from the mass number (mass
number – atomic number).

Element Protons Electrons Neutrons

9 4 4 5
Beryllium ( 4𝐵𝑒 )

20 10 10
Neon ( 10
𝑁𝑒 )

14 7
Nitrogen ( 7
𝑁)

23 12
Sodium ( 𝑁𝑎 )
11

27
Aluminium ( 𝐴𝑙 )
13

Task: Fill in the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in each of the following.

Isotopes have the same atomic number, but different mass numbers. In other words, they have the same number of
protons but different numbers of neutrons.

Example: Carbon can be found in three main

isotopes: carbon-12, 13 and 14. The number
stands for the mass number of the atom.

1- How many electrons, neutrons and protons do

the three isotopes of carbon have?

7
Practice questions
1- What is the atomic number?
2- What is the mass number?

3- How can you calculate the neutron

number from atomic and mass numbers?

4- What is an isotope?

5- Calculate the number of protons,

neutrons and electrons in each of the
following atoms:

6- a) Are the three atoms on the right isotopes? Justify your

answer

b) Draw diagrams to show the structure of the three atoms.

7- Complete the table. You can use the periodic table in your planners for the element names.

8- Americium-241 (95241𝐴𝑚) is an isotope of americium. Which of the isotopes

given in the table is not an isotope of americium? Give a reason for your answer.

9- Atoms are different sizes.

One of the heaviest naturally occurring stable elements is lead.
206 208
Two of its isotopes are lead-206 ( 82
𝑃𝑏) and lead-208 ( 82
𝑃𝑏).
a) What is meant by ‘isotopes’? (2)
206
b) How many protons are in the nucleus of a 82
𝑃𝑏 atom? (1)
206
c) How many neutrons are in the nucleus of a 82
𝑃𝑏 atom? (1)

__________________

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10- The diagrams below represent three atoms, A, B and C.

a) Two of these atoms are from the same element.

i) Which of A, B and C is an atom of a different element? ________________ (1)

ii) Give one reason for your answer. (1)

b) Two of these atoms are isotopes of the same element.

i) Which two are isotopes of the same element? __________ and __________ (1)

ii) Explain your answer. (2)

11- a) The chart gives the number of protons and neutrons
within the nuclei of 7 different atoms, A – G. Which of these
atoms are isotopes of the same element? Give a reason for
your answer. (2)

b) What is the atomic number of atom F?

c) What is the mass number of atom C?

12- a) The table gives some

information about the radioactive
isotope thorium-230.

i) How many electrons are there in an atom of thorium-230? (1)

ii) How many neutrons are there in an atom of thorium-230?(1)

b) Complete the following table for an atom of uranium-238 ( )

(1)
c) Complete the following sentences. (2)
The name given to the number of protons in an atom is the proton number
or the ______________________________ .
There are several isotopes of uranium, and they have different numbers of
_______________________.

9
Lesson 3: History of the atomic model
1- Read the below text and match the scientist to their contribution

The plum pudding model was proposed by JJ Thomson. In this

model the atom was suggested to be a ball of positive charge
with negative particles distributed randomly within the ball of
positive charge. Rutherford disproved this model with the
gold foil experiment, in which he suggested that the positive
charge of the atom was concentrated in the nucleus. Bohr
later discovered that electrons within an atom were located
within discrete energy levels known as shells. Following this,
James Chadwick discovered the existence of neutrons which
were also located within the nucleus.

An early model of the atom was called the plum pudding model. In this model the atom was
assumed to be a sphere of positive charge, with negative charges spread through it.

However, new evidence from Rutherford’s gold foil experiment

disproved this model. In this experiment, alpha particles (a Helium
nucleus) were fired at a gold foil and a detector was used to find out
where the particles went after colliding with the gold foil.

Three results were noted from this experiment:

Observation Most of the alpha particles went Some alpha particles were A few alpha particles were
straight through. deflected through small reflected backwards from the foil.
angles.

Most of the atom Both the alpha particle and The few particles that hit the
Explanation is made of the gold nucleus have a nucleus directly were strongly
empty space. positive charge therefore the repelled and pushed backwards
The particles alpha particle is repelled. towards the source
therefore passed
through the
spaces between
the gold nuclei.

This experiment disproved the plum pudding model. This model

suggested that all the alpha radiation would pass through the gold foil.
Rutherford therefore proposed his nuclear model of the atom. Three
conclusions were made:

1. Most of the atom is empty space.

2. Most of the mass of the atom is in a tiny central nucleus, which is
positively charged.
3. Electrons orbited this nucleus at a distance, like planets around
the Sun.

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Practice questions
Plum pudding model:
1- Draw a diagram of the plum pudding model.
2- Who proposed the plum pudding model?
3- Where is the positive charge in the plum pudding model?
4- Where are the electrons in the plum pudding model?
5- Are there any neutrons in the plum pudding model?
The scientists in between:
6- Who discovered the nucleus?
7- Who discovered that electrons travel in shells?
8- Who discovered the existence of neutrons?
The modern (nuclear) model:
9- Draw a diagram of the nuclear model.
10- Where is the positive charge in the nuclear model?
11- Where are the electrons in the nuclear model?
12- Are there any neutrons in the nuclear model? If so, where are they?
Gold foil experiment:
13- What particles were fired at the gold foil?
14- What three things happened to these particles?
15- Why did this disprove the plum pudding model?
16- What three conclusions were made from the gold foil experiment?

17- The diagrams show two different models of an atom.

a) The particles labelled ‘X’ in the plum pudding model are also
included in the model of the atom used today.
What are the particles labelled ‘X’ ? (1)

b) Scientists decided that the ‘plum pudding’ model was wrong and
needed replacing. Which one of the following statements gives a reason for
deciding that a scientific model needs replacing? Tick ( ) one box. (1)

18- In the early part of the 20th century, scientists used the ‘plum pudding’
model to explain the structure of the atom.
Following work by Rutherford and Marsden, a new model of the atom, called the ‘nuclear’ model, was suggested.
Describe the differences between the two models of the atom. (4)

11
18- The alpha particle scattering experiment led to the nuclear
model of the atom. The figure on the right shows the paths of
alpha particles travelling close to a gold nucleus.

Complete the sentences. Choose answers from the box. Each

answer may be used once, more than once or not at all.

Alpha particles and gold nuclei are both positively charged.

The gold nucleus _________________________________ the

alpha particles.
As the alpha particle approaches the gold nucleus, the electric field
strength experienced by the alpha particle
_________________________________.
As an alpha particle approaches the gold nucleus, the force experienced
by the alpha particle _________________________________. (3)
19- The ‘plum pudding’ model of the atom was used by scientists in the early
part of the 20th century to explain atomic structure.

a) Those scientists knew that atoms contained electrons and that the
electrons had a negative charge. They also knew that an atom was electrically
neutral overall. What did this allow the scientists to deduce about the ‘pudding’
part of the atom? (1)

b) An experiment, designed to investigate the ‘plum

pudding’ model, involved firing alpha particles at a thin gold foil.

If the ‘plum pudding’ model was correct, then most of the alpha
particles would go straight through the gold foil. A few would be
deflected, but by less than 4°.

The results of the experiment were unexpected. Although most of

the alpha particles did go straight through the gold foil, about 1 in
every 8 000 was deflected by more than 90°.

Why did this experiment lead to a new model of the atom, called
the nuclear model, replacing the ‘plum pudding’ model? (1)

c) The diagram shows the paths, A, B and C,

of three alpha particles. The total number of alpha
particles deflected through each angle is also given.

i) Using the nuclear model of the

atom, explain the three paths, A, B and C. (3)

ii) Using the nuclear model, the

scientist E. Rutherford devised an equation to
predict the proportion of alpha particles that
would be deflected through various angles.

The results of the experiment were the same as the

predictions made by Rutherford.

What was the importance of the experimental results and the predictions being the same? (1)

12
Lesson 4: Nuclear decay and half life
Atoms are radioactive if the nucleus has too many protons or neutrons. This makes the nucleus unstable. All types of
radiation come from the nucleus of the atom. You cannot predict when a nucleus will emit radiation. The process is
random.
Over time, the amount of radiation coming from a radioactive sample goes down (decays). How quickly this happens
depends on the half life of the sample. There are two definitions for half life:

1. The time for the count rate to go down by half.

2. The time for half of the radioactive nuclei to decay.

The activity (count rate) of a radioactive material has units of Becquerel (Bq). This is equal to one atom decaying per
second.

To solve wordy half life questions, we can use something called the tree method. For example take the example below.
Please fill out the blank space below with the worked solution.

Worked example: The half-life of carbon-14 is 5,600 years. A sample of carbon-14 has an initial activity of 1,000 Bq
(counts/sec). What is the activity of the sample after 11,200 years?

For graph-based questions, we need to look at what the initial count

rate is. In the graph the initial count rate is 80 counts/minute.

The time taken to drop from 80 to 40 counts/minute is 2 minutes.

This is therefore the half life.

Note how it also takes another 2 minutes to drop from 40 to 20

counts/minute.

One application of radioactive half lives is in carbon dating.

Carbon-14 is continually created naturally in the atmosphere. This

carbon-14 then combines with oxygen in the atmosphere to
form radioactive carbon dioxide, which is then taken in by
plants during the process of photosynthesis. Animals then
acquire carbon-14 by eating the plants. When the animal or
plant dies, it stops exchanging carbon with its environment
and so the amount of carbon-14 it contains begins to
decrease (as the carbon-14 undergoes radioactive decay).

Worked example:

The half life of carbon-14 is 5,700 years. A skeleton had an

initial activity of 1,800 Bq (counts/sec). If the skeleton now
has an activity of 450 Bq, how old is it?

1800 -> 900 -> 450

2 half lives passed.

Time passed = 5700 x 2 = 11400 years.

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Practice questions
1- If a radioactive sample has an initial count rate of 400 Bq. What is its count rate after:
i) 1 half life? ii) 2 half lives? iii) 3 half lives? iv) 4 half lives?
2- The half-life of radium-226 is 1600 years. If a sample of radium-226 has an original activity of 200 Bq, what will it’s
activity be after:
i) 3200 years? ii) 4800 years iii) 6400 years
3- Sodium-24 has a half-life of 15 hours. If a sample of sodium-24 has an original activity of 500 Bq, what will its activity
be after:
i) 30 hours ii) 45 hours iii) 60 hours?
4- What is the half life of the sample in the graph opposite?
5- After 42 days the activity of a sample of phosphorus-32
has decreased from 400 Bq to 50 Bq. What is the half-life of
phosphorus-32?
6- The half-life of radon-222 is 3.8 days. What was the
original activity if it has an activity of 10 Bq after 7.6 days?
7- The half-life of thorium-227 is 19 days. How many days
are required for 75% of a sample to decay?
8- The half-life of protactinium-234 is 6.75 hours. What
percentage of a sample will remain after 27 hours?
9- The half-life of tritium (hydrogen-3) is 12.3 years. If 48.0
mg of tritium is released from a nuclear power plant during the course of a mishap, what mass of the sample will remain
after 49.2 years?
10- Carbon-14 is an isotope, with a half-life of 5730yrs, naturally occurring in the air. This means that all living things
maintain a fixed ratio of carbon-14 to the stable carbon-12. In a 1g sample there would be 180 000 C-14 atoms. This
number starts to drop the moment the living thing stops respiring.
a) A 1g scraping of the charcoal from a cave painting in France contained 45000 C-14 atoms.
i) How many half-lives had passed since the tree (that made the charcoal) was felled?
ii) When was the painting made?
b) For many years it was believed that the Romans were the first to introduce grapes to Britain. A 0.02g grape
pip found at the British hillfort of Hambledon Hill contained 1800 C-14 atoms.
i) How many C-14 atoms would there have been in 1g of grape pip?
ii) How many half-lives had passed since the grape was picked?
iii) How long ago was the grape picked? iv. What evidence does this give for the introduction of grapes
to Britain?
11- A tree is found buried underground. It originally had an activity of 150,000 Bq. It now has an activity of 37,500Bq.
How old is the tree?

12- Humans take in the radioactive isotope carbon-14 from their food. After their death, the proportion of
carbon-14 in their bones can be used to tell how long it is since they died. Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years.

i) A bone in a living human contains 80 units of carbon-14. An identical bone taken from a
skeleton found in an ancient burial ground contains 5 units of carbon-14. Calculate the age of the
skeleton. Show clearly how you work out your answer. (2)

ii) Why is carbon-14 unsuitable for dating a skeleton believed to be about 150 years old? (1)

14
13- An insect died and became preserved in amber. It originally had an activity of 300 Bq. It now has an activity of 37.5
Bq. When did the insect die?

14- A woolly mammoth skeleton originally had an activity of 20,000 Bq. If it now has an activity of 5,000 Bq. When did
woolly mammoths go extinct?

15- a) The graph shows how a sample of

barium-143, a radioactive isotope with a short
half-life, decays with time.

i) What is meant by the term

isotope? (1)

ii) What is meant by the term

half-life? (1)

iii) Use the graph to find the

half-life of barium-143. (1)

b) Humans take in the radioactive isotope

carbon-14 from their food. After their death, the
proportion of carbon-14 in their bones can be
used to tell how long it is since they died.
Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years.

i) A bone in a living human contains 80

units of carbon-14. An identical bone taken from
a skeleton found in an ancient burial ground
contains 5 units of carbon-14. Calculate the age
of the skeleton. Show clearly how you work out
your answer. (2)

ii) Why is carbon-14 unsuitable for dating

a skeleton believed to be about 150 years old? (1)

16- Uranium-238 has a half-life of 4500

million years.

a) When the Earth was formed,

there was twice as much uranium-238 in
the rocks as there is now. What is the
age of the Earth? (1)

b) Complete the graph on the

right to show how the number of nuclei
in a sample of uranium-238 will change
with time. Initially, there were 100 000
nuclei in the sample. (2)

17 - Radon is a radioactive gas with a

half-life of 3.6 days. It often seeps into
buildings from the ground. Estimate
how long it takes for 99% of a sample of
radon gas to decay. (Show your
working.) (2)

15
Lesson 5: Half life practical
Equipment: Results table :
• 20 dice
• Pen/pencil

Instructions:
1- Count out 20 dice.
2- Pick up all dice and roll onto this sheet.
3- Put all dice that show a “six” to one side.
4- Count remaining dice and write them where
rolls = 1.
5- Repeat from step 2 until either:
● All dice are gone
● Your results table is full.
6- Plot your results
7- Make a curved line of best fit.
8- Calculate the “half life” for your dice in the
number of rolls.
9- Plot the results for the average of the class

16
Practice questions
1- Calculate the half life of each of the graphs.

Use a ruler to draw the lines & write the answer on

the graphs themselves.

17
2-The table shows how the count rate from a radioactive
substance changes in 10 days.

a) Draw a graph of count rate against time. The

first two points have been plotted for you. (3)
b) i) Use your graph to
find out how long it takes for the
count rate to fall from 880 counts
per minute to 440 counts per
minute. (1)
ii) What is the
half-life of this substance?
(1)

3- a) A radiation detector and

counter were used to detect and
measure the radiation emitted from a weak source. The graph shows how the
number of counts recorded in one minute changed with time.

Even though the readings from the counter were accurately recorded, not all the
points fit the smooth curve. What does this tell us about the process of
radioactive decay? (1)

b) The radioactive isotope sodium-24 injected into the bloodstream can

be used to trace blood flow to the heart. Sodium-24 emits both beta
particles and gamma rays.

i) What is a beta particle? (1)

ii) What is a gamma ray? (1)

iii) The count rate from a solution containing

sodium-24 decreases from 584 counts per minute to 73
counts per minute in 45 hours. Calculate the half-life of
sodium-2.2. Show clearly how you work out your answer. (3)

iv) Give one advantage of using sodium-24 to trace

blood flow compared to using an isotope with a half-life of: (2)
[A] ten years;

[B] ten seconds.

18
Lesson 6: Types of radiation
During radioactive decay, three types of radiation can be emitted:

1. Alpha α (helium nucleus)

2. Beta β (electron)

3. Gamma γ (EM wave).

4 0 0
Alpha: 2
α Beta: −1
β Gamma: 0
γ
A helium nucleus (2 A high energy
What it’s made of A fast moving electron
protons and 2 neutrons) electro-magnetic wave.
Charge +2 -1 0
Atomic mass 4 0 0
Stopped by a few mm of
Stopped by paper or a Stopped by thick lead or
Penetrating power aluminium or one metre
few cm of air. concrete.
of air
Ionising effect Strongly ionising. Slightly ionising. Very weakly ionising.
Effect of
Weakly deflected Strongly deflected Not deflected
electro-magnetic field.

Radiation can remove an electron from an atom, turning it into an ion. This is known as ionisation.

Because alpha particles are the most massive, they are most likely to ionise an atom (the most ionising). However, in
doing so they give up their energy and are not able to travel very far. They are the least penetrating.

Beta particles are slightly ionising and slightly penetrating because they have a size in between that of alpha and
gamma particles.

Gamma particles are EM waves so they are the most penetrating but only weakly ionising.

19
Practice questions:
1- What are the three types of radiation?
2- What are alpha particles made of?
3- What are beta particles made of?
4- What is gamma radiation made of?
5- What is ionisation?
6- Why is radiation dangerous?
7- What do we use to detect radiation?
8- Complete the following sentences. Use the words in the box.

Ionising radiation is emitted from ___________ nuclei. The process is __________. This means you cannot predict when
the nucleus will ___________ and emit radiation. This radiation can cause atoms to become __________. Ionisation
occurs when an atom _________ or __________ electrons.

9- Complete the table of radioactive penetration using the diagram. For the last two columns use the words “strongly”,
“slightly” or “weakly”.

Radiation Blocked by Penetrating Ionising

Alpha

Beta

Gamma

10- Which of the three types of radiation:

a) Has the greatest mass?
b) Has the greatest charge?
c) Does not have any mass?
d) Has the same mass as an electron?
e) Is equivalent to a helium nucleus.
f) Is a type of electromagnetic radiation.
11- What are the charges of alpha, beta and gamma radiation?
12- Look at the diagram, which shows trails in a cloud chamber. The radioactive
source is emitting both alpha and beta particles.
a) Which trails are caused by alpha particles?
b) Which trails are caused by beta particles?
c) Explain how you can tell.
d) Can you predict when alpha or beta particles will be emitted? Explain
your answer?
e) What happens when the alpha particles collide with the particles in the cloud chamber?

13- When radioactive sources are stored in boxes in schools, the boxes are always lined with lead on the inside. Why is
this necessary?
14- A student said: “If I were to wear a lead suit, I would be completely protected from radiation!” Explain why this
statement is not true.

20
15- Draw a straight line to link each type of radiation in
the first list to its correct property in the second list.

Draw only three lines. (3)

16- There are many different isotopes of gold. The

isotope, gold-198, is radioactive. An atom of gold-198
decays by emitting a beta particle. Complete the
following sentences. (3)

All atoms of gold have the same number of

________________________________ and the same number of __________________________________ . The
atoms from different isotopes of gold have different numbers of ____________ . A beta particle is an
__________________________________ emitted from the __________________________________ of an atom.

17- A radioactive source can give out three types of

emission: alpha particles, beta particles or gamma
radiation.
The diagram shows the paths taken by the radiation
emitted by two sources, X and Y.
What types of radiation are emitted by

a) Source X? (1)
b) Source Y? (1)

18- The detector and counter are used in an experiment to show that a
radioactive source gives out alpha and beta radiation only.

Two different types of absorber are placed one at a time between the
detector and the source. For each absorber, a count is taken over ten
minutes and the average number of counts per second worked out. The
results are shown in the table.
Explain how these results show that alpha and beta radiation is being
given out, but gamma radiation is not being given out. (3)

19- A worker in a nuclear power station wears a special badge. The diagram on
the right shows what is inside the badge. When the film inside the badge is
developed, it will be dark in the places
where it has absorbed radiation.

Which part of the film, X, Y or Z, would

darken if the worker had received a
dose of alpha radiation? Give a reason
for your answer. (3)

21
Lesson 7: Nuclear equations
When a nucleus decays, the mass number, atomic number and charge is conserved. When
alpha/beta decay happens, the nucleus changes into another element.

Rules for equations of radioactive decay:

1- Conservation of mass
Mass numbers of reactants = Mass numbers of products
2-Conservation of charge
Atomic numbers of reactants = Atomic numbers of products

Alpha decay
During alpha decay an alpha particle is released, so the new atom will have 2 less
protons and 2 less neutrons.
Example 1: Uranium alpha decay
238 234 4
92
𝑈→ 90
𝑇ℎ + α
2
Conservation of mass: 238 = 234 + 4
Conservation of charge: 92 = 90+2

Beta decay
During beta decay a neutron is converted into a proton and an electron, so the new
atom will have the same mass but a different atomic number.
Example 2: Carbon beta decay
14 14 0
6
𝐶→ 7
𝑁 + −1
β
Conservation of mass: 14 = 14 + 0
Conservation of charge: 6 = 7-1

Gamma decay
During gamma decay, the energy for creating the gamma ray comes from an electron that changes from a
higher to a lower energy level (closer to the nucleus)

Example 3: Nickel gamma decay

60 60 0
28
𝑁𝑖 *→ 28
𝑁𝑖 + 0
γ
Conservation of mass: 60 = 60 + 0
Conservation of charge: 28 = 28+0

22
Practice questions
1- Complete the following alpha decay equations:
218 238 234
a) 88
𝑅𝑎 → 86
𝑅𝑛 + 𝐻𝑒 b) 𝑈→ 90
𝑇ℎ + 𝐻𝑒

256 252 208

c) 103
𝐿𝑟 → 101
𝑀𝑑 + 𝐻𝑒 d) 84
𝑃𝑜 → 𝑃𝑏 + 𝐻𝑒

2- Complete the following beta decay equations:

234 234 0 131 0
a) 90
𝑇ℎ → 𝑃𝑎 + −1
𝑒 b) 53
𝐼→ 54
𝑋𝑒 + −1
𝑒

6 0 24
c) 2
𝐻𝑒 → 𝐿𝑖 + −1
𝑒 d) 𝑁𝑎 → 𝑀𝑔 +
12
𝑒

3- Which particle is released in each of the following nuclear decays?

233 229 131 131
a) 92
𝑈→ 90
𝑇ℎ + b) 53
𝐼→ 54
𝑋𝑒 +

125 125 60 60
c) 53
𝐼 *→ 53
𝐼 + d) 27
𝐶𝑜 *→ 27
𝐶𝑜 +

149 145 14 14
e) 64
𝐺𝑑 → 62
𝑆𝑚 + f) 6
𝐶→ 7
𝑁 +

201 201 185 181

g) 79
𝐴𝑢 → 80
𝐻𝑔 + h) 79
𝐴𝑢 → 77
𝐼𝑟 +

232 228 60 60
i) 90
𝑇ℎ → 88
𝑅𝑎 + j) 27
𝐶𝑜 → 28
𝑁𝑖 + +

4- Complete the sequence of nuclear decays by filling the gaps. Above each arrow is the particle emitted in each step.

5- Polonium-210 is a radioactive isotope that decays by emitting alpha radiation.

a) Which is the correct decay equation for polonium-210? (1)

b) Complete the sentence: “Alpha radiation dangerous inside the human body because it is…” (1)

23
6- When the nucleus of a radium-225 atom decays, it changes into a nucleus of actinium-225. What type of
radiation is emitted by radium-225? Explain the reason for your answer. (3)

7- a) Uranium atoms do not always have the same number of neutrons. What are atoms of the same element
that have different numbers of neutrons called? (1)

b) By emitting an alpha particle, an atom of

uranium-235 decays into an atom of thorium. An alpha
particle, which is the same as a helium nucleus, is
4
represented by the symbol 2
𝐻𝑒. The decay can be
represented by the equation on the right. Complete the
equation by writing the correct number in each of the two boxes. (2)

8- a) An alpha particle is the same as a helium nucleus.

The symbol below represents an alpha particle.

i) The equation on the right represents the

alpha decay of bismuth-212. Complete the equation
by writing the correct number in each of the two
boxes. (2)

ii) It is impossible for the alpha decay of

bismuth-212 to produce the same element as the beta decay of bismuth-212. Explain why. (2)

9- Thorium-232 eventually decays to the stable

isotope lead-208. All the steps in this process
can be shown on a diagram.

a) Which particle is emitted during the

decay: (2)
i) From A to B.
ii) From B to C.
iii) From E to F.
iv) From I to J.

b) The table shows how long it takes

for half of the atoms of each isotope
to decay. A rock sample contains:

● many atoms of thorium-232

● even more atoms of lead-208
● hardly any atoms of any of the other isotopes shown on the
diagram

Explain this as fully as you can. (3)

24
Lesson 8 : Uses of radiation
Medicine
Nuclear radiation is used in medicine for:

• Exploration of internal organs.

• Control or destruction of unwanted tissue (eg. cancer).

Radiotherapy involves carefully targeting gamma rays at a tumour. Separate

gamma rays are used in different directions to reduce the intensity on healthy
tissue (and therefore avoiding damage to healthy tissue). The rays combine on
the tumour so that the intensity is higher and the tumour is destroyed.

Gamma sources can also be used as a medical tracer.

The radioactive source should pass out of the kidney’s into the blood. If it does
not then there’s a problem with the kidney.

We want medical tracers to have a short half life so that the amount of
radiation exposure to the patient is limited.

Pipe leak detection

Gamma radiation can also be used for leak detection in pipes. The radioactive isotope is injected into the pipe.
Then the outside of the pipe is checked with a Geiger-Muller
detector, to find areas of high radioactivity. These are the points
where the pipe is leaking. This is useful for underground pipes that
are hard to get near.

The isotope must have a short half life so the material does not
become a long term problem.

The radioactive isotope must be a gamma emitter so that it can be detected through the metal and the earth
where the pipe leaks. Alpha and beta rays would be blocked by the metal and the earth.

Thickness control
One application of radioactivity is in a paper/cardboard mill. A radioactive beta source is on one side of the material and
a detector on the other.

If too much radioactivity is getting through, then the

material is too thin and the rollers open up a bit to
make the material thicker. If not enough radioactivity is
detected then the rollers compress to make the
material thinner.

This method is used in the manufacture of lots of sheet

materials: plastics, paper, sheet steel.

25
Practice questions
1- Name two uses of nuclear radiation in medicine.
2- What type of radiation is used in radiotherapy?
3- Why is it important that medical tracers have a short half life?
4- Where in the body does the person opposite have a tumour?
5- What is done to protect healthy tissue?

6- For each of the following patients, use the diagram to work out
which organ is being treated for a cancer. Using different colours for
each of the questions will help.
a) Four beams are sent between WK, UH, SF and BO.
b) Four beams are sent between TJ, QH, ND and RI.
c) Four beams are sent between UH, FR, PD and VI.
7- For each of the following patients, work out four beams to treat the
cancerous organ. Write down the four control codes you would need to
type into the machine.
a) Throat cancer.
b) Kidney cancer.
c) Ovarian cancer.

8- The table gives the properties of some radionuclides (radioactive

isotopes).

a) Which radionuclide would be best for monitoring the

thickness of aluminium foil? Explain the reason for your answer.

b) Which radionuclide would be best for acting as a tracer

inside the human body? Explain the reason for your answer.

9- The diagram shows a method of controlling the thickness of

paper produced at a paper mill. A radioactive source which emits
beta radiation is placed on one side of the paper and a radiation
detector is placed on the other.

a) How will the amount of radiation reaching the

detector change as the paper gets thicker?

b) Explain why a radioactive source which emits alpha

radiation could not be used for this application.

c) Explain why a radioactive source which emits gamma

radiation could not be used for this application.

d) Explain why a radioactive source which emits beta radiation can be used for this application.

e) Americium-241 is a radioisotope used in smoke detectors. It has a proton number of 95, and a mass
number of 241. Americium-241 has a half-life of 433 years. How long would it take the americium-241 in a smoke
detector to decrease to one eighth of its original number of radioactive atoms?

26
10- Smoke alarms contain an alpha radiation source and a
radiation detector.

The figure on the right shows part of the inside of a smoke

alarm.

a) The smoke alarm stays off while alpha

radiation reaches the detector. Why does the alarm switch
on when smoke particles enter the plastic casing? (1)

b) Why is it safe to use a source of alpha radiation

in a house? (1)

c) The smoke alarm would not work with a radiation source that emits beta or gamma radiation. Explain
why. (2)

d) The figure on the right shows how the count

rate detected from the radiation source in the smoke
alarm changes with time.
The smoke alarm switches on when the count rate falls
to 80 counts per second.
Explain why the radiation source inside the smoke
alarm should have a long half-life. (2)

e) The figure bellow shows a patient who has

been injected with a radioactive source for medical
diagnosis. Explain the ideal properties of a radioactive
source for use in medical diagnosis. (4)

11- Doctors may use nuclear radiation to treat certain types of illness.

Treating an illness with radiation may also harm a patient.

i) Complete the following sentence.

The risk from treating a patient with radiation is that the radiation may _________________________ healthy
body cells. (1)

ii) Select the correct option that

completes the sentence below. (1)

Radiation may be used to treat a patient if the risk from the treatment is _______________________________the
possible benefit of having the treatment.

27
Lesson 9: Dangers of radiation
Ionising radiation effects
Ionising radiation can directly remove electrons from atoms,
turning them into ions.

If this happens to the DNA molecule, it can cause mutations

(changes in DNA code), possibly changing healthy cells into cancerous cells, which can divide until they form a tumour.

If the damage is large enough it can also directly destroy cells.

Reducing exposure to radiation

To reduce exposure three things can be done:

1. Increasing distance from

the source.
2. Decreasing time of
exposure to the radioactive
source.
3. Shielding with the proper
material for the radiation.

Background radiation

Everyone is exposed to radiation in their everyday life.

Lifestyle can also change the amount of radiation you are exposed to.
For example the number of X-rays people do over their life is different. Also the
place you live might be more exposed to radiation
As long as the radiation levels are not too high the risks from radiation are
small. Radiation workers have a recommended limit of 100 mSv over 5 years.

Radiation detection
Radiation is detected using a Geiger-muller tube, and is measured in
sieverts (Sv).

People who work with radiation also often wear film badges. When the
film absorbs radiation it goes darker. These are checked regularly to
monitor the levels of radiation absorbed.

28
Practice questions
1- What happens to an atom when exposed to ionising radiation?

2- What can ionising radiation do to a healthy cell?

3- Everyday we are exposed to low levels of radiation. Name a:

a) Natural source of radiation

b) Man-made source of radiation

4- Complete the sentence: To reduce radiation exposure, you either need to increase _______________, reduce the
_________________ of exposure, or use ______________ from the radioactive source.

5- If you need to handle a radioactive substance, which two ways can you reduce you exposure to radiation?

6- What do workers that work with radiation use to monitor their exposure to radiation?

7- Tritium is one of the elements found in the waste material of the

nuclear power industry. The diagram below shows a worker behind a
protective screen. The container holds a mixture of different waste
materials which emit alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ) radiation.
Suggest a suitable material for the protective screen. The material
should prevent radiation from the container reaching the worker.
Explain your answer. (2)

8- The diagram shows a badge used to monitor radiation. It measures

the amount of radiation a worker has been exposed to in one month.

a) What is used in part B of the badge to detect radiation? (1)

b) What would indicate that the worker has been exposed to a

high level of radiation as opposed to a low level of radiation? (1)

c) The detector is a piece of photographic film wrapped in

paper inside part B of the badge.

Part A has “windows” as shown. Complete the sentences below.

When the badge is closed ____________ radiation and ____________
radiation can pass through the open window and affect the film.
Most of the ____________ radiation will pass through the lead
window and affect the film. (2)

d) Why is it important to monitor the amount of radiation the worker has been exposed to?(1)

e) Why is the “film badge” of little use in detecting alpha particles? (1)

f) Other detectors of radiation use a gas which is ionised by the radiation.

Explain what is meant by ionised. (1)

9- The picture on the right shows a man at work in a factory that uses radioactive
materials. The radioactive material is kept behind glass shields. The man wears gloves so
that he cannot touch the radioactive material directly. Explain, as fully as you can, why
these precautions are taken. (4)

29
10- The pie chart shows the sources of the background radiation and the
radiation doses that the average person in the UK is exposed to in one year.
Radiation dose is measured in millisieverts (mSv).

a) What is the total radiation dose that the average person in the UK
receives? (1)
b) A student looked at the pie chart and then wrote down three
statements. Which one of the following statements is a correct
conclusion from this data? Pick the correct option (1)

11- a) A physicist investigates a solid radioactive material. It emits alpha particles, beta particles and gamma
rays. The physicist does not touch the material. Explain why the alpha particles are less dangerous than the beta
particles and gamma rays. (2)

b) The substance used in the beta radiation source is radioactive.

i) Why are some atoms radioactive? (1)

ii) Explain why radiation is dangerous to humans. (2)

c) Cancer cells in a particular organ of the body can be killed by injecting a radioactive substance which is
absorbed by that organ. What other features must the radioactive substance have to make it suitable for this job?
(2)

12- A teacher used a Geiger-Muller tube and counter to measure the number of counts in 60 seconds for a
radioactive rock.

a) The counter recorded 819 counts in 60 seconds. The background radiation count rate was 0.30 counts
per second. Calculate the count rate for the rock. (3)

b) A householder is worried about the radiation emitted by the granite worktop in his kitchen. 1 kg of
granite has an activity of 1250 Bq. The kitchen worktop has a mass of 180 kg. Calculate the activity of the kitchen
worktop in Bq.(2)

c) The average total radiation dose

per year in the UK is 2.0 millisieverts. The
table on the right shows the effects of
radiation dose on the human body. The
average radiation dose from the granite
worktop is 0.003 millisieverts per day. Explain why the householder should not be concerned about his yearly
radiation dose from the granite worktop. One year is 365 days.(2)

d) Bananas are a source of background radiation. Some people think that the unit of radiation dose should
be changed from sieverts to Banana Equivalent Dose. Suggest one reason why the Banana Equivalent Dose may
help the public be more aware of radiation risks. (1)

30
Lesson 10: Contamination vs radiation
Contamination

Contamination is when radioactive atoms get onto other materials.

One example of radioactive contamination is at Chernobyl in Ukraine. In 1986, the nuclear

power plant in Chernobyl exploded. This scattered radioactive material across Chernobyl,
contaminating the whole city.

To help, the top surface (about 10-20 cm) of soil was dug up and buried underground.
However, Chernobyl is still highly radioactive and the city is abandoned to this day.

Radiation
Irradiation is when an object/person is exposed to nuclear radiation. The irradiated
object does not become radioactive.

We irradiate food with gamma rays (so it can travel through packaging) to kill
bacteria and prevent sickness. We do the same with medical equipment to prevent
infection after an operation.

Gamma rays are used to kill bacteria, mould and

insects in food. This can be done even after the food
has been packaged. It can affect the taste, but
supermarkets like it because it lengthens the shelf
life.

Gamma rays are also used to kill bacteria on medical

equipment. It is particularly useful with plastic
equipment that would be damaged by heat
sterilization.

Hazard and type of radiation

Because alpha radiation is the least penetrating, it is the least dangerous outside the body. It cannot penetrate
through the skin.

Alpha radiation, however, is extremely dangerous if it gets inside the body. It can then ionise internal organs, causing
mutations and eventually cancer. Alexander Litvinenko was poisoned in this way with polonium in 2006.

Beta radiation is slightly penetrating and therefore carries a risk up to a distance of 1 metre. As gamma radiation is the
most penetrating, it carries a danger up to long distances.

Type of radiation 4 0 0
Alpha: 2
α Beta: −1
β Gamma: 0
γ

Weakest. Stopped by paper Moderate. Stopped by mm Strongest. Stopped by thick

Penetrating power
of aluminium lead/concrete wall

Most ionising/hazardous Moderately Least ionising/hazardous

Ionising effect/Hazard
ionising/hazardous

31
Practice questions
1- What does contamination mean?

2- What does irradiation mean?

3- Which type of radiation is most dangerous inside the body?

4- Which type(s) of radiation are most dangerous outside the body?

5- What type of radiation do we use to sterilise medical equipment?

7- For each sentence associate a radiation type (alpha, beta, gamma):

a) Is the most ionising.

b) Is the least penetrating.

c) Is the most hazardous.

8- Explain your answer to Q3. Why is this type of radiation most dangerous inside the body?

9- Explain your answer to Q4. Why are these types of radiation most dangerous outside the body?

10- Why would alpha radiation not be suitable to sterilise medical equipment?

11- Which type of radiation is most hazardous if:

a) you are in contact with the radioactive source?

b) Radiation need to go through clothes.

c) at 0.5 meters of distance.

d) at 10 meters of distance.

12- a) What is alpha, beta and gamma radiation made of? (3)

b) Sam and Kris are arguing about alpha and gamma radiation. Sam says that alpha radiation is more
dangerous. Kris disagrees. He thinks that gamma radiation is more dangerous. What do you think?
Explain your answer as fully as you can. (4)

13- What would happen to workers if they are exposed to too much ionising radiation?

14- Why is Chernobyl abandoned to this day?

15- Describe the difference between contamination and irradiation.

16- The school decided to build their own nuclear power plant. But, oh no! There’s been an accident and a small
explosion spreads some radioactive Caesium isotopes across the playground. The initial half life of the Caesium is 30
years; and the initial count rate is 200 Bq. Southwark council have said that the playground will be “safe” when the count
rate reaches 25 Bq. How long will the school need to be abandoned?

17- Tinned food is often irradiated. Why is it irradiated and why would this process not work with alpha or beta
radiation?

18- Chernobyl nuclear power plant is now covered with a sarcophagus. This is the world’s largest moving structure and
the two halves were wheeled into place. Why couldn’t they build the sarcophagus close to the power plant itself?
19- After the Chernobyl disaster, the Ukrainian government dug up the top layer of soil and buried it in trenches,
covering it with a layer of sand. Why did they do this?

32
20-Food irradiation is a process that exposes food to radiation. Irradiation can be used to kill the bacteria that
cause food poisoning or to slow down the ripening of fresh fruit and vegetables. Frozen foods and food inside
packaging can also be irradiated.

a) The table gives information about five radioactive

isotopes.
Which of these radioactive isotopes would be most suitable for
irradiating food? Explain the reasons for your choice. (3)

b) Many people think that food should not be irradiated.

Consumer groups have said that they are worried about the
nutritional value and safety of eating irradiated foods.
i) Suggest one reason why some people may be
concerned about the safety of eating irradiated food. (1)
ii) Independent scientific committees in several countries,
including Sweden, Canada and the UK, have concluded that it is
safe to eat irradiated food. These scientific committees need to be
independent from government influence. Suggest why. (1)
iii) One group of scientists has compared the vitamin content of non-irradiated foods with irradiated
foods.

The table below gives the data obtained for 1 kg of cooked

chicken.
Considering only the data in the table, is it valid to conclude
that irradiated food is less nutritional than non-irradiated
food? Explain your answer. (2)
iv) In a restaurant, meals with ingredients that have
been irradiated must be clearly identified on the menu. It is
important that people eating in a restaurant are given this
information. Suggest why. (1)

c) The isotope caesium-137 decays by emitting beta radiation. Caesium-137 has a half-life of 30 years.

i) What is a beta particle, and from which part of an atom is a beta particle emitted? (1)

ii) A sample containing caesium-137 has a count rate of 600 counts per minute.

Calculate how long it would take for the count rate from the sample to fall to 75 counts per minute. Show clearly
how you work out your answer. (2)

21- The diagram shows how a conveyor belt can be used to move food past the
radioactive source.

a) How do the concrete walls reduce the radiation hazard to workers outside
the food treatment area? (1)

b) Suggest one way that the dose of radiation received by the food could be
increased other than by changing the radioactive source. (1)

c) Some people may not like the idea of eating food treated with radiation.
i) What evidence could a food scientist produce to show that food
treated with radiation is safe to eat? (1)
ii) The diagram shows the sign displayed on food treated with radiation. Why
is it important for people to know which foods have been treated with
radiation? (1)

33
Lesson 11 : Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission is the splitting of large and unstable nuclei.

Large nuclei (such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239) absorb a neutron, making them extremely unstable,
splitting into two smaller nuclei, releasing energy and 2 or 3 neutrons as they do so. The
nuclear reaction equation is the following:

larger nucleus + neutron 🡪 smaller nuclei + neutrons + energy

Example:

Uranium-235 is used in nuclear reactors to generate energy. The nuclear equations is:

235 1 92 141 1
𝑈+ 0
𝑛→ 𝐾𝑟 + 𝐵𝑎 + 3 0𝑛 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

The neutrons released during fission can find other U-235 nucleus and cause further
fission events, which will produce further neutrons, and so on and so forth, causing a chain
reaction.

In a nuclear power plant this chain reaction is kept under control by absorbing some of the
fission neutrons.

Atomic bombs fully use an uncontrolled chain reaction to release energy fast, creating an explosion.

34
Practice questions
1- Name the process shown in the diagram.
2- Name the particles labelled X.
3- Uranium-235 is used as a fuel in some nuclear reactors. Name
another substance used as a fuel in some nuclear reactors.
4- What is a chain reaction?
5- What are uncontrolled chain reactions used in?
6- What type of energy does this process produce?
7- Put the following sentences into the correct order. The first
sentence is already correct.
A. A slow-moving neutron is absorbed by an atom of Uranium-235
B. Each of the three neutrons can be absorbed by another atom of uranium-235.
C. This is known as a chain reaction.
D. This is known as nuclear fission.
E. Each of these uranium atoms undergoes fission, releasing even more neutrons.
F. The uranium-235 becomes uranium-236, an unstable isotope
G. The uranium splits into two daughter nuclei and three neutrons
8- Complete the diagram to show
how the particles X start a chain
reaction.

9- The UK needs at least 25 000 000 kW of electrical power at any time. A nuclear power station has an
electrical power output of 2 400 000 kW. Calculate how many nuclear power stations are needed to
provide 25 000 000 kW of electrical power.

10- The first commercial nuclear power station in the world was built at Calder Hall in Cumbria.

a) The fuel used at the Calder Hall power station is uranium. Natural uranium consists mainly of
two isotopes: uranium-235 and uranium-238 . The nucleus of a uranium-235 atom is
different to that of a uranium-238 atom.

i) Where is the nucleus in an atom? (1)

ii) Name the two types of particle found in the nucleus. (2)

iii) How is the nucleus of a uranium-238 atom different to the nucleus of a uranium-235
35
 atom? (2)

b) In the nuclear reactor fission of uranium atoms takes place in reactions such as the one shown
below.

The nuclear reactions are carefully controlled in the power station so that a chain reaction
takes place.

Explain, as fully as you can: (4)

i) how fission of uranium atoms takes place in a nuclear reactor;

ii) how this leads to a chain reaction;

iii) why it can be used to generate electricity.

11- Nuclear power can be used to generate electricity through

nuclear fission. Figure 1 shows the process of nuclear fission. (3)

a)Complete the sentences.

During the process of nuclear fission, a uranium

___________________ absorbs a ___________________ .

Electromagnetic radiation is released in the form of

___________________ .

12- The following nuclear equation represents the fission of uranium-235 (U-235).

a) Use the information in the equation to describe the process of nuclear fission.

b) How does nuclear fission lead to a chain reaction? You may give your answer as a labelled
diagram. (1)

c) Although nuclear fuels are relatively cheap the total cost of generating electricity using nuclear
fuels is expensive. Why? (1)

d) The table compares the energy released from 1 kg of coal

and 1 kg of uranium.

State one benefit to the environment of using a concentrated

fuel like uranium to generate electricity rather than using the energy
from coal. (1)

36
Lesson 12 : Nuclear power plant
A nuclear reactor uses a controlled chain reaction to produce heat to produce steam for a generator.
Apart from the source of heat, it works in the same way as a coal-fired power station.

A nuclear reactor contains four key parts:

1. The fuel rods. These contain enriched uranium. This means that the uranium contains an
increased percentage of uranium-235 compared to the uranium ore from which it is extracted.
2. The control rods. These are made of cadmium or boron, to absorb neutrons. They can be lifted in
and out of the reactor to control the number of neutrons present and keep the fission happening
at a steady rate.
3. The moderator. This is made of graphite or water. It slows down fission neutrons into ones with
thermal energies, to increase the likelihood of absorption by uranium-235 nuclei.
4. Coolant. Water flows around the core, transferring heat away from the fuel, to be used to
produce steam to drive the turbine. The water can also act as the moderator in some reactors.

37
Practice questions
1- Fill in the blanks below.

_____________ reactors use rods of _____________ that are rich in ²³⁵U as

“fuel” for _____________ reactions. These fission reactions produce more
______________ which induce other nuclei to fission – this is called a
___________ _____________.

The neutrons will only cause a chain reaction if they are ___________ down,
which allows them to be captured by the uranium nuclei. Fuel rods need to
be placed in a ______________ (for example __________ or ___________)
to slow down and/or absorb neutrons. Coolant is sent around the reactor to
remove heat produced by the fission. The heat from the reactor can be used
to turn water into _____________. It then turns a _______________ which is
connected to a ____________, that produces electricity. A
____________________ is then used to change the voltage for transmission
along power lines.

The chain reaction needs to continue at a steady rate. __________ ___________ control the chain reaction by
limiting the number of neutrons in the reactor. They are made of a material that __________ neutrons (such as
boron) and can be partially inserted to control the chain reaction. The nuclear reactor is surrounded by a thick
______________ case, which acts as shielding. This prevents radiation escaping and reaching the people working in
the power station.

In an emergency, the reaction can be shut down automatically by the release of ________ ____________ into the
reactor, which slows down the reaction as quickly as possible.

2- Label the nuclear reactor diagram on the right, using the

words above it..

3- State the purpose of each of the labels in Q1.

4- Why is the reactor encased in thick concrete?

5- Why is the cooling water contained within the reactor

instead of it being allowed to cool in the cooling towers?

6- Explain the roles of the turbine and generator.

7- You drive past a nuclear power plant that looks like the
image to the right. What is coming out of the tower and entering the air? Is it
radioactive?

Congratulations! The owners of a nuclear power plant are impressed with your
knowledge of nuclear reactors and want you to be in charge of a nuclear reactor.

8- a) Uh-oh! It’s your first day and the reactor is overheating and in danger of
going into meltdown. Describe what you need to do to the control rods to slow the
chain reaction down. Explain why.

b) Success! The reaction has been slowed down but is now not generating
enough electricity for the school. What do you need to do to the control rods now?

9- All nuclear power plants have backup generators in case the plant stops
producing electricity. Why is this necessary? What exactly are the generators providing power for? What might
happen if these backup generators fail?
38
10- Nuclear power stations use the energy
released from nuclear fuels to generate
electricity.

a) Which substance do the

majority of nuclear reactors use as fuel?
Draw a ring around your answer. (1)

b) Energy is released from nuclear fuels by the process of nuclear fission. Describe what happens to the
nucleus of an atom during nuclear fission. (2)

c) Use words from the box to complete

each sentence. (3)

The energy released from the nuclear fuel is used to heat water. The water turns into ___________________ and
this is used to drive a ___________________ . This turns a ________________________ to produce electricity.

11- a) The diagram shows what can happen when the nucleus of a
uranium atom absorbs a neutron.

i) What name is given to the process shown in the

diagram? (1)

ii) Explain how this process could lead to a chain reaction.

You may wish to add further detail to the diagram to help your
answer. (2)

iii) How does the mass number of an atom change when

its nucleus absorbs a neutron? (1)

b) Uranium-235 is used as a fuel in some nuclear reactors.

The reactor contains control rods used to absorb neutrons.

Suggest what happens when the control rods are lowered into the
reactor. (2)

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Lesson 13 : Nuclear fusion

Whereas nuclear fission involves very large nuclei splitting into smaller nuclei, fusion involves
the small nuclei joining together to form larger ones.

For example:

Nuclear fusion in a star like the Sun involves

the combination of lighter isotopes of
hydrogen to form helium, and the release
of energy:

1 1 2
𝐻 +
2 2
𝐻→ 4
𝐻𝑒 + 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

Energy is released because some of the

mass is converted into energy.

Because nuclei have a positive charge, they repel, so in order for them to fuse, they need to move at a very high
velocity towards each other. This means that fusion reaction
only occurs at very high temperature: higher than 10 million
degrees.

Nuclear fusion happens naturally in stars, such as the Sun, and

is the source of the light emitted by them.

Once these reactions have begun, the energy released

maintains the temperature, and fusion continues until all the
reactants have been used.

To start a fusion reaction the fuel must be heated to a

temperature of about 150 million degrees.

This makes it into a plasma – a gas in which the electrons have been stripped from the nuclei.

If the temperature is not high enough, the particles will simply collide and rebound due to electrostatic repulsion.

Compared to nuclear fission, nuclear fusion reactions:

• Release more energy per kg of fuel.

• Make less radioactive emissions as many of the products are stable (eg He-4).

• Use ‘cleaner’ fuel: isotopes of hydrogen, which can be made from water and lithium.

So far nuclear fusion can be done in the laboratory but the energy spent in creating the conditions for fusion (high
temperature) is higher than the energy we can collect so it is not profitable like nuclear fission.

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Practice questions
1- Identify each as a fusion or fission reaction:

a) Used in nuclear power plants: ______________

b) Occurs on the Sun: _______________
c) More power per gram: _______________
d) A larger nucleus divides to make a smaller nucleus: _______________
e) Two hydrogen atoms fuse to make a helium atom: _______________
f) An atomic bomb: _______________
g) A hydrogen bomb: _______________

2- Complete each of the nuclear reactions, and circle the type of reaction it is (fission or fusion):

3- Why can’t we currently use fusion reactions in a nuclear power plant?

4- Why is it so hard to dispose of nuclear waste?

5- Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion are two processes that release energy.

a) i) Use the correct answer from the box to complete

each sentence. (2)

Nuclear fission takes place within a ____________________________ .

Nuclear fusion takes place within a _____________________________ .

ii) State one way in which the process of nuclear fusion differs from the process of nuclear fission.
(1)

6- Many countries use nuclear power stations to generate electricity. Nuclear power stations use the process of
nuclear fission to release energy.

a) i) What is nuclear fission? (1)

ii) Plutonium-239 is one substance used as a fuel in a nuclear reactor. For nuclear fission to
happen, the nucleus must absorb a particle.

What type of particle must be absorbed? (1)

b) Nuclear fusion also releases energy.

Nuclear fusion happens at very high temperatures. A high temperature is needed to overcome the
repulsion force between the nuclei.

i) Why is there a repulsion force between the nuclei of atoms? (1)

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 ii) Where does nuclear fusion happen naturally? (1)

c) In 1991, scientists produced the first controlled release of energy from an experimental nuclear fusion
reactor. This was achieved by fusing the hydrogen isotopes, deuterium and tritium.

Deuterium is naturally occurring and can easily be extracted from seawater. Tritium can be produced
from lithium. Lithium is also found in seawater.

The table gives the energy released from 1 kg of fusion fuel and from 1 kg of fission fuel.

Energy released from

Type of fuel
1 kg of fuel in joules

Fusion fuel 3.4 × 1014

Fission fuel 8.8 × 1013

i) Suggest two advantages of the fuel used in a fusion reactor compared with plutonium and the
other substances used as fuel in a fission reactor. (2)

ii) Some scientists think that by the year 2050 a nuclear fusion power station capable of generating
electricity on a large scale will have been developed.

Suggest one important consequence of developing nuclear fusion power stations to generate
electricity. (1)

d) Tritium is radioactive. After 36 years, only 10 g of tritium remains from an original sample of 80 g.
Calculate the half-life of tritium. Show clearly how you work out your answer. (2)

7- At the very high temperatures in the sun,

hydrogen is converted into helium. It takes four
hydrogen nuclei to produce one helium nucleus.

The table shows the relative masses of hydrogen

and helium nuclei.

a) Use these figures to calculate what

happens to the mass of the sun as hydrogen is converted to helium. (3)

b) Use your answer to part (a) to explain how the sun has been able to radiate huge amounts of energy for
billions of years. (2)

8- The energy radiated by a main sequence star like the Sun is released by a nuclear fusion reaction in its core.
Read the following information about this reaction then use it to answer the questions below.
● The net result of the nuclear fusion reaction is that four hydrogen nuclei produce one helium nucleus.
There is a loss of mass of 0.7%.
● For nuclear fusion to occur nuclei must collide at very high speeds.
● The energy released during the reaction can be calculated as shown:

energy released [J] = loss of mass [kg] × (speed of light [m/s²])

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(The speed of light is 3 × 10 m/s)

a) Calculate the energy released when 1g of hydrogen fuses to form helium. (Show your working.) (4)

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