Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 201 ..

Single Phase AC Circuits

UNIT 2
SINGLE PHASE A.C. CIRCUITS
(Prerequisite: DC circuits, Electromagnetic induction )
(Keywords: Phase difference, rms value, power factor, phasors.)

2.1 Introduction
Alternating variable (ac variable) has two opposite natures in two different intervals and
the nature keeps changes repeatedly. For example, alternating current in an electric circuit has
two different directions (+ve and -ve) and the direction reverses repeatedly.
Single phase ac supply is ONE ac emf. (The word ‘phase’ merely indicates a count.)
3 phase ac supply is a group of three emfs- all of same magnitude (volts), same frequency
and same waveform, but with a phase difference of 120° with respect to each other.
In general, small ‘genset’ generates single phase ac emf where as large amount of electric
power is generated using 3 phase generator. However, as far as a domestic consumer is
concerned, only one emf out of the 3 phases is provided to her. In India, domestic electric
supply is 230 V (rms) sinusoidal ac with 50 Hertz frequency.
All over the world, use of AC electric voltage is preferred to DC voltage. Some reasons
behind this are-
1. As compared to dc generator, AC generator of same power rating has smaller size.
2. AC generators, motors are more simple, reliable and cheaper than dc generators, motors.
3. AC voltage can be easily stepped up or stepped down. Hence power loss during transmission
can be reduced.
4. AC to DC conversion is relatively easier than DC to AC conversion.

2.2 Generation of single phase a.c (Dynamically induced emf due to movement of
conductor)
AC emf is generated using the principle of Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
For this, a set of magnetic poles and a set of conductors is required. Either the poles or the
conductors are rotated. Let us study an arrangement where conductors are rotated.
Consider a magnet with two poles as shown in the figure. Between the two poles, there is
uniform magnetic flux density ‘B’. A conductor is rotated in the magnetic field with speed V
m/s. Magnetic flux ‘Ф’ linking with the conductor changes. Hence, according to Faraday’s
laws, an emf is induced in the conductor.
Note that the rate of change of magnetic flux is different at different instants, at
different positions. Hence, magnitude of induced emf (instantaneous value of emf) is different at
different positions and instants.
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 202 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

Fig.: AC generation

At positions A and C, the conductor moves parallel (or antiparallel) to the flux lines.
Hence, is zero and induced emf is zero.

At B and D, conductor moves perpendicular to the flux lines. Hence, is maximum and
induced emf is maximum. Em = BLV where L= Active length of the conductor.
At any general position, θ is the angle between the magnetic flux direction and
velocity direction. Vsinθ is the component of velocity perpendicular to the magnetic flux lines.
Perpendicular component causes change in flux linkages with conductor. Hence it is
responsible for emf induction. This emf is given by

e= =rate of change of magnetic flux linking with the conductor.

= flux linking with a conductor in 1 second
e = flux density length of conductor velocity of the conductor in a direction
perpendicular to flux,
Hence, the induced emf e = BLVsin θ = Em sin θ
The induced emf is also written as e= Em sin ωt
Here, θ = ωt. ω is electrical angular velocity of conductor. (ω depends on V) (θ depends on t
i.e. θ varies from instant to instant)

Angular frequency of conductor = radians per second

where P =Number of poles. and r = radius of circular motion
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 203 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

Hence the induced emf is a sine function i.e. it is a sinusoidal emf.

Fleming’s right hand rule gives the direction of dynamically induced emf.
By applying Fleming’s right hand rule, it is seen that –
The emf has one particular direction (say, positive) when the conductor moves from one end of
S pole (θ =0) to the other end of S pole (θ =180 deg),
and
The emf has opposite direction (i.e. negative) when the conductor moves from one end of N
pole (θ =180) to the other end of N pole (θ =360 deg).
. .

IfHence, one cycle

a conductor of emf isNOT
is initially generated when A,
at position the but
conductor passes where
at a position under two
anglepoles.
between V and
B is then the induced emf in the conductor is given by e= Em sin (ω t + )

In practice, an ac generator uses a large number of magnetic poles (N-S-N-S alternately

arranged) and a large number of conductors distributed all around circumference of a circular
structure. The set of magnetic poles is rotated keeping the conductors stationary. However,
the effect is again to induce sinusoidal ac in conductors. One cycle of emf is induced in each
conductor when magnetic flux under one pair (N-S) of magnetic poles links with it. Emf in all
conductors is sinusoidal ac, but their instantaneous values different at same instant, i.e. there
is a phase difference between them. However, when all the conductors are interconnected, the
net emf is also a sinusoidal ac emf.

2.3 Terminology of sinusoidal ac variable quantity

1. Cycle : The smallest set of all possible values of a periodic ac quantity, appearing in a
sequence that the set repeats immediately.
In the set (cycle), the first value chosen need
not be zero.

2. Period‘T’: Time required for one cycle.

Unit:sec

3. Frequency ‘f’: Number of cycles completed in

Fig.: Sinusoidal a c variable 1 sec. Unit: Hertz (Hz)
Frequency = i.e. f =
4. Amplitude or Peak value: It is the maximum value out of all instantaneous values in a cycle
without
Fig.4considering the positive or negative nature. (Measuring unit depends on the ac
: Sinusoidal variable
quantity.)
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 204 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

5. Angular frequency ‘ω’: It is the electrical angle covered by ac quantity in 1 sec. Unit:
Radians per second.
As per definition of a cycle, values of sinusoidal a.c. are repeated after 1 cycle. But, for the
trigonometric function ‘sine’, values are repeated after 2π radians. Thus, duration of 1 cycle is
equivalent to 2π radians. i.e. angle covered in 1 cycle is 2π. If in 1 second, f cycles are
completed, that means in 1 second, 2πf radians angle is covered.
Hence, Angular frequency = 2π * frequency
ω=2 π f
6. Instantaneous value: Magnitude of any ac quantity varies with time i.e. changes from instant
to instant. Whatever value the quantity has at a certain instant, is called as the instantaneous
value at that instant. (Unit depends on the ac quantity.)

2.4 General expressions for sinusoidal ac variable

(i) Reference sinusoidal (ii)Sinusoidal Variable (iii) Sinusoidal variable

ac variable leading the reference lagging the reference
Fig.: Three forms of sinusoidal ac variable.
(i) Instantaneous value of the sinusoidal voltage having 0 value at 0 second instant is
Vm sin t .
(ii) Instantaneous value of the sinusoidal current having positive value (say, Im1 sin β) at 0
second instant is Im1 sin( 1t + ) .
(iii) Instantaneous value of the sinusoidal magnetic flux having some negative value (say,
m2sin θ2) at 0 second instant is m2 sin ( 2t – 2) .

2.5 Average value of ac variable

. It is the average of all instantaneous values of an a.c. variable over one cycle.
(Exception: for a sinusoidal a.c. variable with half wave symmetry, average is defined over half
cycle beginning at zero value.)
Average value of AC current is that value of a DC current which transfers the same charge
as this AC during same time, under same conditions.
Average value of AC current is equivalent to a DC current that transfers the same charge as
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 205 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

this AC during same time, under same conditions.

If x1, x2 ….xn are the instantaneous values at n
instants t1, t2 ….tn over half cycle beginning at zero value,
then average value =

For a sinusoidal a.c. variable,

Fig. Average value for ac
Average value = 0.637 * peak value
with half wave symmetry
Importance of average value :
1. Average value is important in the analysis of rectifier circuits.
2. Charge transferred in capacitive circuits, battery charging, electroplating works is the
average charge.

Expression for average value of sinusoidal ac quantity :

Consider a sinusoidal AC current
i = Im sin ωt.
For a symmetrical waveform as sine wave,
average is found over half cycle beginning
with zero value.
Let i1, i2, i3 ...... etc be instantaneous values
at n different instants in +ve half cycle (i.e.
in interval 0 to ), as shown in the figure.

Then, average value

Fig. : Average value of sinusoidal ac
=

⁄
Multiplying and dividing by Δt, where Δt = as seen from the above figure.

Average value =

=
In the figure, the sinusoidal a.c. is assumed as a sequence of various d.c. currents: i1, i2, ….
⁄
in. Each of these dc current flows for short interval Δt, such that Δt = . In other words, the
sinusoidal shape is assumed as a sequence of rectangular strips. Here i1 Δt, i2 Δt, i3 Δt ,......in Δt
indicate area of these strips.
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 206 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

Thus, Average value =

But, n Δt =
= base of that interval

Hence, average value =

Area under the curve for i is obtained using integration,
∫ ∫
Hence, average value = or

∫ ∫
= = Im

= =

= (-coswT/2 +cos0) =

= =
= 0.637 Im = 0.637 Im

2.6 RMS value of ac variable

It is the square root of mean of squares of all instantaneous value over a cycle.
If i1,i2,….in are the instantaneous values over a cycle, then

RMS value =√

RMS value is also the effective value of a.c.

Effective value of ac current is equal to value of a direct current that produces same
heating effect as this ac current while flowing in same resistance for same period under identical
conditions.
For a sinusoidal ac, RMS value irms = 0.707 * peak value

Importance of RMS value:

1. When dc sources were replaced by ac sources, rms value of ac voltages and ac currents
were necessary to compare their performances with dc voltages and dc currents.
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 207 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

2. It is a common practice to mention rms value of ac voltages and currents in a power

system, instead of their equations.
3. Voltage and current ratings of electrical devices are given in terms of rms value.
4. All AC measuring instruments are designed to indicate rms value.

Expression for RMS value of sinusoidal variable:

Consider a dc current I flowing through R ohm for time sec.

Heat produced by this dc in sec = joule -------------------------------------------(1)

Consider ac current i=Imsin ωt flowing through R ohm for time sec. (For simplicity, is
chosen same as half cycle time of this ac.)

Fig.: (i) DC through resistance (ii) AC through resistance

The sinusoidal a.c. is assumed as a sequence of n number of d.c. currents (i1, i2, …. in) each
⁄
flowing for short interval Δt, such that Δt = , as shown in figure below.

Fig.: RMS value of sinusoidal ac

Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 208 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

Heat produced by ac in sec = i12RΔt + i22RΔt +........in2RΔt joule -----------------------(2)

If (1) = (2), then as per the definition of effective value, I is the effective value (rms value) of
this a.c.

= i12RΔt+i22RΔt+........in2RΔt

= i12Δt+i22Δt+........in2Δt

I2 =

= (i12+i22+........in2)
………
I2 =

I = √ = rms value

I =√

∫ ∫
=√ or = √

∫ ∫
=√ =√

∫
=√ =√ ∫

=√ =√

( )
=√ =√
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 209 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

Substituting sin ωT = sin 2π = 0

( )
=√ =√

=√ = = 0.707 Im
√

= i.e. 0.707 Im
√
Hence, rms value of sinusoidal ac is equal to 0.707 times its amplitude.

Form factor =

For sinusoidal ac quantity, form factor = = 1.11

Peak factor =

For sinusoidal ac quantity, peak factor = = 1.414

2.7 Phase and phase difference

(i) Phase : It is the state of a sinusoidal quantity at a certain instant. It is mentioned in terms of
angle measured with respect to a reference instant or in
terms of fraction of time period for one cycle. E.g. For
t
ac shown in the following figure, phase at highlighted
Phase at this instant is radians past the instant of beginning of
instant is π/4
positive half cycle.
Fig.: Phase

(ii) Phase difference:

Phase difference is the difference between phases of a variable at two different instants. Also,

Phase diff Phase diff.

π/2 π/3

Fig.: Phase difference

Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 210 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

it is the difference between phases of two different alternating variables (having same
frequency) at same instant.

2.8 Different representations of sinusoidal ac quantity

A sinusoidal ac variable can be represented by a sine waveform or a sine equation or a phasor.
Considering ‘magnitude’ and ‘phase at t=0’ as the two distinct features, a sinusoidal
quantity can be represented as a phasor. The phasor representation is useful for geometrical
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of sinusoidal ac and to find phase difference
between sinusoidal ac. Any phasor can be expressed in rectangular (Cartesian) form, polar form
and exponential form.
The rectangular expression is useful for quick addition and subtraction and the polar expression
is useful for quick multiplication and division and to find phase difference between two
sinusoidal ac.

Standard (Reference) AC Lagging the

AC Leading the standard
AC standard

time t
At t=0
Waveform Instanteneous value zero

Equation for
Vm sin ωt Vm1 sin (ω1 t +θ1) Vm2 sin (ω2 t – θ2)
inst. value

Rectangular Magnitude (1+ j0) Magnitude (cosθ1+jsinθ1) Magnitude(cosθ2-jsinθ2)

form (Useful
for addition, (Generally, Rms value is
subtraction) used as magnitude.)

Polar form
(Useful for
Magnitude∟0 Magnitude ∟θ1 Magnitude∟-θ2
multiplication
and division)

Phasor
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 211 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

Concept of phasor:
Position at t=0

Instanteneous
 Value of
Sinusoidal ac

Any repetitive quantity with a periodicity of 2 can be represented by a phasor (phase

vector). Trignometric function ‘sine’ has a periodicity of 2. In a right angled triangle, if
hypotenuse = the peak value of sinusoidal ac,
then the vertical side = hypotenuse * sin  = instantaneous value of sinusoidal ac.
As t changes,  changes and location of the hypotenuse changes. The hypotenuse at t=0 is
called as the phasor for the sinusoidal ac.

2.9 Addition of two sinusoidal variables

Example: Add i1= 3 sin 314.14t and i2=4 sin(314.14t+

or Add i1= 2.121 A (rms) and i2=2.828 A (rms). i2 leads i1 by

(i) Addition using phasors or cosine rule addition:

The phasors i1 and i2 for are shown in following figure as OA and AB.
To find i1 + i2, these phasors are added using concatenation method (polygon method).

Rms value=4*0.707
=2.828
B
O A B
i1 i2
i2
Rms value=3*0.707 θ  =/4
=2.121  =/4
A O i1 A

Fig. : Phasors and their addition

From geometry of the resulting polygon OAB,

Rms value of i1+i2: ‘OB’ =√

=√

= 4.58 A
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 212 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

Hence, Peak value of i1+i2= 4.58/0.707= 6.47A

The resultant leads the standard ac (In this case i1) by θ.

θ = tan-1 ( ) = tan-1 ( )
= 25.88 °
In terms of sine equation, i1+i2 = 6.47 sin(314.14t+25.88°)
(Special case: When phase difference between i1 and i2 is , then OAB is a right angled
triangle. Then, the cosine rule expression takes the form of Pythagoras expression. )
(ii)Addition using complex form:
Given: i1= 2.121A (rms) with 0 value at t=0 and i2= 2.828A(rms) leading i1 by
In the complex form, i1= 2.121+j0 and , i2= 2.828 (cos + j sin ) =2+ j2
i1 + i2= (2.121 + 2) +j(0+2 ) =4.121 +j2
Converting to polar form,
Thus the resultant i1 + i2= 4.58 A (rms) and it leads the standard ac (here, i1) by 25.88 °
(Note: Most scientific calculators have a readymade feature of converting complex form to
polar form and vice versa. )
2.10 AC circuits
When sinusoidal ac emf is applied to any electric device or a component or load,
sinusoidal current flows.
Properties of electric components in ac circuit:
Components in the ac circuits show any one or more of three properties viz. resistance,
inductance, capacitance.
1. Resistance (R): It is the property of a component to oppose electric current in it. This is
due to physical obstruction to flowing charges when they collide on lattice in the conductor.

Fig.: Resistance
Ohm’s law gives the relation between voltage applied to resistor and current through it.
v = iR
Instantaneous voltage = instantaneous current * resistance
Here, opposition to the current is R. (Unit of resistance : ohm).
Every conductor (in any shape) possesses the property of resistance. But, if its length is
more and cross sectional area is small, then the resistance is large. (Note: R = )
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 213 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

If sinusoidal voltage v = Vm sin(ωt + θ) is applied to a resistance R, then current in the

resistance is i = sin(ωt + θ)
Voltage across resistance and current are in phase.
Resistance draws a power = (Vrms Irms) watt and converts it into heat.
2. Inductance (L): This is the property of a component to oppose a CHANGING current in
it. This property is due to the fact that if there is change in the current through a conductor, an
emf of opposing nature is induced in the conductor). (Induced emf opposes the change in the
current.) The effect is stronger in a coil (also called as inductor.)

Fig.: Inductance
Relation between voltage applied to an inductor and current through it (i.e. voltage-current
relation for inductance) is, v =L
Instantaneous voltage = Rate of change of current at that instant * self inductance
Here, opposition to a sinusoidal current of frequency f is ωL or 2πfL (unit: ohm).
If sinusoidal voltage v = Vm sin(ωt + θ) is applied to a inductance L, then current in the
inductance is i = sin (ωt+ θ - )
Voltage across inductance leads the current by 90°.
Inductance does not draw (active) power.
Every conductor (in any shape) possesses the property of inductance. But if the conductor is in
the form of a coil wound on magnetic core then the inductance is large.

(Note: L= where, n = turns of the coil and S = reluctance of core.)

Unit of inductance : Henry.
3. Capacitance (C): It is the property of a component by which electric charges of opposite
nature are moved to two different locations in this component and stored there. Amount of the
stored charge depends on the applied voltage. (If the applied voltage is DC, then after the
charge is stored, there is no movement of charges i.e. no current flows in this component. But,
if the applied voltage is changing i.e. AC, then the process of charge storage is continuous i.e.
current flows continuously in this component.

Fig.: Capacitance
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 214 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

Relation between voltage applied to a capacitor and current through it (i.e. voltage-current
relation for capacitance) is
∫
Charge q = C v or =C or v=

Opposition to sinusoidal current of frequency f is or in ohm.

If sinusoidal voltage v = Vm sin(ωt + θ) is applied to a capacitance L, then current in the

capacitance is i = (Vm ωC) sin (ωt+ θ + )
Voltage across capacitance lags the current by 90°.
Capacitance does not draw (active) power.
Any structure with ‘two conductors separated by a dielectric material’ possesses the
property of capacitance. For parallel plate capacitor, C= where = permittivity of the
dielectric material, A= surface area of the plate, d= separation between the plates
Unit of capacitance : Farad.

2.11 Alternating current through resistance

Voltage current relation:

Let current in the circuit be i=Im sin ωt
Then voltage across the resistance is -
v = Ri
= R Im sin ωt
= Vm sin ωt where, Vm = Im R

Comparing current and voltage equations, it is seen that

they have same frequency and they are in phase.
Amplitude of voltage = Amplitude of current*Resistance.
Multiplying both sides by 0.707,
Fig. : AC through
Resistance RMS value of voltage = RMS current Resistance
.
Power drawn by a resistance:
Instantaneous power p = vi
= Vm sin(ωt) Im sin(ωt)
= VmIm sin2(ωt)
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 215 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

= VmIm

(Note : T = is the Time period for 1 cycle of both - voltage and current. )
Average power drawn over one cycle duration of voltage or current
= ∫
-( )
= ∫

= (∫ -∫ )

= ( [t] )
-
= ( - - )

= =
√ √
= Vrms Irms. (Unit: Watt)
Note: Average power drawn is generally called as power drawn or power consumed or useful
power or active power.
Power factor for resistance = cos(Angle of phase difference between voltage and current)
= cos 00 = 1

Fig. : Waveforms for voltage, current and instantaneous power drawn by a resistance.

2.12 Alternating current through Inductance

Voltage current relation

Let instantaneous current in the circuit be i=Im sin ωt
Then instantaneous voltage across the inductance is v = L
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 216 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

v= L (Im sin ωt)

= L Im (sin ωt)
= Im ωL cos ωt
= Im ωL sin (ωt+ )

Fig. : AC through inductance = Vm sin (ωt+ ) where Vm= Im ωL

Comparing current and voltage equations, it is seen that
they have same frequency and voltage across inductance leads the current by .
Amplitude of voltage = Amplitude of current ωL
Multiplying both sides by 0.707,
RMS value of voltage =RMS value of current ωL
Here, the term ωL is called as reactance ( or inductive reactance). It is the opposition to current .
Its unit is ohm (provided ω is expressed in rad/sec. and L in Henry ).
Power drawn by inductance:
Instantaneous power p= v i
Hence, p = Vm sin(ωt + ). Im sin ωt
= VmIm cosωt sin ωt
= sin 2ωt
Average power drawn (over Time period for one cycle
of voltage or current)
= ∫
Fig. : Voltage, current, power
waveforms for inductance = ∫

= (∫ )

=
= 0
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 217 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

This is so because, power is drawn from source for some interval ( T/4 sec) and power is
returned to source in next interval of same size (T/4 sec) and so on.
Power factor for inductance = cos (Angle of phase difference between voltage and current)
= cos (π/2) = 0

2.13 AC through Capacitance

Voltage current relationship:
Let current in the circuit be I=Im sin ω t
Then voltage across the capacitor
v= ʃ idt

= ʃ (sin ω t)dt
=

=
Fig. : AC through capacitance
= Vm sin (ω t - ) where Vm=

Comparing current and voltage equations, it is seen that they have same frequency and voltage
across capacitance lags the current by .

Amplitude of voltage = Amplitude of current

(Multiplying both sides by 0.707),
RMS value of voltage =RMS value of current

Here, is the opposition. It is called as capacitive reactance.

Its unit is ohm (provided ω is expressed in rad/sec. and L in Henry ).

Power drawn by a capacitance:

Instantaneous power p = vi
= Vm sin(ωt - ). Im sin ωt
= - VmIm cosωt sin ωt
=-
Average power drawn over one cycle of voltage or current = ∫
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 218 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

= ∫

=
Fig.: Voltage, current and power
= (1-1)
for a capacitance.
=0
Power factor for capacitance = cos (Angle of phase difference between voltage and current)
= cos (- ) = 0.

2.14 Series AC circuit with resistance and inductance

Voltage current relationship :
Let current in the circuit be i=Im sin ωt
Then, instantaneous voltage across resistance VR = ImR sin ωt
Instantaneous voltage across inductance VL= ImωL sin (ωt+ )
Instantaneous value of total voltage is v = vR + vL
Hence, v = ImR sin ωt + Im ωL sin(ωt+
= Im R sinωt + Im ωL cos ωt
Multiplying and dividing by √ ,

v = Im √ ( + )
√ √

= Im √ sin (ωt + tan-1

Fig.: Series RL circuit
= Im Z sin (ωt + tan-1 )

where, Z =√ is the combined opposition to current. It is called as impedance.

Comparing v and i, we conclude that voltage across the series R L combination leads the
current through it by θ = tan-1 where 0 < θ <
Amplitude of voltage across the combination = Amplitude of the current Impedance.
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 219 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

Multiplying both sides by 0.707,

Rms value of voltage across the combination = Rms value of the current Impedance.

Fig.: Phasors in series RL circuit

Quality factor of a coil:

Any coil is a series R-L circuit. The quality factor ( Q factor) of a coil defined as the ratio
of its reactance to its resistance. Good quality coil has high Q factor.

2.15 Series AC circuit with resistance and capacitance

Voltage current relationship:
Let current in the circuit be i=Im sin ω t
Then, instantaneous voltage across resistance is vR = ImR sin ωt

Instantaneous voltage across inductance is vC = sin(ωt - )

Instantaneous value of total voltage is v = vR + vC

Hence, v = ImR sin ωt - sin (ωt - )

Multiplying and dividing by √ ,

v = Im √ ( -
√

Fig.: Series R-C Circuit )

√

= Im √ sin(ωt - tan -1 )

= Im √ sin (ωt - tan-1 )

Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 220 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

= Im Z sin(ωt - tan-1 )

where, z =√ is the net opposition to current in this circuit. It is called as

impedance.
Comparing v and i, we conclude that voltage across the series R L combination leads its
current by θ = tan-1 where 0 < θ <

Phasor diagram Voltage triangle Impedance triangle

VR I VR R
θ θ θ

1/ωC
VC V V VC

Fig. : Phasors in series RC circuit

Amplitude of voltage across the combination = Amplitude of the current Impedance.
Multiplying both sides by 0.707,
Rms value of voltage across the combination = rms value of the current Impedance.
Summary of properties of ac circuits:
Elements in the Impedance Phase difference of Power factor
branch i with respect to v
Resistance R 0o 1
0 0
Inductance XL=2 fL i.e. -90 i.e. 90 lagging i.e. i lags 0 lagging
v by 900
Capacitance 900 i.e. 900 leading i.e. i leads 0 leading
XC = i.e.
v by 900
Series R L √ i lags v by φ 1 > pf > 0
where 0< φ < 90 0 lagging
Series R C i leads v by φ 1 > pf >0
√ ( ) where 0< φ <90 0 leading

Series R L C -900< φ <900 0 lagging to

√ ( ) 0 leading
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 221 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

In general, in an ac circuit, voltage may have some phase difference with respect to
current. Let this phase difference be denoted by θ. Then the set of equations for current and
voltage may be written as,
Im sin (ωt + φ) and Vm sin(ωt + φ + θ )
θ is positive if voltage leads the current and θ is negative if voltage leads the current .

2.16 Power drawn by ac circuit

Consider an ac circuit with current i = Im sin ωt and voltage v = Vm sin(ωt +θ)
where, θ= for pure inductance (voltage leads current)

θ=- for pure capacitance (voltage lags current hence θ is negative.)

θ = tan-1( for a series R L branch with X=ωL (voltage leads current)

θ = - tan-1 for a series R C branch with X = (voltage lags current, θ -ve.)

Instantaneous power p = vi
= Vm sin(ωt +θ) Im sin ωt
= VmIm sinωt sin(ωt+θ)

= (cosθ – cos (2ωt+θ))

Voltage v Power components

Current I

Power p
t

--VmImcos (2wt+ )
t=0 2
t=0

Fig.: Power in ac circuit.

Instantaneous power has two components. The first component cosθ is a constant

term (dc component) and - cos(2ωt+θ) is an ac component with frequency 2ω.

Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 222 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

Average power drawn over one cycle of voltage or current = ∫

Hence, average power = ∫

= (∫ ∫ )

= (cosθ [t] 0T - [sin(2ωt+ θ)] 0T)

= (cosθ [T-0] - (sin(2ωT+θ)-sinθ))

θ
=
θ
=
√ √
= Vrms Irms cosθ
When voltage is applied to an electric device, inductance and capacitance in that ac circuit
do not draw power; some power is drawn by resistance in that ac circuit which is converted
into heat. Any additional power drawn by the device is converted into other useful form as
the output power.

2.17 Important concepts in ac circuits

1. Active and reactive components of current:
In a.c. circuit, when current and voltage across a
component have a phase difference, the phasor for current
can be resolved into two components as follows -
(i).Component along the voltage phasor ‘I cosθ’ is
called as active component or wattfull component. This
component is responsible for power consumption i.e.
active power in the circuit.
(ii) Component in quadrature with the voltage phasor
Fig. : Active and reactive ‘I sinθ’ is called as reactive component or wattless
components of current
component. This component is similar to current drawn by
reactive component such as inductance or capacitance.
2. Power in ac circuit:
(i) Average power or active power: It is the average of instantaneous power drawn by device
in the circuit in one cycle of voltage or current. This is also the product of voltage and active
component of current.
Average power = Vrms Irms cos θ
Unit of average power = watt.
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 223 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

Average power drawn is the total input power drawn by a device that it converts into other
form of power.
(ii) Reactive power : It is the product of voltage and
reactive component of the current.
Reactive power = Vrms Irms sin θ
Unit of reactive power =VAr.
Presence of reactive power in a circuit indicates
that electric power is being stored in electromagnetic
Fig.: Power triangle field or electrostatic field. These fields are required for
converting electric power into other form of power (a
form other than heat due to Joule’s effect.)
Reactive power is a measure of power factor. If reactive power is present in a circuit, then
apparent power and current demanded from the source is higher.
(iii) Apparent power: It is the product of rms voltage and rms current.
Apparent power = Vrms Irms
Unit of apparent power = VA.
3. Power factor : It is a factor by which apparent power should be multiplied in order to obtain
active power.

p.f. =

pf = cosine of phase difference between voltage and current

pf =

4. Impedance triangle: It is a right angled triangle similar to the triangle formed by voltage
R
Θ
1/ωC
ωL
Θ
R

Fig. : Impedance triangle (i)For series RL circuit (ii) For series RC circuit

phasors in a series circuit with two components. It is a right angled triangle whose adjusent side
is resistance R, opposite side is reactance X and the diagonal is impedance Z = √(R2 + X2).

Range of θ is 0< θ <90° From this triangle, cos θ = , sin θ =

Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 224 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

2.18 Solved examples based on series ac circuits

1.(Difficulty level 0) : A non inductive resistor of 5 ohm is connected in series with pure
inductance of 5mH. Find power drawn, pf, reactive power, impedance and current if applied
voltage is 200V (rms), 50Hz.
Solution:
Reactance ωL = 2 π 50 5 10-3
= 1.57 ohm
Impedance Z = √
= 5.24 ohm
Current =

=
= 38.16 A

pf =

= = 0.954 lagging
Power drawn = V I pf
= 200 38.16 0.954
= 7282.44W
Reactive power = V I sin
= VI√
= 200 38.16 √
= 2286.68 VAr
2. (Difficulty level 1) : A coil draws 16W and 2 A when connected across 230V, 50Hz. Find
parameters of the coil and its pf.
Solution:
Impedance Z =

=
= 115 ohm
Power drawn = I2R
10 = 22R
R = = 4 ohm
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 225 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

√
L =

√
= = 18.8 H
Pf =

= = 0.0348 lagging
3. (Difficulty level 2) : A coil draws 5.32 A when supply is 415V,60Hz and 6.29 A when
supply is 415V,50Hz. Find the coil parameters.
Solution:
With 60 Hz supply,
1 = 2 * π * 60
= 377 rad/s
Impedance Z1 =

=
= 78 ohm
But, Z1 = √
78 2
= R2+ω12L2
= R2+(377)2L2 -----(i)
With 50 Hz supply,
= 2 * π * 50
= 314.14 rad/s
Impedance Z2 =

=
= 65.9 ohm
But, Z2 = √
65.92 = R2+ω22L2
= R2+ (314.14)2L2 -----(ii)
Solving (i) and (ii),
R = 20 ohm, L = 0.2 H.
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 226 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

4. (Difficulty level 1) : A resistance of 20 ohm is connected in series with a capacitance of 500

micro F. AC voltage of 200V, 50 Hz is applied to the branch . Find active power, reactive
power, pf.
Solution:

Impedance Z = √

= √

= 20.98 ohm
Current =

=
= 9.53 A
Power factor =

= = 0.953 Leading
But power factor = cos
Hence, sin = √
= 0.302
Active power = V I pf
= 200 9.53 0.953
= 1816.4W
Rective power = V I sin
= 200 9.53 0.302 = 575.72 VAr

2.19 Unsolved examples based on series ac circuits

1. (Difficulty level 0) Find impedance, current, pf and power drawn by a series resistance-
inductance circuit. Given : supply voltage =200V, R=10 ohm, Reactance due to inductance is
7.5 ohm. (Ans 12.5 ohm, 16 A,0.8 lagging, 2560W)
2. (Difficulty level 1) Current drawn by a coil from 220V, 60 Hz supply is 0.55 A and power
drawn is 24.2 W. Find resistance and inductance of the coil. (Ans 80 ohm, 1.04 H)
3. (Difficulty level 1) Find value of capacitance connected to a source of 100V, 50Hz with
internal resistance 10 ohm, if current drawn is 5 A. Also find power wasted in internal
resistance.(Ans 1.84 * 10-4F, 250 W)
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 227 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

2.20 Series AC circuit with resistance, inductance and capacitance

Voltage current relationship:
Let current in the circuit be i=Im sin ω t
Then, instantaneous voltage across resistance is
vR = ImR sin ωt
Instantaneous voltage across inductance is
vL=ImωL sin(ωt + )
Instantaneous voltage across capacitance is
Fig.: Series RLC circuit
vC = sin ( t - )
Total voltage (instantaneous value) v = vR +vL+ vC

v = ImR sin ωt + Im ωL sin (ωt+ ) + sin ( t - )

Multiplying and dividing by √ ( )

-
v= Im √ ( - ) ( + )
√ - √ ( - )

( - )
v= Im √ sin (ωt + tan -1
( - )

( - )
where, angle θ = tan-1 may be +ve, -ve or zero depending on value of (ωL- ) or on the
value of (vL – vC ) as shown in phasor diagrams (i), (ii), (iii) in the following figure.
( )
v = Im Z sin(ωt + tan-1 )

where, Z = √ ( ) is the net opposition to current in this circuit i.e. impedance.

Amplitude of voltage across the combination = Amplitude of the current x Impedance.
Multiplying both sides by 0.707,
Rms value of voltage across the combination = rms value of the current Impedance.
Phasor diagrams for following three different situations are shown in the figure following.
(i) ωL > i.e. VL >VC (ii) ωL < i.e. VL < VC (iii) ωL = i.e. VL=VC
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 228 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

Fig. 28
Fig. 23: Phasors for series R-L-C Circuit

2.21 Resonance in series R, L, C circuit

In a series RLC circuit, resonance is a state of maximum current in the circuit for a certain
applied voltage, because frequency of applied voltage matches with natural frequency of the
circuit.

Natural frequency of the circuit is . It is decided by only L and C.

√
Condition for series resonance is ωL = i.e. frequency of applied voltage =
√

Fig. : Series Resonance

At resonance, the impedance Z = R as √ ( )

= √ =R
This is the minimum possible value of impedance for given R,L,C.
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 229 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

As the current is inversely proportional to impedance, current is the largest (with existing value
of R) at resonance.
At resonance, net reactance is zero, VL =VC , VR = applied voltage V.
At resonance, applied voltage is in phase with current. i.e. pf is 1.

2.22 Solved examples based on series RLC circuit

1.(Difficulty level 0) Find the current in a series R,L,C circuit with values 10 ohm,20mH,
500microF. Applied voltage is 200V, 60Hz. Find the power drawn, pf. Find the change in
inductance required to bring the circuit in resonance.
Solution:
ω = 2π60 = 377 rad/s
ωL = 3772010 -3
= 7.54 ohm

= = 5.31 ohm

Impedance Z = √ ( )

= √
= 10.24 ohm
Current drawn =

= = 19.53 A
Power drawn = I2R
= 19.53210 = 3814.21 W
Power factor =

= = 0.975 lagging.

For resonance, ωL - = 0

Presently, ωL - = 7.54 - 5.31 = 2.23 ohm

Hence ωL should be reduced by 2.23 ohm
i.e. L should be reduced by i.e. by i.e. by 5.91 mH

2. (Difficulty level 1) Current in a series R,L,C circuit is 10A when applied voltage is 150V,
50 Hz. R = 15 ohm, L = 5 mH. Find C, power drawn, pf, voltage across each component.
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 230 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

Solution:
Impedance =

=
= 15 ohm
= value of resistance in the circuit.
Hence, the circuit is operating at resonance.
At resonance, pf =

= = 1
Power drawn = VI pf
= 150101
= 1500W
At resonance, = ωL i.e. C =

= 2.02610-3F
Voltage across resistance = IR
= 1015
= 150 V (This is equal to the supply voltage)
Voltage across inductance = I ωL
= 102π50510-3 = 15.71V
Voltage across capacitance = I

= 15.71 V (This is equal to voltage across inductance)

2.23 Unsolved examples based on series RLC circuit

1.(Difficulty level 1) Find current in a series RLC circuit with R=15 ohm, L=0.2 H and C=300
microF connected across a 135 V, 50 Hz supply. Find the resonant frequency of the circuit. Find
the current drawn if supply frequency is equal to this resonant frequency.
(Ans 2.48A, 20.54 Hz, 9A)
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 231 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

2.(Difficulty level 1) Find change in inductance required to bring resonance in a series RLC
circuit. Given L=0.05 H, C = 500 F. Find resonant current if R =100 ohms. Given : Supply
voltage 230V, 50 Hz. (Ans : Inductance should be decreased by 0.023 H, 2.3 A)

2.24 Parallel AC circuits

In practice, a domestic consumer is allotted only one electric supply connection. i.e. one ac
source of 230V, 50 Hz is available to her/him. In general, in India, voltage rating of all domestic
appliances is same approx.. 230V. All electric appliances are connected in parallel because, for
parallel connection, voltage across each component is same.. Thus every consumer uses a
parallel circuit.

Properties of single phase ac parallel circuit :

1. Voltage across each branch is same.
2. Current in each branch impedance (current in each electric appliance) is independent of
other branch currents.
3. Power drawn by each branch is independent of power drawn by other branches .
4. Total instantaneous current drawn from source is the algebraic sum of instantaneous
currents drawn by individual branches.
5. Total rms current drawn from source is the phasor sum of rms currents drawn by individual
branches.
6. Total active power drawn from supply is the (arithmetic) sum of powers drawn by each
branch. (Active power is always positive)
7. Total reactive power drawn from supply is the algebraic sum of reactive powers drawn by
each branch. (Reactive power can be positive or negative. Reactive power drawn by
capacitance is negative. Reactive power drawn by inductance is positive.)
8. Total apparent power drawn from supply is the product of voltage and total rms current
drawn from the supply.
As more and more appliances are connected in parallel to a common source, total current
and total power drawn changes, but current and power drawn by pre-connected devices does
not change.

2.25 Admittance in parallel ac circuit

Admittance is defined as the acceptance offered by a component to the current flow in it.
Its unit is Siemen.
Any component in ac circuit has the properties of resistance, inductance and capacitance.
Corresponding admittances are called as conductance(G), inductive susceptance (BL) and
capacitive susceptance (Bc).
Conductance: It is the acceptance offered by a purely resistive circuit. Also, it is the real
component of complex admittance of a circuit.
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 232 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

Susceptance : It is the acceptance offered by a purely inductive or purely capacitive circuit.

Also, it is the imaginary component of complex admittance of a circuit.
In a parallel circuit, individual currents are I1 = = V * Y1,

I2 = = V * Y2
I
I1 I2 where Y1, Y2 are the admittances.
Total current I = I1 + I2 (Phasor sum)
Z1 Z2
= V * (Y1+Y2)
= V*Y
where Y = Y1+Y2 is the phasor sum of two
admittances.
Fig. : Parallel ac circuit
For an impedance Z expressed in a certain form,
corresponding admittance Y can be found as follows.
1. Admittance of series RL branch :
(i) In the rectangular form, impedance Z = R+jX where X = ωL.

Then, corresponding admittance Y=

Multiplying and dividing by complex conjugate,

Y =

= G –jB where G = and B=

(ii) In the polar form, impedance Z = lZl∟θ
Then, corresponding admittance is Y =

= ∟0-θ = ∟-θ
2. Admittance of series RC branch :
(i) In rectangular form,
impedance Z = R –jX where X=

Corresponding admittance Y =
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 233 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

Multiplying and dividing by complex conjugate,

Y = =

= G + jB where, G = and B = r
(ii) In polar form,
impedance Z = lZl∟-θ.

Corresponding admittance Y =

= ∟0-(-θ) = ∟θ

Rectangular form of admittances is useful for addition of admittances.

Polar form is useful for multiplication and division.
Concept of admittance is especially useful if we want to find only the total supply current of a
parallel circuit where as individual branch currents are not needed.
Impedance Z Admittance Y
Type of
circuit Rectangular Polar Rectangular polar
Only
resistance R+j0 R ∟0 (1/R) +j0 (1/R) ∟0

Only
inductance 0+jωL ωL ∟ 0-j ∟-

Only
capacitance 0-j ∟- 0+jωC (ωC) ∟

R and L in ωL
R+jωL √ R2 +ω2 L2 ) ∟tan-1 ∟- tan-1
series R √

R and C in 1 ∟tan-1
R+jωC √ R2 ∟- tan-1ωCR
series C2 ω2 √
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 234 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

Conversion between rectangular and polar form

R+jX √ ∟tan-1 Z∟θ Z cos θ+ j Z sin θ

R-jX √ ∟- tan-1 Z ∟- θ Zcos θ – j Zsin θ

2.26 Solved example based on parallel ac circuits

1. (Difficulty level 1) A consumer connects 115 ohms heater and another load (equivalent to
R = 100 ohm in series with L = 5 H) across a 230V, 50 Hz a.c. supply. Find the current drawn
from the source and the total power drawn and pf of
the supply current.
Solution: Treating the two branches as two
independent circuits -
Z1 = 115 ohm

I1 = = 2A
Fig. : Parallel R – (RL) circuit As Z1 is a pure resistance, I1 is in phase with V. 1=0
Z2 =√ = 636.18 ohm

2= tan-1 ( )= 80.95°

I2 =
= 0.36 A
As Z2 is an inductive branch, I2 lags V. 2 =80.95°.

Total current drawn = I1+I2 =√  

= √
= 2.07 A
The resultant lags the standard ac signal (here, i1) by .
 -
 = tan-1 ( ) = tan-1 ( )
 -
= 9.79°
Pf of total current = cos (9.79)
= 0.985 lagging
Total power drawn = V I pf
= 230 2.09 0.985 = 473.69 Watt
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 235 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

V
=9.79 i1
2=80.95
i2
I1+i2

Fig. Phasor diagram

2.27 Unsolved examples based on ac parallel circuits

1. (Difficulty level 0) Two impedances are connected in parallel across a common supply.
Current in the first impedance is 5A at 0.5 pf lagging. Current in the second impedance is 8A at
0.8 pf lagging. Find the total current and pf of total current.
2. (Difficulty level 1) A coil with resistance 10 ohm and inductance 2 mH is connected in
parallel with Another coil with resistance 20 ohm and inductance 4 mH across a 100V, 1 k Hz
ac. Find the individual currents as well as the total current.
(Ans 6.23 ∟-51.47 A ,3.11∟-51.47 A, 9.33∟-51.47)
3. (Difficulty level 2) A coil draws 5A at 0.4 pf. It is connected in parallel with a series RC
branch taking 1 A at 0.8 pf. Find the total current and its pf.

Procedure to solve the examples on parallel ac circuits

1. Find I1, θ1, I2, θ2 with respect to common supply voltage.
2. Find the total current IT using cosine rule
3. In the cosine rule use θ1+ θ2 only if one current lags and the other current leads
the applied voltage. Otherwise  = θ1- θ2
4. Find the total power P = P1+P2
5. Find the new pf = P/(VIT)

2.28 Resonance in parallel ac circuit

Parallel resonance is defined for a circuit with inductance and capacitance in different
branches connected in parallel. Parallel resonance is a situation when total current drawn by this
circuit is minimum and is in phase with applied voltage.
(i) Consider an RLC parallel circuit as shown in figure .
In this circuit, admittances Y1= + j0 Y2 = 0 - Y3 = 0 + jωC
Total admittance Y = Y1+ Y2 + Y3

= – + jωC
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 236 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

Fig : Parallel R-L-C circuit and phasor diagram at resonance

When = ωC, then the current in inductance is equal and opposite to the current in
capacitance, hence their phasor sum is zero, i.e. total reactive current is zero.
At parallel resonance, the net susceptance is zero. Hence, the admittance is minimum.
Total current drawn is minimum and is in phase with voltage. i.e. parallel resonance occurs.
Thus condition for parallel resonance is = ωC
i.e. ω LC
2
= 1 or (2πf) LC =
2
1
i.e. f =
√
(ii) In practice, inductive coil always possesses some resistance. Consider a parallel circuit
with RL branch in parallel with capacitance.

Fig. : (i) Parallel circuit with capacitor and coil (ii) phasors
Current in the RL branch lags the voltage by θ and current in the purely capacitive branch
leads the voltage by 90°. For certain value of the inductance and the capacitance, Ic=ILsinθ and
the total current becomes equal to IL cosθ and is in phase with voltage. Hence, the parallel
resonance occurs. IL = and cos θ =
√ √
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 237 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

In this circuit, admittances Y1 = and Y2 = 0+jωC

Total admittance Y= Y1+Y2 = + jωC

At resonance, for reactive component of the total current to be zero, susceptance must be zero.

+jωC = 0

= jωC

= R2 + ω2L2

(2 πf L) 2 = -R2

(2 πf) 2 = -
2.29 Importance of power factor (Advantages of high pf)
When we connect a load across a source,
power drawn by the load = source voltage  load current  pf of load

In other words, current drawn from source =

1) Current drawn by an equipment is inversely proportional to its pf. High pf circuit draws
smaller supply current. Smaller supply current flowing in the long transmission lines and the
equipment gives following advantages.
2) Advantages to the load i.e. electric device :
Less I2R loss in the load. Hence less heating of the load. This simplifies the design. Hence,
Smaller size and cost. Better efficiency.
3) Advantages to transmission and distribution system:
1.Less I2R loss in transmission line. Hence, better efficiency of the power system.
2.Less IR or IZ voltage drop in transmission line. Voltage regulation improves. Power
quality improves.
3.Thickness required and cost of transmission lines, cables, switchgears, substation
transformers etc. decreases.
4) Advantages to the generator:
1.Generator with a certain VA capacity (i.e. apparent power rating) delivers more useful
power (Watts), because-
Useful power = apparent power x pf of load
(or Watts delivered = VA delivered  pf of load)
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 238 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

Hence, economical efficiency of the generator improves.

5) Advantages to industrial consumer :
If pf of the industrial load is high, the industry is charged less for the electricity used,
because,
(i) Normally, electricity bill for industries is decided by energy consumed (kwh) as well as
apparent power (VA) drawn. For a certain amount of watts drawn, if pf is higher, then VA
drawn is smaller. Hence bill is smaller.
(ii) The industry has to pay a penalty if power factor of the industry falls below a limit.
(Typically below 0.95 lagging). The industry will get an incentive if the power factor is
better. Hence, higher power factor saves the cost of electric energy used by the industry.

Only resistive heaters and incandescent lamps have the best power factor = 1.

2.30 Reasons for low pf

1. Transformers and loads containing motors (Most of the motors are induction motors) draw
current at lagging pf. Their pf is especially poor at no load and light load. This is because at no
load and light load, their magnetization current is comparable with load current component.
2. Discharge lamps circuits have series chokes for current stabilizing. Choke is an inductive coil.
It draws lagging pf current.
3.Switching circuits like SMPS used in PCs, TVs, electronic instruments and arc furnaces, arc
welding units etc. draw discontinuous current.
Discontinuous current = fundamental frequency current + harmonic currents.
Hence fundamental frequency power drawn is only a small part of the total power drawn.
Hence the fundamental power factor is smaller in such devices.

2.31 Power factor improvement methods

Power factor improvement may be done by electrical power transmission utility or by the
consumer. But, the best place of pf correction is at a location where power factor is deproved
i.e. at the consumer end. The customer should use an equipment with high power factor. But, if
it is not possible to design or use an equipment with high power factor, then the power factor of
the total current drawn from the supply is ‘modified’ to a high value. This can be done by
following ways.
If that is not possibl supply current pf is improved by following methods.
1. Connecting a static capacitor in parallel with lagging load.(This is a widely used method)
2. Using a few number of synchronus motors along with induction motors. (Over excited
Synchronus motor draws leading pf current. It acts as a rotary capacitor.) Also, using high
pf motors like rotary converters and other commutator motors.
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 239 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

3. Using phase advancement technique for induction motor.

4. Filtering or suppressing harmonics generated by switching circuits.

Out of these four methods, the method of pf correction by connecting a capacitor in

parallel with load (improving pf of supply current) is widely used in practice.

2.32 Power factor improvement by connecting a parallel capacitor

Consider an inductive load connected to a single phase voltage source as shown in the figure.

Let Supply voltage = V, power factor of load = cos φload, Active Power drawn by load = P

Fig. : Phasors and circuit before pf improvement

Current drawn by the load = Iload =

In the above figure, Iload is also the supply current..

To improve power factor of the supply current, a capacitor C is connected in parallel with
load across the source.
A pure capacitor draws leading current Ic at 90° with respect to source voltage and it draws
no active power. Hence net power drawn from source does not change. But, total current drawn
from supply i.e. the new supply current IT changes.
IT = phasor sum of Iload + Ic .

Fig. : Phasors and circuit after pf improvement

Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 240 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

IT = √

The phase difference between Iload and Ic is = φload + 900. This is greater than 900.
Hence cos is negative. Hence, the new supply current IT is smaller than previous supply
current Iload. This is verified from the phasor diagram.
The capacitor does not draw active power. So, net power drawn from source does not change.
P=V Iload pfload = V IT pfnew
New pf = ( ) * Load pf
Thus the pf has improved. This is verified from the phasor diagram. The new supply current
lags the source voltage by a smaller phase angle φnew . Hence, the new pf of supply current
‘cos φnew’ is higher than the previous pf of supply current ‘cos φload’.

When a capacitor is connected in parallel with the load, the load current does not change,
because voltage across the load is same as before. Also, load power factor is same as before.

To improve the pf from cos φload to cos φnew the required capacitor should have following
specifications -
Reactive Power rating of capacitor or VAr rating of capacitor = P (tan φload – tan φnew)
where P = active power drawn by the load
Required Value of capacitor =
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 241 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

In practice, if the load changes with time, then the power drawn changes with time.
Hence to maintain the power factor at a typical value, required value of capacitance varies
accordingly. Hence, usually a variable capacitor bank is installed and the capacitance is
varied automatically using electronic control.

2.33 Solved examples on pf improvement

1. (Difficulty level 0) Find reactive power capacity of a capacitor used to improve pf of an

induction heating unit from 0.5 to 0.866. Power drawn by the unit is 2 kW.
Solution:
pf before improvement = cos φload = 0.5
tan φload = -1
tan(cos 0.5) = 1.73
New pf after improvement = cos φnew = 0.866
tan φnew = -1
tan(cos 0.866) = 0.577
P = power drawn = 2kW
VAr rating = P (tan φload – tan φnew)
= 2k  (1.73-0.577)
= 2.305 kVAr
2.(Difficulty level 1) A capacitor of capacity 100 kVAr is connected in parallel with an
inductive load that draws 200 kW from 440 V supply at 0.6 pf. Find new pf and total current
drawn from supply after pf improvement.
Solution:
Pf = cos φload = 0.6
tan φload = -1
tan(cos 0.6) = 1.333
VAr rating = P (tan φload – tan φnew)
100k = 200k(1.333-tan φnew)
tan φnew = 0.833
New pf = cos φnew
= cos(tan-10.833) = 0.768
After pf improvement, P = V Inew cos φnew
, new current drawn Inew =
= 591.8 A
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 242 .. Single Phase AC Circuits

2.34 Unsolved examples based on power factor improvement

1.(Difficulty level 0) Find reactive power rating of a capacitor required to improve pf of a
circuit from 0.4 to 0.9. Power delivered by a 230 V to the circuit is 400W. Also find the change
in current. (Ans 722.78 VAr, Current decreases from 4.35A to 1.93 A i.e. by 2.415A)
2.(Difficulty level 1) When a condenser with rating 2kVAr is connected in parallel with an
inductive load, current drawn from 230 V supply drops to 2 A and pf improves to 0.95. Find
the pf and supply current before connecting the capacitor(Ans : 0.2 lagging, 9.5 A)