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org/journal/acsodf Article

Effect of Hydrogen Blending on the Combustion Performance of a

Gasoline Direct Injection Engine
Zhen Fu, Yuhuai Li, Hong Chen, Jiakun Du, Yong Li, and Wenzhi Gao*

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ABSTRACT: To explore the effect of hydrogen blending on the combustion of a gasoline direct injection engine, a three-
dimensional model of the engine is built. The effects of some hydrogen volume fractions (HVFs) and ignition timings (ITs) on the
engine performance parameters are studied. Furthermore, the microstructure and mechanism of combustion are analyzed. The
simulation results reveal that when the gasoline engine is blended with hydrogen, the active hydroxyl radical concentration increases,
and the combustion process is accelerated. When the IT is fixed, with the HVF rising, the peak heat release rate and cylinder pressure
will increase. The ignition delay, combustion duration, and crank angle when cumulative heat release reaches 50% decrease.
Additionally, the autoignition is shifted to an earlier time as the IT advances. Under the studied conditions with the increase in the
HVF, the knock resistance is enhanced because hydrogen has a high knock resistance and octane number.

1. INTRODUCTION into a gasoline engine.16,17 Furthermore, mixing hydrogen can

Since the last century, fossil fuels have become the major source bring the engine closer to the ideal constant volume combustion,
of energy worldwide.1,2 Owing to the rapid development of the which can increase the thermal efficiency.18
world economy, the demand for energy is increasing. This has Many researchers explored the influence of the hydrogen inlet
accelerated the depletion of fossil fuels. In addition, environ- port injection on the combustion of gasoline engines. Ceviz et
mental pollution and health problems caused by the burning of al.19 reported that the fuel consumption rate decreased by
fossil fuels are becoming increasingly serious. It is estimated that approximately 12% when the hydrogen volume ratio corre-
the transportation sector consumes nearly two-thirds of the oil sponded to 5.28%. Furthermore, the indicated thermal efficiency
consumed worldwide.3,4 With the aggravation of energy crises (ITE) improved by approximately 18% and hydrocarbon (HC)
and environmental problems, researchers have started to focus emissions decreased by 13%. However, NO emissions increased
on blended fuels or alternative fuels, such as biogas,5 biodiesel,6 as the in-cylinder gas temperature increased. Baghdadi et al.20
methanol,7 ethanol,8,9 dimethyl ether,10 and reforming gas,11 to reported a decrease in CO emissions by 49% using a blend of 4%
improve the engine thermal efficiency or reduce emissions. hydrogen and 30% ethanol. Additionally, NOX emissions were
Hydrogen, as a renewable and clean resource, has drawn reduced by 39%, and the thermal efficiency and output power
extensive attention.12,13 Compared with traditional fuels, such as
gasoline and diesel, hydrogen exhibits the features of a higher
laminar flame velocity, shorter quenching distance, and higher Received: January 18, 2022
diffusion coefficient.14,15 However, hydrogen as an engine fuel Accepted: March 22, 2022
also faces problems such as safety, preignition, backfire, and Published: April 8, 2022
power reduction. It can effectively improve fuel vaporization and
mixture, speed up combustion, and decrease cold wall
quenching and cyclic variations when hydrogen is introduced
© 2022 The Authors. Published by
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Figure 1. Geometric model of the engine.

improved. D’Andrea et al.21 studied the influence of hydrogen increased. Hydrogen blending can stabilize ignition, accelerate
on engine combustion under different operating conditions. The combustion, and enhance braking thermal efficiency. Further-
results indicated a decrease in the combustion duration and more, owing to more complete fuel combustion, CO and HC
cyclic variation with a rise in hydrogen addition. Jingding et al.22 emissions decreased. However, additional NOX was produced
investigated the emission formation mechanism of a hydrogen− because of the higher combustion temperature. At an EGR rate
gasoline engine and observed that HC and CO emissions were of 18% and an excess air coefficient of 1.0, 1.2, and 1.4, NOX
significantly reduced by supplying hydrogen during the lean emissions declined significantly, with maximum reductions of
burn. Karagöz et al.23 observed the performance and emissions 82.7, 77.8, and 60%, respectively.30
of gasoline engines by varying the hydrogen energy fractions. To avoid a decrease in the volumetric efficiency of hydrogen
The results revealed an improvement in the cyclic variation, port injection, some researchers investigated the combination of
indicated mean effective pressure, ITE, indicated specific fuel gasoline port injection and hydrogen direct injection (HDI). Yu
consumption, and peak temperature with an increase in et al.31 studied the influence of HDI on a gasoline engine and
hydrogen blending fractions. However, hydrogen blending led optimized the main parameters in the experiment such as an
to an increase in NOX emissions. Elsemary et al.24 observed the excess air coefficient and load. The results revealed that
influence of different volume ratios of hydrogen blending on an hydrogen blending enhances the braking thermal efficiency
engine. The results demonstrated that hydrogen blending and improves the lean-burn performance. The combustion
accelerated the combustion rate of the mixture and increased duration was reduced by approximately 20% with the addition of
the cylinder pressure. Furthermore, engine performance tests 10% hydrogen to gasoline. Furthermore, they observed the
revealed an improvement in the ITE with the addition of effect of HDI on the particulate matter. They observed a
hydrogen. Karagöz et al.25 introduced the H2/O2 mixture into decrease in the number of nucleating particles, and more
the intake port and revealed an improvement in the braking aggregated particles were observed when the equivalence ratio
power and ITE.
corresponded to 1.1. Under the extra-lean condition, the change
Although hydrogen blending can make the combustion better
in the hydrogen fraction slightly affected the number of particles,
and the ITE higher, it can also significantly increase NOX
thereby indicating that the influence of the carbon−oxygen ratio
emissions. To resolve this problem, some researchers observed
was higher when compared to that of the equivalence ratio on
the influence of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) on hydrogen−
gasoline engines. Saravanan et al.26,27 examined the effects of the formation of particles.32 Du et al.33 observed the influence of
hydrogen injection at different flow rates on hydrogen−gasoline EGR on the combustion and emissions of a port injection
engine performance under different EGR ratios. They gasoline engine with HDI. The peak pressure of the cylinder was
determined that the ITE increases by 6% and the NOX enhanced by 9.8%, and the engine torque was increased by 11%
concentration is reduced by EGR when hydrogen is added at due to hydrogen blending. In addition, NOX emissions were
the rate of 20 L/min. When 25% EGR was used, the minimum reduced by 45.2% due to EGR when compared to those of the
concentration of NOX was 464 ppm, HC emissions decreased by original engine.
58%, and soot emissions were reduced by 52%. Kim et al.28 Based on the abovementioned analysis, hydrogen blending
studied the effects of hydrogen on the ITE and emissions of a can improve the combustion and emission performance of
turbo gasoline direct injection (GDI) engine with EGR. The engines. However, research on the flame development and the
results revealed that hydrogen mixing can increase the operable hydrogen−gasoline combustion mechanism is limited. In
EGR rate, increase the combustion rate, and reduce the cyclic addition, so far, the hydrogen−gasoline engine knock
variation. Specifically, under high EGR rate conditions, the phenomenon has rarely been reported. In this study, we aim
pressure differences between cylinders with different braking to examine the influence of hydrogen volume fraction (HVF)
average effective pressure values decreased as the hydrogen and ignition timings (ITs) on the combustion of a hydrogen−
blending ratio increased. The improved combustion and higher gasoline engine via a computational fluid dynamics method.
EGR rate, which can reduce heat loss, led to an improvement in Furthermore, the combustion and knock were analyzed in terms
the ITE. Yu et al.29 studied the influence of hydrogen blending of reaction mechanisms. Aiming to find features of the knock of
on gasoline engines under some excess air coefficient conditions. hydrogen−gasoline and its influence on the internal combustion
The results revealed an initial increase followed by a subsequent engine, it is expected that our findings can serve as a reference for
decrease in the thermal efficiency as the excess air coefficient was related research.
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2. NUMERICAL MODEL AND VALIDATION mgasoline =(V airρair − VH2ρH AFst,H 2λ)/λ AFgasoline
2 (2)
In this study, a three-dimensional (3D) model of a 1.5T GDI In eqs 1 and 2, VH2 and Vair denote the volumes (L) of
engine was established in SolidWorks. Then, the model was
transformed into an STL format file as the input file in hydrogen and air, respectively; and ρH and ρair denote the
2
simulation software CONVERGE. The engine model and densities of hydrogen and air, respectively (g/L); AFst,H2 and
parameters are presented in Figure 1 and Table 1, respectively. AFgasoline denote the air-fuel stoichiometries of hydrogen and
Also, in order to get more detailed information about mixture gasoline, respectively; and λ denotes the excess air coefficient.
autoignition, eight monitor points (P1−P8) were uniformly set 2.3. Knock Intensity Evaluation. Minor knocks can
in the combustion chamber. promote combustion and improve the ITE of the engine,
while severe knocks can worsen combustion. In this paper, the
Table 1. Parameters of the Engine knock intensity (KI) is defined as the average of the maximum
amplitude of pressure oscillations (MAPO) of the monitors36 as
parameter value
follows
bore diameter/mm 75
1
stroke/mm 84.6 KI = ∑ max(|Pi|̂ θθ00+ w )
compression ratio 9.8 N i=1∼N (3)
intake valve open (° CA BTDC) 30
exhaust valve open (° CA ATDC) 149 where Pi ̂ is the band-pass filtered pressure of the monitor i, θ0
denotes the start crank angle of the filter windows, and w denotes
2.1. Numerical Model. The flow field in the engine cylinder the width of the filter window. A larger KI means more severe
is highly complex because of fluid flow, chemical reactions, heat, knock combustion.
and mass transfer. Hence, appropriate models must be selected 2.4. Model Validation. CONVERGE includes an adaptive
to predict fluid flow and chemical reactions in the cylinder with mesh refinement function that can automatically encrypt regions
high accuracy. Several studies indicated that the SAGE based on the requirements of the calculation process and
model34,35 is appropriate for the simulation of gasoline engine regions. Hence, it ensures accuracy and speed in calculations. To
combustion with high accuracy, and thus it was selected as the enhance the calculation efficiency and satisfy accuracy require-
combustion model in this study. Other models, such as the ments, a 4 mm basic grid was used, and some regions, such as
turbulence model and the spray model, should be selected based those near the cylinder liner, piston, and intake and exhaust
on the scenarios to be examined. The models utilized in this valves, were encrypted to different degrees.
paper are listed in Table 2. To accurately simulate the operating process of the engine,
the numerical simulation results were validated via experimental
Table 2. List of Sub Models results when the engine, respectively, operated at 3000 rpm-
272.2 N m and 2500 rpm-266.9 N m. A comparison between the
model sub model experimental and simulation results for the in-cylinder pressure
turbulence model K−ε double equation model is shown in Figure 2. As shown in the figure, the simulation value
fuel fracture model RT-KH fracture model
collision mode NTC collision model
spray-wall interaction model wall film model
combustion model SAGE model

2.2. Initial Conditions. Accurate initial and boundary

conditions have an important effect on the simulation accuracy.
The initial conditions and boundary conditions of this study
were set according to the experiments and GT-power simulation
results. Some initial and boundary conditions are listed in Table
3. During the entire simulation process, the total energy of

Table 3. Boundary Conditions of the Model

parameter value Figure 2. Comparison of cylinder pressure levels obtained in the
piston temperature/K 537.5 experiments and simulations.
cylinder head temperature/K 488.5
cylinder wall temperature/K 433.0 is in good agreement with the experimental value. The maximum
intake air temperature/K 310.3 values of the experimental cylinder pressure were, respectively,
7.88 and 7.19 MPa, and the maximum values of the simulated
cylinder pressure were, respectively, 7.91 and 7.12 MPa when
gasoline and hydrogen remained constant under all the the engine operates at 3000 rpm-272.2 N m and 2500 rpm-266.9
conditions. Also, the hydrogen was introduced in the intake N m. The errors were about 0.1%. The errors are calculated by
manifold behind the turbocharger. Specifically, the HVF and eq 4. Based on the model, a simulation of the combustion of
mass of gasoline injected per cycle were, respectively, calculated different hydrogen−gasoline blending was performed. The
in eqs 1 and 2. operation conditions of the engine used in the paper are listed
in Table 4. The results of the simulation are discussed in the
αH2 = VH2 /(VH2 + Vair) (1) following sections.
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Table 4. Operation Conditions of the Engine hydrogen blending, which increases the combustion rate and
makes the heat release more concentrated. However, as the IT is
parameter value
advanced, the difference in Pmax among different HVFs gradually
speed (rpm) 2500 decreases. Under the same HVF, the HRRmax basically increases
gasoline injection time (° CA ATDC) −261
with the advance of IT. Furthermore, Pmax also increases in the
gasoline injection pressure (MPa) 15.0
same trend. It can be seen from Figure 3c that under most
hydrogen volume fraction (%) 0.0, 2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0, 10.0
working conditions, the curves of the HRR have only one peak.
ignition timing (° CA ATDC) −11.0, −7.0, −5.0, −3.0, −1.0, 1.0, 2.0
However, under the low HVFs and earlier IT working
conditions, the curves of the HRR have two peaks, as shown
Evalue −Svalue in Figure 3e, the HRR with 2.0% HVF at different ITs. It is
error = × 100%
Evalue (4) thought to be the result of autoignition combustion of the end-
gas and knock.
where Evaluedenotes the maximum pressure in the experiment 3.2. Effect of HVF and IT on the Combustion Phase.
and Svaluedenotes the maximum pressure in the simulation. The influences of the HVF and IT on the ignition delay period
and combustion duration are shown in Figure 4a,b, where the
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ignition delay period refers to the crankshaft angle from the
3.1. Influence of the HVF on Combustion. Figure 3 ignition start point to 10% fuel combustion, and the combustion
shows the maximum cylinder pressure (Pmax), heat release rate duration refers to the crankshaft angle from 10% fuel
(HRRmax), and corresponding crank angle of different HVFs combustion to 90% fuel combustion. As shown in Figure 4a,
with an intake pressure of about 2.0 bar. Also, the excess air in the case of the fixed IT, when the HVF changes from 0.0 to
coefficient of the mixture is 1.0 in all the studied conditions. As 10.0%, the ignition delay gradually decreases, especially when IT
the figure shows, the Pmax and HRRmax increase as the HVF is late. The phenomenon that the ignition delay decreases with
increases, and their phases gradually advance. This is due to the increase of the HVF can be explained from the perspective of

Figure 3. (a) Curves of Pmax, (b) corresponding crank angle of Pmax, (c) HRRmax, and (d) corresponding crank angle of HRRmax and (e) HRR with 2.0%
HVF at different ITs.

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Figure 4. Effects of the HVF and IT on (a) ignition delay and (b) combustion duration.

chemical reaction kinetics. Macromolecular HCs in gasoline fuel pressure stage, thus reducing the autoignition of end-gas and
are not easily ignited and burned in a low-temperature stage. The prolonging the combustion duration.
following correspond to several reaction equations involved in The combustion event must be properly phased relative to the
the gasoline oxidation process top-center piston position to obtain the maximum power or
torque. The CA50 is also an important index for evaluating the
RH + O2 → R• +HO2 (5) engine combustion phase. The CA50 values under different ITs
•
R +O2 → RO2 and HVFs are shown in Figure 5. At a given excess air coefficient
(6)
•
RO2 + RH → R + ROOH (7)

RO2 → R••CH 2O → R•• +CH 2O (8)

ROOH → RO + OH (9)

RCHO/CH2O + RO2 → RC•O/CHO + ROOH (10)

R• +O2 → olefin + HO2 (11)

•
RH + HO2 → R + HOOH (12)
In the abovementioned reactions, RH denotes alkanes, R, R•,
andR•• denote the alkyl radical, RO2 denotes the alkylperoxy
radical, and M denotes the third body. Figure 5. CA50 of different HVFs and ITs.
However, when the gasoline engine mixed with hydrogen,
more free radicals H produced in the low-temperature reaction
zone increased (as shown in chemical reaction eq 13), and the
chain reaction (such as eqs 14−16) promoted the formation of (1.0) and fixed IT, CA50 is progressively advanced with the rise
free radicals OH by consuming free radicals H. This speeds up of HVFs. Also, for a fixed HVF, the CA50 is also advanced with
the oxidation reaction of the hydrogen−gasoline mixture, thus the rise of IT, which indicates that the increase in the HVF and
reducing the ignition delay. advanced IT causes the duration of the flame development and
H2 + M → H + H + M (13) the propagation process to shorten. For an optimal CA50 phase,
the IT of the hydrogen−gasoline engine must be controlled to
H + O2 + M → HO2 + M (14) obtain the maximum power or torque at different HVFs.37
3.3. Effect of the HVF on Flame Propagation. To
HO2 +CH3 → OH + CH3O (15) examine the combustion process of a gasoline engine using a
H + H 2O → OH + H 2 hydrogen−gasoline blend, a 3D field analysis of the flame
(16)
propagation is conducted. In this study, the flame front was
Moreover, under the same HVF, the ignition delay first characterized via a temperature isosurface with T = 1700 K. In
decreases and then increases with the advance of IT. This is addition, the IT is 1° CA after top dead center (ATDC) for
because the ignition delay is also limited by temperature and different HVFs. Figure 6 shows the flame development and the
cylinder pressure. Therefore, when the IT is too early, the distribution in the cylinder at different crank angles under
ignition delay increases slightly, owing to the relatively lower different HVFs. In the early stages of ignition, a flame center
temperature and pressure in the cylinder. rapidly forms near the spark plug, and the flame center spreads
As for the combustion duration, it is shortened at a fixed IT gradually. Given the effect of the flow field and the distribution
with the increase of HVFs and also shortened at a fixed HVF of the unburned mixture, the shape of the flame front is irregular
with the advancement of ITs. However, when the HVF is about at different times. It should be noted that the range of flame
8.0%, the combustion duration increases when IT is early. This is propagation gradually increases when the HVF increases at the
because the knock resistance of the mixture improves with the same crank angle, which implies that an increase in the HVF
increase of hydrogen. Moreover, with the advance of IT, part of speeds up the flame propagation. The results of the flame
the fuel will be consumed in the relatively low temperature and propagation simulation revealed that the hydrogen additive can
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Figure 6. Flame propagation under different HVFs.

Figure 7. (a) ITE of the HVFs, (b) heat loss, (c) average cylinder pressure when IT is −11° CA ATDC, and (d) KI at different ITs and HVFs for
different HVFs.

accelerate combustion and the heat release, which agrees well obvious for later ITs. As the IT continues to advance, the
with the results shown in Figures 3 and 4. maximum ITE will be improved a little, and the KI will also
3.4. Influence of the HVF and IT on the ITE and Knock. increase, as shown in Figure 7d. Figure 7a shows that when it is at
Figure 7 shows the ITE, heat loss, cylinder pressure, and knock the calibrated ignition advance time of a gasoline engine, that is,
for different HVFs and ITs. As shown in Figure 7a, the ITE 2° CA ATDC, with the increase of the HVF from 0.0 to 10.0%,
difference is more evident with IT delay, thereby indicating that ITE increases from 35.1 to 40.1%. It can also be seen from the
the influence of hydrogen on combustion acceleration is more figure that a reasonable HVF will improve the maximum ITE
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Figure 8. Evolution of the temperature isosurface of 1700 K, CH2O, OH, and temperature distributions in the cylinder under different ITs (slice
position of temperature, OH, CH2O, and flame propagation is Z = −0.0241 m).

obviously and increase the KI slightly when IT is late. When the of autoignition. The simulation results reveal that the occurrence
ignition angle is earlier, the higher HVF makes the ITE decrease of autoignition is consistent with CH2O consumption and OH
due to the increasing heat loss and compression negative work as generation at ITs of −7 and −11° CA ATDC with 2.0% HVF as
shown in Figure 7b,c. shown in Figure 8, respevtively. Also, the crank angles of the
As shown in Figure 7d, when the HVF is less than 4.0% and knock onset at different ITs with 2.0% HVF are shown in Figure
the IT is earlier than −7° CA ATDC, the knock is more serious, 9. As shown in Figure 9, the crank angle of the autoignition onset
and the KI is greater than 1.0 MPa, which is considered as a
serious knock. Especially when the HVF is 2.0% and the IT is
−11.0° CA ATDC, the KI is greater than 3.0 MPa. When IT
varies from −7 to −11° CA ATDC, the KI decreases obviously
with the further increase of the HVF, especially the HVF of 8.0%.
The abovementioned phenomenon may be explained by the fact
that under a low HVF condition, the proportion of gasoline is
still high, but due to hydrogen blending, the combustion
temperature in the cylinder is higher, which makes the
autoignition of the end-gas more serious. With the further
increase of the HVF, the anti-knocking performance of the
hydrogen−gasoline mixture is improved due to the larger octane
number of hydrogen,38 so the KI decreases.
To further understand the effect of the IT on the combustion
knock of hydrogen blending, it is necessary to analyze Figure 9. Crank angle of the knock onset at different ITs with HVF of
2.0%.
intermediate products and some phenomena of autoignition
during the combustion process in detail. The CH2O, OH, flame
propagation, and temperature fields in the cylinder are shown in
Figure 8. According to chemical reaction,39,40 in the low- advances with IT advances. When the IT advances from −3 to
temperature oxidation process of alkanes, as the temperature −11° CA ATDC, the occurrence time of autoignition advances
increases, the branched chain reaction of peroxyalkyl (RO2) from 26.73 to 11.68° CA ATDC. The occurrence time of
continues to occur to form formaldehyde (CH2O), which is a autoignition is closer to the TDC, thus the cylinder pressure
typical low-temperature product. Additionally, OH is a high- fluctuation due to the autoignition is more obvious, and the KI
temperature chemical reaction product and can be used as a increases as the IT increases as shown in Figure 7d. However,
mark of ignition. With the formation of OH radicals, CH2O is the IT has little effect on the autoignition position because IT
consumed rapidly in this area, thereby indicating the occurrence cannot change the distribution of the mixture, obviously, but IT
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will affect the time it takes for the autoignition position to reach ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
the autoignition temperature and pressure. This work is supported by the GAC Research and Development
Center Program (project no. 2021GKF-0805).

■
4. CONCLUSIONS
In the paper, a 3D engine model was built, and a combustion NOMENCLATURE
simulation was conducted to examine the effect of hydrogen
GDI gasoline direct injection
blending on GDI engine combustion. The main conclusions are
HDI hydrogen direct injection
as follows:
ATDC after top dead center
(1) An increase in the HVF leads to an increase in the peak HVF hydrogen volume fraction
cylinder pressure and peak HRR. The crank angle of the IT ignition timing
peak value is closer to the TDC. When IT advances, peak HRR heat release rate
pressure and HRR increase continuously, although the ITE indicated thermal efficiency
difference between hydrogen−gasoline and gasoline CA50 crank angle when cumulative heat release reaches 50%
decreases. At lower HVFs, when IT advances, the knock IMEP indicated mean effective pressure
increases, and the maximum KI can reach more than 3.0 KI knock intensity
MPa. Pmax maximum cylinder pressure
(2) When the IT is late, an increase in the HVF from 0 to
10.0% leads to an increase from 35.1 to 40.1% of ITE at IT
is 2° CA ATDC. When the IT is too early, the greater
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