COURSE NOTES

From course and exam questions

AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT LICENCE

BY KDMN
2020
 Table of contents

010 AIR LAW ........................................................................................................ 2

021 ELECTRICS ....................................................................................................34
021 POWERPLANT ..............................................................................................40
022 INSTRUMENTATION .....................................................................................67
031 MASS & BALANCE ......................................................................................101
032 PERFORMANCES ........................................................................................114
033 FLIGHT PLANNING & MONITORING ...........................................................130
040 HUMAN PERFORMANCE & LIMITATIONS ..................................................144
050 METEOROLOGY ..........................................................................................170
061 GENERAL NAVIGATION ..............................................................................198
062 RADIO NAVIGATION ...................................................................................209
070 OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES......................................................................232
081 PRINCIPLE OF FLIGHT .................................................................................252

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010 AIR LAW

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I/ CONVENTIONS AND AGREEMENTS
01 CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION (CHICAGO)

then Applied by ICAO (Montréal)

Paris convention Chicago convention
1919 1944

•for civilian a/c. • sovereignty: STATE 12 NM

• Types of flight:
a) Non-scheduled / charter flight.
b) Scheduled flight (regular).
c) Cabotage: domestic flight.
• Chicago convention:
a) SARPs (19 annexes).
b) PANS (4444) Procedures for Air Nav Services.
c) SUPPs (7030) Regional SUPplementary Procedures.
02 INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION ICAO

•Reviews ICAO work

ASSEMBLY
• Sets future policy
1 person/member (191)
• Budget

elects
AIR NAV Commission
(19 members by ICAO advise COUNCIL SARPs
adopts
council)
36 states, every 3 years Standards And
AIR TRANSPORT amends
Recommended Practises
Commission

… supervises

SECRETARIAT

03 SARPs
• Standard practices: deemed necessary by ICAO, if discrepancy: 60 days to act.
• Recommended practices, if impracticable: immediate notification.

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Appendixes

1 - Personal licensing Lady

2 – Rules of the Air Recruits
3 - Meteo services Might
4 – Chart Change
5 – Units of measurements Uniforms
6 – Operations of a/c On board
7 – A/c Nationality & registration 7 letters for marking
8 – Airworthiness of a/c
9 – Facilities (passengers, baggage, cargo...) 9=g
10 – Aeronautical telecom
11 – Air Traffic Services 11 - ff
12 – Search & Rescue
13 – A/c accident investigation Unlucky
14 – Aerodromes (visual gnd aids) 1-A 4-D -> 14=AD=aerodrome
15 – Aeronautical info service AIS AIS = A15
16 – Environmental protection
17 – Security SEventeen = Security
18 - Safe transport of dangerous goods Fire - > call 18
19 – Safety management

04 CONVENTIONS
a) TOKYO (1963)
• Suppression of unlawful acts committed on board a/c.
• deals against penal law.
• authority of PIC: deliver criminal to authorities, required PNC to restrain PAX, request PAX to
restrain PAX.
•Denunciation: 6 months to ICAO.

b) MONTREAL (1971)
• Suppression of unlawful acts against safety of civil aviation.
• damage on PAX & good, destruction of a/c, damage on any air nav facilities, violence on board.
• denunciation 6 months.

c) WARSAW (1929)
• Responsibility of air carrier for the carriage of PAX, baggage, cargo.
• On board the a/c or during any operations of embarking, disembarking.
• Liability extent to mail and cargo only for international mail and cargo flight.
• based on MONTREAL (1999).

d) ROME 1932-1952
• Liability towards persons/goods on the ground in case of damage or injury caused by the
operations of the a/c.
•damage caused by foreign a/c to third parties on ground.
• claim within 2 years.

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05 INTERNATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION IATA (1945, Montreal)
• Trade groups of airlines improve industry, benefits, regulate.
06 EUROPEAN AVIATION SAFETY AGENCY EASA (2002, Cologne)
• Proposes implementary rules & the NAA (National Aviation Authorities) acts as a competent authority, but
normally NAAs cannot decline new standards.
• Promotes highest common standards of safety & environmental protection in civil aviation.
07 EUROCONTROL
• Has a role into the Air Traffic Flow management in Europe.
08 AGREEMENT OF PARIS
•within Europe, non-scheduled flight can fly between ECAC states without obligation to request permission.
09 INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS

II/ ANNEX 8: AIRWORTHINESS AIRCRAFT

• 2 Sections:
a) Type Certification.
b) Continued Airworthiness.
• Required for any flight operation.
• State of Registry issues the Certificate of Airworthiness, judges in case of damages, responsible for the
renewal.
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III/ ANNEX 7: AIRCRAFT NATIONALITY & REGISTRATION MARKS

• Registration marks are assigned by ICAO by International Telecom Union.

Nationality /
common marks F- ABCD Registration marks, should be
different from:
3 – letter code (QNH...)
SOS, TTT, PAN, XXX
• Mark dimension:
a) Lighter than air: ≥ 50 cm.
b) Heavier than air: wings (left side, on lower surface) ≥ 50 cm, fuselage ≥ 30 cm.
IV/ ANNEX 9: FACILITATION
01 DEFINITION
Facilitations: measures by which free movement of a/c, crew, pax, goods not destined for the state in which
the airplane has landed in.
02 A/C ENTRY & DEPARTURE RULES
• Member state shall not require more than (max 3 copies, doc are accepted in hard-written block lettering
ink):
a) General declaration (a/c info flight nb, date of flight, nb of crew & names, signed by PIC or
authorized agent.
b) Cargo manifest (nb of package, nature of goods...).
c) Pax manifest.
d) Certificate of residual desinsectation.
03 CREW MEMBER CERTIFICATE (CMC)
• Acceptable means for identification of flight crew member.
• Attests qualification.
• CMC + via if: off duty coming from an international flight for permanent entry.
• Machine-read card only.
• Entering on duty & seeking temporary access.
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04 PASSPORTS
• All pax. • NO VISA (if PAX leaves the state within 2 days). • doc same as arriving by ship.
05 INADMISSIBLE PERSONS
• Operator is responsible, it can take the person to any country that can accept her.
• A person who is refused to admission to a State by its authorities.
• The operator shall not be precluded from recovering from such person any transportation costs arising
from his inadmissibility.
06 UNRULY PAX
• embarked prior to all pax • can land in any state for transfer.
07 UNACCOMPANIED BAGGAGE
• Under procedure, applicable to accompanied baggage.
V/ ANNEX 1: PERSONNEL LICENSING
01 FLIGHT HOURS
• Crediting of flight time:
a) 100 % if solo, dual instruction, PIC, PIC under supervision, COPI with multicrew ops.
b) 50 % if copi in single pilot ops, BUT required by state to be operated with a copy.
• Nighttime: starts when sun is 6° below the horizon.
02 PERIOD OF VALIDITY

CLASS RATING TYPE RATING INSTRUMENT RATING INSTRUCTOR RATING

SEP Single pilot Single engine Instructor
MEP (≥70h as PIC) Multi pilot Multi engine Examine
TMG
2 years 1 year 1 year 3 years

03 EUROPEAN MEDICAL REQUIREMENTS

• 3 Types: class 1, class 2, LAPL.
• The authority can remove a class 1 medical limitation.
a) The holder of a license must seek advice of med center if:
• Hospital admission of any duration
• Surgical ops or invasive procedure
• Regular use of medication/ correcting lenses

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 b) The holder of a license must inform the authority if:
• Significant injury • Any illness > 21 days
• Pregnancy
• Validity duration: from the date of medical assessment:
a) Class 1: 12 months if < 40 yo, 6 months if ≥40 yo, 12 months if > 40 yo if multicrew
b) Class 2: 60 months if <40 yo, 40 yo < 24 months < 50 yo, 12 months if ≥ 60 yo
• Requirements
a) PRIVATE PILOT PPL b) COMMERCIAL PILOT LICENCE CPL

and 5 TO + 5 LDG as PIC

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c) AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT LICENCE ATPL d) INSTRUMENT RATING

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e) INSTRUCTOR RATING

There are 5 categories or flight instructors in the European regulations:

• Flight instr (FI) • Type Rating Instr (TRI)
• Class Rating instr (CRI) •Instrument Rating Instr (IRI)
• Synthetic Flight Instr (Authorization only)

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VI/ ANNEX 12: SEARCH & RESCUE (SAR)
01 ORGANISATION
• Rescue Coordination Centre (RCC) + Rescue Subcentre + Search & Rescue region -> 24h/24h.
02 EMERGENCY PHASES
a) Alert: Apprehension exists as to safety of an a/c & occupants.
b) Distress: Reasonable certainty than an a/c & occupants are threatened by serious & imminent
danger or require immediate assistance.
c) Uncertainty: Uncertainty exists as to the safety of an a/c & occupants.
03 OPERATING PROCEDURES FOR NON-SAR CREWS
a) When a PIC observes a/c in distress:
• keep a/c in sight • Report to RCC or ATS & gives info
b) When distress transmission is intercepted by a PIC of another a/c:
• Acknowledge the distress transmission • Record position • Take a bearing on the
transmission • inform RCC
04 SIGNALS
a) Air-to-Ground Signals:

URGENCY SIGNALS (without necessity of DISTRESS SIGNALS (serious and imminent

immediate assistance) danger)
• ON-OFF LDG LIGHT • Fuses or bombs shooting red flares
• PAN PAN • MAYDAY
• radio signal XXX • Radio signal SOS
In addition to these signals:
• Distress beacon 121.5 MHz, 243 MHz
• Squawk: 7500, 7600, 7700
b) Ground-to-Air Signals:
V Request assistance

X Require medical assistance

N No/Negative

Y Yes/Affirm
Proceeding in this direction

LLL Operations completed

LL We have found all personnel

++ We have found some personnel

XXX We are not able to continue, returning to base

We have divided in two groups

NN Nothing found, will continue to search

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05 SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT CONTAINERS COLOR CODE
RED: Medical supplies & first-aid equipment
BLUE: Food & Water
YELLOW: Blankets & protective equipment
BLACK: Miscellaneous equipment (cooking equipment…)

VII/ ANNEX 13: AIRCRAFT & INCIDENT INVESTIGATION

01 DEFINITIONS
a) ACCIDENT: an occurrence associated with the operation of an a/c which takes place between the
time any person boards the a/c with the intention of flight until such time as all such persons have
disembarked, in which :
• a person has been fatally or seriously injured by:
- Being in the a/c
- Being in contact with any part of a/c or detached part
- Being exposed to engine blast
• a/c is missing or inaccessible
• the a/c undergoes damage or structural rupture
b) INCIDENT: other than accident, associated with the operation of an a/c which affects or could
affect the safety operation. Ex: PIC becomes incapacitated
c) OCCURRENCE: operational interruption, defect, fault that has or may have influenced flight safety
& that has not resulted in an accident or incident
02 INVESTIGATIONS
• To prevent future accidents or incidents
• in a contracting State, investigation is performed by the state of occurrence or state of registry if it occurs
in high seas
• Report: in the working languages of ICAO, with ICAO standards
VIII/ ANNEX 17: SECURITY
01 DEFINITIONS
a) SECURITY: dedicated to unlawful interference
b) SAFETY: deals with all unintentional acts (meteo, human errors…)
c) SECURITY RESTRICTED AREA: all commercial PAX departure areas between screening checkpoint
& a/c
d) AIRSIDE: Movement area of an airport, adjacent terrain, building, portions, access to which is
controlled

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02 A/C BEING SUBJECT TO AN ACT OF UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE
• If no regional procedure: fly FL +/-500 ft if vertical separation is 1000 ft
fly FL +/- 1000 ft if vertical separation is 2000 ft
• Try to broadcast warnings, 7500
• land & taxi in a remote place: 100 m away from other aprons
• Report to competent authority & shall inform designated local authority
03 PAX WITH JURIDICAL PROCEEDINGS
A/C operator + PIC must be informed.
IX/ RULES OF THE AIR
02 DEFINITIONS
a) MANOEUVRING AREA: Parts of the AD to be used for T/O, LDG, Taxiing, excluding apron.
b) MOVEMENT AREA: Parts of the AD to use for T/O, LDG, Taxiing, consisting of the manoeuvring
area and the apron.
02 VISUAL SIGNALS

03 AVOIDANCE OF COLLISIONS

•AT NIGHT: Nav + Strobe LIGHT.

« Port » « Starboard »
110° 110° •GROUND: Day & Night -> Strobe
when engines are running.
•PROBLEM: Switch ON-OFF LDG
lights or NAV light if no equipped

White
140°

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04 RIGHT OF WAY
An a/c which has the right of way shall maintain its heading and speed.
a) TAXIING:
LDG, TO,
Vehicle Emergency
Vehicle < < TAXIING <
towing a/c vehicle
A/C
b) IN FLIGHT:

Powered A/C towing Hang Balloon

< < Glider < < Paraglider <
a/c object glider

c) HEAD-ON:
• In flight: each a/c shall alter its heading to the right
• On ground: each a/c shall stop or one can, if practicable, alter to the right
d) CONVERGING:
A has priority providing B is on its LEFT.
e) OVERTAKING:

<70°

05 COMMUNICATION FAILURE
a) IF IN VMC, THE A/C SHALL:
• continue in VMC, land at the nearest a/d, report its arrival asap to ATCU

b) IF IN IMC, THE A/C SHALL:

1. IF NO RADAR: •Maintain Speed & Level during 20 min following the no-report.
•Adjust speed/alt according to flight plan
2. IF RADAR: • Maintain Speed & Level during 7 min following: last assigned speed/level reached
OR 7600 set OR failure to report position over compulsory reporting point.
• Adjust Speed/Alt according to the flight plan
• On arrival: start descent at expected app time (EAT), if NO EAT, as close as
possible to estimated time of arrival (ETA) on flight plan
• Normal procedure app, land within 30min after ETA or the last EAT, the latest
NB: At reporting point, give: A/C registration, position, time, FL, next position & time over.

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X/ VISUAL FLIGHT RULES
01 VISUAL METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS VMC

VFR Forbidden SPECIAL VFR Minima:

FL 290 •Visi > 1500m + ceiling > 600 ft
VFR subject to CTL • by Day
authorization
• only CTR Area
FL 200

VFR Authorized

02 VFR MINIMUM LEVEL

1000ft

600m

500ft

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XI/ INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES
01 MINIMUM LEVELS 8km
2000ft

8km

1000ft

02 CIRCULAR RULE
• According to the magnetic track

NON-RVSM RVSM
0°-179° ODD 180°-359° EVEN 0°-179° ODD 180°-359° EVEN
180 180
190 190

290 290
300
310 310

330 390
400
390 410

410 430

430 450

FL XXX: 2000 ft separation

X/ INTERCEPTION OF CIVIL A/C
• An intercepted a/c shall immediately:
➔ Follow instruction given by the intercepting a/c.
➔ Intercept/Respond to visual signals.
➔ Notify ATS unit
➔ 121.5 MHz first, or 243 MHz with intercepting a/c
➔ Mode A SSR + 7700

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 INTERCEPTING Meaning INTERCEPTED Meaning
Rocking + flashing nav You have been Rocking + flashing nav Understood, will comply
light intercepted, follow me light at irregular
intervals & following
Abrupt breakaway You may proceed Rocking Understood, will comply
Lowering LDG gear, LDG Land at this a/d Lowering LDG gear, ldg Understood, will comply
light, overfly RWY in use light, following
intercepting a/c,
proceeding to land (if
safe)
INTERCEPTED INTERCEPTING
Flashing regular all light Cannot comply Breakaway Understood
Flashing irregular all In Distress Breakaway Understood
light
Raising LDG gear, A/D you have designed Raising ldg gear, Understood, follow me
flashing light, overflying is inadequate breakaway
RWY in use
XI/ AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES
01 DEFINITIONS
a) ALERTING SERVICE: notifies appropriate organization regarding a/c in need of SAR aid & assists
such organization as required.
b) AIR TRAFFIC ADVISORY SERVICE: withing advisory airspace, ensures separation, in so far as
practical, between a/c which are operating on IFR flight plans.
c) FLIGHT INFORMATION SERVICE: gives advices & info useful for the safe & efficient conduct of
flights. Limited service
d) ATC SERVICE: prevents collisions & expedites, maintains an orderly flow of air traffic.
e) ATC UNIT: AREA + APP CONTROL + A/D CONTROL TOWER
CONTROL UNIT ACT
CENTER ACC
Arrival/Departure, CTR
En route TMA

02 TIME CHECK ON A/D & WIND CHANGE

Prior taxiing for T/O by ACT, nearest half minute, UTC.
ATC should inform pilot if he knows that a change of 10 kt headwind, 2 kt tailwind or 5 kt crosswind occurs.
03 AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION SERVICE ATIS
Automatic message under ATS responsibility, < 30 sec, updated if significate change: T°C +2°C, wind
direction> 60°, Wind speed > 10 kt, Visibility, RVR.
04 ATS ROUTES DESIGNATORS
a) ONE PREFIX: K -> Low level helicopter route
U -> Upper route
S - > Supersonic route

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 b) ONE ADDITIONAL LETTER:
Z -> RNP 1, < FL190, turn within 30°-90°, 15 NM.
Y -> RNP1, >FL200, turn within 30°-90°, 22.5 NM.
F -> only advisory service.
G -> only FIS
•MAX 5 characters (should), MAX 6 characters (shall).
• Change over points: Route segment of 60 NM or more.
•RNP: By state based on regional air nav agreements, OR by com, nav, ATS provided in the concerned
airspace.
05 ALERTING SERVICE
•For: All a/c with ATC service, all a/c with flight plan & known to ATS (if practicable), a/c known to be subject
of unlawful interference.
•PHASE OF EMERGENCY:
a) INCERFA: uncertainty phase
➔ No com within 30 min after a com reception
➔ a/c fails to arrive within 30 min of the ETA given to ATC.
➔ ATC & FIC are responsible of the plane.

b) ALERFA: alert phase

➔ a/c cleared to land & fails within 5 min of the estimated time of landing & com has not been re-
established.
➔ subject of unlawful interference
➔ apprehension exist as to the safety of an a/c

c) DETRESFA: distress phase

➔ Fuel on board is exhausted
➔ Forced landing
•Emergency frequencies: 121.5 MHz, 243 MHz (aero) or 2 182 KHz (maritime).
06 ESSENTIAL TRAFFIC
It is a controlled traffic (a/c, vehicle, person…) to which separation is enable but is not separated from other
control traffic by the appropriate separation minimum. Ex: all IFR flight in controlled airspace & controlled
VFR, Class b VFR flight.

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07 AIRSPACES

08 AREAS
State of territory indicator + P/D/R + ID figure. Ex: EH (D)- 41
09 CLASSIFICATION OF AIRSPACES

CLASS TYPE SEPARATION SERVICES SPEED RADIO SUBJECT TO

LIMITATION CLEARANCE
A IFR All ATCS 2 ways YES
B IFR All ATCS 2 ways YES
VFR All ATCS 2 ways YES
IFR IFR from IFR ATCS 2 ways YES
& IFR from
VFR
VFR VFR from IFR •ATCS for 250 kt IAS 2 ways YES
C separation bellow
from IFR 10 000ft
•VFR/VFR AMSL
traffic info

IFR IFR from IFR •ATCS 250 kt IAS 2 ways YES

• VFR bellow
traffic info 10 000ft
D AMSL

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 VFR IFR/VFR & 250 kt IAS 2 ways YES
VFR/VFR bellow
traffic info 10 000ft
AMSL
IFR IFR from IFR Traffic info 250 kt IAS 2 ways YES
about VFR bellow
10 000ft
E AMSL
VFR Traffic info 250 kt IAS NO NO
as bellow
practicable 10 000ft
AMSL
IFR IFR from IFR FIS, air 250 kt IAS 2 ways NO
as traffic bellow
practicable advisory 10 000ft
F service AMSL
VFR FIS 250 kt IAS NO NO
bellow
10 000ft
AMSL
IFR IFR from IFR FIS 250 kt IAS 2 ways NO
as bellow
practicable 10 000ft
G AMSL
VFR FIS 250 kt IAS NO NO
bellow
10 000ft
AMSL

XII/ SEPARATIONS
• Light a/c (L) ≤ 7t < Medium a/c (M) ≤ 136t < Heavy a/c (H) ≤ 136t
01 WAKE TURBULENCE
a) WITH RADAR:

IN NM FOLLOWING A/C
PRECEDING H M L
A/C H 4 5 6
M 3 3 5
L 3 3 3

b) WITHOUT RADAR:

Arriving a/c, FOLLOWING a/c in FOLLOWING

A/C opposite A/C
IN MIN direction
PRECEDING H M L
A/C H 2 2 3 IN MIN
M 3 PRECEDING H M L
A/C H 2 2
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M 2
 Departing FOLLOWING Displaced FOLLOWING
a/c, A/C threshold A/C

IN MIN IN MIN
PRECEDING H M L PRECEDING H M L
A/C H 2 or 3 2 or 3 A/C H 2 2
M 2 or 3 M 2
2 min if departure on same rwy
3 min if departure on intermediate part of same rwy

c) LATERAL SEPARATION:

15 NM
VOR OR RNAV amin = 15 °

amin NDB amin = 30°

DR amin = 45°

d) TIME SEPARATION ON LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION:

• Same track, same level

• Departing a/c

NB: a/c departing on same track: 5 min separation

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 e) DISTANCE SEPARATION ON LONG SEPARATION:
•If RNAV is used: 80 NM
•If DME is used: 20 NM or 10 NM if 20kt faster, if climbing/descending
f) RADAR SEPARATION MINIMA:
• Standard horizontal radar separation is 5 NM, may be reduced to:
➔ 3 NM when radar capabilities permit, on the same LOCALIZER.
➔ 2.5 NM between succeeding a/c on final approach within 10 NM of rwy end.

• For LOCALIZER:
➔ 5 NM: standard min. separation with a/c on the same LOC course.
➔ 3 NM: 2 a/c on same LOC + mode OR min separation on the same LOC (no STD), indep parallel
rwy.
➔ 2.5 NM: min. separation on the same LOC disregarding separation for wake turbulences.
➔ 2 NM: min. separation + mode 2 + adjacent parallel rwy.
XII/ ANNEX 15: AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION SERVICE
01 DEFINITIONS
a) AERO INFO CIRCULAR AIC: info which cannot be published in a NOTAM/ AIP, but concerning flight
safety, air nav, admin, legislative problem.
b) AERO INFO PUBLICATION AIP: state publication containing aero info for air nav of essential &
lasting nature.
c) AERO INFO REGULATION AND CONTROL AIRAC: system which aims is to notify in advance of
circumstances implying important operational change. It is published 42 days in advance of the
effective date, 56 days if major changes.
02 INTEGRATED AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION PACKAGE IAIP
Comprises AIP, AIP amendments, AIP supplements, NOTAM, PIB, AIC, checklists & summaries.
a) AIP:
• 3 parts:
➔ GEN: SAR, Location indicators, a/c instru, SIGMET, parking & landing fees, meteo, SARPs, use of
AD & Air nav services, info routes for which meteo service is provided.
➔ ENR: description of lower ATS routes, communication failure, P/D/R areas, holding/ dep/app
procedures, special light during landing.
➔ AD: description of meteo info provided at AD, rwy lightning, refuelling facilities.

• Amendment: permanent modification of AIP, updated every 28 days

• Supplement: temporary changes of a lasting nature (> 3 months) & info of long text,

b) NOTAM:
• Broadcast by AFTM
• comprises SNOWTAM & ASHTAM, validity: 24H max

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 c) AIC:
White -> Administrative Mauve/purple -> danger area charts
Yellow -> ATC Green -> maps, charts
Pink -> Safety
XIII/ DEPARTURE PROCEDURES
•From DER (Departure end of runway) to the point where route connects to the next segment and the PDG
(Procedure Design Gradient) reaches the minimum altitude/height authorized for the next phase of flight.
• It assumes that all engines are operating, based on terrain surrounding the ad. Min obstacle clearance: 0 ft at DER.
An obstacle is considered if its height is above 150m.

•The operator of the a/c is responsible for contingency procedures.

01 PROCEDURE DESIGN GRADIENT PDG

It is based on:
a) OBSTACLE IDENTIFICATION SURFACE (OIS): from 5m above DER. 2.5% or gradient determined by
the most critical obstacle.
b) ADITIONAL MARGIN: +0.8%

➔ PDG ≥ 3.3%.
02 TYPES OF PROCEDURES
a) STRAIGHT DEPARTURE:
• Initial track within 15° of RWY centreline.

b) TURNING DEPARTURE:
• comprises a turn of more than 15°.
• straight flight until 120m above DER elevation, track guidance within 10km.

c) STANDARD INSTRUMENT DEPARTURE SID:

• if obstacles do not permit omnidirectional procedure, OR/AND, traffic separation…

d) OMNIDIRECTIONAL DEPARTURE:
• No track guidance, from DER.
• Height if 12m AAL & not sooner than 600m from beginning of runway to initiate a turn for
desired track.
• At least 90m of obstacle clearance for turn ≥15°.

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XIV/ INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE
01 GENERAL PROCEDURE

02 ARRIVAL SEGMENT
• Published in STandard instrument ARival STAR, we find track, altitude…
• Protection area:

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03 ACCURACY OF FACILITIES

VOR ILS NDB Radar Terminal area RS Enroute RS

WITH TRACK +/- 5.2° +/- 2.4° +/- 6.9° surveillance TAR within 20 40NM
WITHOUT TRACK +/- 4.5° +/- 1.4° +/- 6.2° (RS) NM
+/- 0.8 NM +/- 1.7 NM

04 APPROACH CATEGORIES

CAT VAT MAX SPEED

FOR CIRCLING
A < 91 100
B 91< X < 120 135
C 121 < X < 140 180
D 141 < X < 165 205
E 166 < X < 210 240

05 INTERCEPTION OF INITIAL APP SEGMENT

a) 45°/180° PROCEDURE TURN:

b) 80°/260° PROCEDURE TURN:

c) BASE TURN:

d) RACETRACK PROCEDURE or “HIPPODROME”:

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06 HOLDING PROCEDURE
a) GENERALITIES:
• It keeps the a/c within a specified airspace while awaiting further clearance
• Right turn, with 25° bank angle or 3°/sec (the lesser), MOC = 300m
• Heading and timing adjustment, buffer area of 5NM,

• Outbound leg of 1min below 14 000 ft

• Outbound leg of 1min30 above 14 000 ft

• Speed under normal conditions: 230kt up to 14 000 ft, 240kt between 14 000 ft and 20 000 ft.
b) ENTRY:
• according to Magnetic hdg, flexibility zone of 5°

①: PARALLEL

②: OFFSET

③: DIRECT

c) EXPECTED ARRIVAL TIME EAT: it is the time ATC expects a/c will leave the holding point to start
approach.
• Given if a/c is instructed to hold 30min (or more).
•if no holding, EAT is given within 10min, revised EAT is 15min.
07 CIRCLING
a) DEFINITION: Visual manoeuvring, phase of flight after an instrument approach has been
completed. It brings the a/c into position for landing on a runway which is not suitably located for
straight-in approach.

b) SPEED: Speed adjustment of +/- 20 kt max, no adjustment within 4 NM from threshold.

c) OBSTACLE CLEARANCE HEIGHT: 120m for CAT A, then + 30m/CAT.

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XV/ ALTIMETER SETTING PROCEDURES
• Rounded down to the nearest lower HPa.
• Tolerance: +/- 20m/60ft for altimeters with a test range 0-30 000 ft.
+/- 25m/80ft for altimeters with a test range 0-50 000ft.
• Transition LEVEL: from altitude to flight level, given to a/c by ATSu (ATIS or ATC).
• Transition ALTITUDE: from flight level to altitude, not less than 3000ft, rounded up to the next full 1000ft,
if many ad, we take the highest.

XVI/ PARALLEL RUNWAYS

01 INDEPENDENT PARALLEL APPROACH MODE 1
• 3 NM radar separation shall be provided until a/c are established, with 1000 ft vertical separation. If
adjacent ILS/MLS are used, there is no radar separation minima.
• One radar controller and frequency for each runway.

Missed app tracks

diverge at least
30°

02 DEPENDENT PARALLEL APPROACH MODE 2

• 2 NM radar separation shall be provided until a/c are established

03 INDEPENDENT PARALLEL DEPARTURE MODE 3

Spacing between rwy centre line Course divergence after T/O Radar required
1525 m or more 45 ° No

For simultaneous take-off of a/c departing in the same direction:

Spacing between rwy centre line Course divergence after T/O Radar required
760 m < xx < 1525 m 15° or more Yes

27
04 SEGREAGATED USE OF RUNWAY
• One is used for departures, the other one for approach. Requirement: 30° missed approach track
divergence.
XVII/ ANNEX 14: AERODROME DESIGN & OPERATIONS
01 GENERAL
• AD reference code: 1 Number + 1 letter.

CODE NUMBER A/C reference field CODE LETTER Outer main gear Wingspan
length wheel span
1 < 800 m A < 4.5 m < 15 m
2 800 m≤ x < 1200 m B 4.5 m ≤ x < 6 m 15 m ≤ x < 24 m
3 1200 m ≤ x < 1800 m C 6m≤x<9m 24 m ≤ x < 36 m
4 1800 m ≤ x D 9 m ≤ x < 14 m 36 m ≤ x < 52 m
E 9 m ≤ x < 14 m 52 m ≤ x < 65 m
F 14 m ≤ x < 9=16 m 65 m ≤ x < 80 m
02 AERODROME DATA
a) AERODROME REFERENCE POINT ARP: designated geo location of the AD.

b) PAVEMENT STRENGHTS:
• Aircraft Classification Number CAN & Pavement PCN method for M > 5.7t.
➔ Taxi/TO/LDG allowed if ACN ≤ PCN.

• MTOM and MAX tire pressure for M ≤ 5.7t.

c) STATE OF RUNWAY:
• DAMP rwy: surface shows a change of colour due to moisture.
• WET rwy: surface is soaked but there is no standing water.
• CONTAMINATED rwy: more than 25% of rwy is covered by water/slush more than 3mm deep
OR by compacted snow.
• FLOODED rwy: extensive standing water.
• Frozen water deposit: snow, ice, slush, frost.
Friction coefficient Estimated surface friction code
0.40 and above Good 5
0.39 to 0.36 Medium to good 4
0.35 to 0.30 Medium 3
0.29 to 0.26 Medium to poor 2
0.25 and below Poor 1

28
 d) DECLARED DISTANCES:

LDA: Landing Distance Available

TODA: Take-Off Distance Available

TORA: Take-Off Run Available

ASDA: Accelerate-Stop Distance Available

SWY: Stop WaY

03 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS CWY: Clear WaY

a) RADIO-ALTIMETER OPERATING AREA:

• At least 300m long before the threshold of a precision approach runway, 120m wide.

b) RWY WIDHT IN M: c) TWY WIDHT IN M:

A B C D E F A 7.5
1 18 18 23 - - - B 10.5
2 23 23 30 - - - C 15
3 30 30 30 45 - - D 18-23
4 - - 45 45 45 60 E 23
F 25

04 VISUAL AIDS FOR NAVIGATION

a) SIGNAL AREA/PANELS

29
 C 25 ->
ATC for report Information sign
b) MARKINGS:
• Runway marking shall be white.
• Taxiway, runway turn pad, aircraft stand markings shall be yellow.
• Runway designation marking, 2-digit number, the whole number nearest one-tenth of the
magnetic North.
• Runway centre line markings: 50m < 1 strip + 1 gap < 75m.
• Threshold markings:
Runway width Number of stripes
18 m 4
23 m 6
30 m 8
45 m 12
60 m 16

• Aiming point marking:

• Touchdown zone marking:

From 150m after the threshold, 150m between each pair of marking.

LDA Nb of pairs
< 900 m 1
900 m ≤ LDA < 1200 m 2
1 pair of touchdown zone marking 1200 m ≤ LDA < 1500 m 3
1500 m ≤ LDA < 2400 m 4
30
2400 m ≤ LDA 6
 • Mandatory instruction marking: WHITE on RED background.

• Information marking: YELLOW on BLACK background (location sign) , BLACK on YELLOW

background.
• Aerodrome beacons: white flashing lights or altering green/white flashing lights for land AD,
Yellow & white flashing lights for water AD.
• Identification beacon: Flashing green for land AD, flashing yellow for water AD.

• Visual approach slope indicator systems VASIS:

➔ T-VASIS: →Precision App Path Indicator PAPI

Above

Below

31
 • RWY threshold identification lights: flashing white lights.
• RWY edge light: variable white, expect for displaced threshold -> red until the DTHR.
• STOP bars: for all rwy-holding position & when RVR<350m.
• MEHT: Minimum height at Threshold:

05 VISUAL AIDS FOR DENOTING OBSTACLES

LIGHT TYPE COLOR & SIGNAL HEIGHT H

Low-intensity type A-B (fixed) Fixed red ≤ 45m
Low-intensity type C, mobile vehicle Flashing blue/yellow
Low-intensity type D, follow-me Flashing yellow
vehicle, other than emergency one
Medium-intensity type A Flashing white 45 m ≤ H < 150 m
Medium-intensity type B Flashing red 45 m ≤ H < 150 m
Medium-intensity type C Fixed red 45 m ≤ H < 150 m
High-intensity type A-B Flashing white 150 m ≤ H

06 VISUAL AIDS FOR DENOTING RESTRICTED USE AREAS

a) CLOSED MARKING ON RWY: White X.
b) CLOSED MARKING ON TWY: Yellow X.
c) THRESHOLD MARKING:

d) NON-LOADING BEARING SURFACE: 2 solid yellow lines.

32
07 RADIOALTIMETER OPERATING AREA
• min: 300m x 60 m, usually 300m x 120m.
• rate of change < 2% per 30m.
08 AD OPERATIONAM SERVICES, EQUIPMENTS & INSTALLATIONS
• Rescue & Firefighting (RFF): 10 categories depend on longest a/c using the AD & fuselage width.
• Response time: between initial call until time when vehicle can apply 50% foam rate discharge ->
between 2min and 3 min.

33
021 ELECTRICS

34
I/ GENERAL INFORMATION
01 STATIC ELECTRICITY
a) DEFINITION: It is an imbalance of electric charges (electron…) on the surface of an electrified
body. It increases the probability of lightning strike.
b) SOLUTION:

➔ Static discharge leads, or static wicks are used to cancel this effect. They are mandatory and
enable the discharge of the plane.
➔ Bonding: to place all parts of the airplane at same potential (different of 0), it reduces radio
interference and protects against lightning.
02 ELECTRIC CURRENT
• Electric current is caused by a potential difference, creating an electromotive force due to the movement
of electrons.
• The direction of the electronic current is from the “-” to the “+“ (“the electrons are attracted by the
negative”). However, the conventional current direction is from the “+” to the “-“.
• When a conductor cuts the field lines of a magnetic field, a Lorentz force is induced in the conductor.
03 CONDUCTOR / SEMI-CONDUCTORS
• The conductivity is the degree to which a specified material conducts electricity. Semi-conductors are
conductors but depending on certain conditions.
• The conductivity is linked to the resistance R (capacity for the electrons to leave their orbit).
• For a semi-conductor: if T°C ↑ -> R ↓, the material has a Negative Temperature Coefficient NTC.
• For a conductor: if T°C ↑ -> R ↑, the material has a Positive Temperature Coefficient PTC.
04 FORMULAS
• U = R.I • P = U.I = R.I²
• U is the difference of potential, I the intensity, P the power, R the resistance.
05 THREE-PHASE ALTERNATING VOLTAGE
• The voltages obtained are 120°C phase shift. The difference in voltage between phases is called compound
voltage.
V3N

V1N

V2N

35
06 ZENER DIODE
• It is used for voltage stabilisation.
07 CAPACITOR AND INDUCTANCE
• A capacitor accumulates a charge Q. Once it is charged and disconnected from the generator, it will remain
charged, then it behaves like a battery. The symbol for a capacitor is C.
• An inductance is the name for the effect of “resistance” of a coiling of wire in a spire that is more or less
consistent. The symbol for an inductance is L
• In both cases, the current I and the voltage V are 90° phase-shift. You have to know that for a capacitor,
the current I is 90° ahead of the voltage V, and for an inductance, the current I is 90° later than the voltage
V. Reminders:

CIVIL
In a C “capacitor” V “voltage” is ahead of I “current”
I “current” is ahead of V “voltage” for an Inductance L

II/ GATES

AND A B S NOR A B S
A A S
S 0 0 0 0 0 1
B 0 1 0 B 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 0

OR A B S NO
A A S
S 0 0 0 A S 0 1
B 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 1
1 1 1

NAND A B S
A
S 0 0 1
B 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

36
III / DEVICES

DEVICES SYMBOL CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS

FUSE AC – DC • Thermal & not resettable
• Mandatory to have spare fuses, at least 10% of each
type of three units of each type
CIRCUIT BREAKER AC – DC • Resettable
• Disengagement is immediate (if magnetic) or not
immediate (if thermal)
• NON TRIP FREE BREAKER: dangerous if you push it
again, the defect continues
• TRIP FREE BREAKER: mandatory
CURRENT LIMITER High value

IV/ GENERATOR AND MOTOR

GENERATOR (the goal is to get electricity)

CHEMICAL TO ELECTRICITY Batteries, cell
MECHANICAL TO ELECTRICITY (DC for dynamo) Rotating machine
(AC for alternator)

MOTOR (the goal is to get mechanical energy)

ELECTRICITY TO MECHANICAL DC MOTOR for a starter

01 GENERATOR OF DIRECT CURRENT DC

Average EMF

Multiplying the number of wire enable to get an average EMF more and more “constant”.
02 ALTERNATOR
Generator of Alternating Current AC.
Generates a fixed voltage of 115 V at a frequency of 400Hz.
The inductor is the rotor -> AIR.
Is The Rotor
In an Alternator
The Inductor

37
 a) AC WITH PERMANENT MAGNET:

The rotation of the magnet creates an electromagnetic field,

ա generating an induced alternating current.

RL : relay for
b) BRUSHLESS AC GENERATOR, THREE-PHASE: the line
Voltage regulator
AC DC
RE : relay for
excitation
AMPLIFIER + MAIN
RECTIFIER ALTERNATOR

PMG EXCITATION ALT

c) CONSTANT SPEED DRIVE CSD: it is a hydromecanic drive system between the jet engine and the
alternator that gives a constant alternator rotation rate in order to obtain a constant alternator
frequency of 400Hz +/- 5%.
d) IN AN FREQUENCY WILD AC SYSTEM, the frequency depends on the engine speed.

03 FROM AC TO DC / FROM DC TO AC
➔ A static Inverter is used to get an AC from a DC. DI A
➔ A Rectifier is used to get a DC from an AC. ARD
V/ BATTERY
The capacity of a battery is the amount of ampere-hours that a fully charged battery can supply.

Voltage Load voltage

2.2
2 Nominal voltage
1.7 Lead battery
1.2
Alkalin battery (nickel-Cadium),
Time risk of thermal runaway, reduced charging time

38
VI / ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

GCB = Line relay = GLC = RL =

Generator Circuit Breaker
BTB = Changeover relay = BTC = Bus Tie
Breaker

Fault GCB GLC BTB

Over OPEN OPEN CLOSE
voltage
Under OPEN OPEN CLOSE
voltage

Failure Action
Generator Generator and excitation
Fault/Fire OPEN
Generator Generator OPEN
underspeed
Generator Tie breaker OPEN
Imbalance

VII/ BONDING AND STATIC ELECTRICITY

As the aircraft is flying across the atmosphere, it will acquire electrostatic charges on the metallic structure
of the airframe. It can cause, at the best, radio interference, but can have greater damages. Bonding is then
used to evacuate this static electricity.
Bonding is used to protect the aircraft against lightning effects, reduce radio interference, set the aircraft to
a single potential ≠0.
Also, static wicks/static discharge leads are mandatory.

39
021 POWERPLANT

40
 TURBINE
I/ GAS TURBINE GENERAL PRINCIPLES
• The operation of the gas turbine uses action-reaction principle according to Newton’s third law.
• Thrust F = Q x (Vexit – Ventry).
01 CYCLE & COMPONENTS
• It relies on thermodynamic cycle, 4 strokes: Intake/supply, Compression, Combustion &
Expansion/ejection.
• Cycle transformation:

Divergente Convergente
Shape Shape

BRAYTON’s cycle
STATIC P
AXIAL SPEED
STATIC TEMP

Because of the diffuser

02 FORUMLAS

CONSUMPTION
Hourly cons (kg/h) Ch = 3600 Qc
Specific cons Csp = Ch / FN
POWER – SINGLE FLOW – TURBOJET
Calorific power Cp = Qc x Ncv (calorific value of kerosene = 44.106 J/kg
Theoretical thermal power Ttp = CP – Qa Cair (T6- T0), Cair = 1000J/kg/°C
Thermal power Pth = Pdyn = ½ Qa(V6²-V0²)
Dynamic power
Propulsion power Pp=Up=FN x V0
Useful power Fn= Qa(V6-V0) + QcV6 + S6(Ps6-P0)
EFFICIENCIES
theoretical thermal efficiency ⴄtt = Ttp/Cp
Internal efficiency ⴄI=Pth/Ttp = Pdyn/Ttp
External efficiency ⴄth= Pth/Cp = Pdyn/Cp

41
 Propulsion efficiency ⴄp=Pp/Pth = Up/Pth = 2V0/(V6 +V0)
Overall efficiency ⴄG=Pp / Cp= Up/Cp= ⴄtt x ⴄI x ⴄp = 3600V0/CspNcv

Cp
External ⴄtt
losses
Ttp ⴄt
ⴄG Internal h
ⴄI
losses
Pth = Pdyn

Propulsive ⴄp
losses
P p = Up

POWER – DUAL FLOW- TURBOJET

Same
Theoretical thermal power Ttp=Cp – (Qa1Cair(T1s-T0)+Qa2Cair(T2s-T0)
Thermal power Pth= ½ Qa2(V2s²-V0²) + ½ Qa1(V1s²+V0²)~ ½ Qa(Veq²-V0²)
Same
POWER TURBOPROP
Calorific power Cp= QcNcv
Mechanical power Pm= Cx2pi+Nh/60, Nh t/min of the propeller
Total equivalent power Pteq= Pm + Pgaz= Pm + Fresidual.V0
Useful power/ propulsion power Pp=T.V0 =Pteq. ⴄh
Specific power Psp=Pteq/Qa
Propulsion efficiency ⴄh=Pu/Pteq
Overall efficiency ⴄg=Pu/Cp

03 TYPES OF GAS TURBINES

a) SINGLE FLOW TURBOJET, SINGLE COUPLING: after WW2, one turbines driving the compressor +
accessory box (hydraulic pump + oil pump + fuel pump + electric alternator). One air flow to create
thrust. Used for the APU
b) SINGLE FLOW TURBOJET, DOUBLE COUPLING: one HP turbine-compressor & one LP turbine-
compressor, 2 independent parts.

42
 c) DUAL FLOW TURBOJET: less noise, less consumption, more efficient.

➔ One primary flow subjected to the compression, combustion & expansion cycle.
➔ One secondary flow, which will not bunt with fuel. The static pressure increased by the large-
diameter compressor, called fan or blower, is sufficient to allow expansion and acceleration
by means of an ejection channel. It produces 80% of the thrust, decreasing to 50-60% in cruise.
➔ N2 coupling: HP

➔ N1 coupling: LP

Secondary flow

Primary flow

d) TURBOPROP: a motor whose energy is supplied by a gas turbine to obtain a propulsion force
called thrust generated by the rotation of a multi-blade propeller. It is composed of:
➔ Propeller, reducer, gas generator, work turbine, ejection channel. The shaft is connected to
the propeller via a reduction gear.
➔ Different types of turboprop:
1. LINKED TURBINE TURBOPROP: turbine linked to through gear reduction to the
propeller.
2. FREE-TURBINE TURBOPROP: with a working turbine, independent of the gas
generator drives the propeller through a reducer. The rotational speed of the
propeller N1 depends on the flow rate of gas passing through the working turbine
and on the aerodynamics of the propellers, and thus its pitch.
II/MAIN COMPONENTS OF A TURBINE ENGINE
01 AIR INTAKE
• While flying at M 0.8, the engines generates a M of 0.5 at the compressor inlet at cruising rotational speed.
• Hugoniot’s theorem indicates that in a subsonic zone with M<1, the speed of flow varies inversely and
proportionally to the section:
𝑑𝑆 𝑑𝑉
= (𝑀2 + 1)
𝑆 𝑉

• Perfect gases law: PSV=nrTS, so as PS↑ , TS↑.

• Cruising phase • Taxiing, T/O, GA :

Air flow Air flow

43
• Suction area on the ground • Suction area on TO :

3m
2m
5m

• Icing: electrical or thermal (bleed air from last stages of the compressor) anti-icing device. It is
recommended when OAT < 10°C with moisture present.

02 COMPRESSOR
a) PURPOSE: supply air to the combustion chamber with speed, T, P required.

b) TYPES OF COMPRESSOR:

CENTRIFUGAL AXIAL
Air flow direction Normal to the engine’s axis at Parallel to the engine’s axis
the rotor outlet Large mass airflow
Limited flow
Compression stages 1 to 2 4 to 17
Compression ratio 5:1 for one stage 1,2:1 for on stage, 8:1 to 35:1 in
=PSoutlet/PSinlet total
Cost -- ++
Resistance, design Robust, durable, simple design Fragile, complex design
Organisation 1 ROTOR=impeller + ROTOR= fins + disk= grate of
1 STATOR=diffuser + movable fins
Annular elbows to supply the CC STATOR= blades + ring= grate of
in air stationary blades
Principle IMPELLER (divergent + rotates):
V
V&P↑
DIFFUSER (divergent): P↑ & V ↓
Vinlet=Voutlet PS

rotor stator TS

Assembly PARALLEL: allows increase in air

flow
SERIES: allow increase in
compression ratio, but less
efficient

𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟

• Stage degree of reaction σ =𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 50%

44
 AXIAL COMPRESSOR ONLY
Stresses Anomalies & Solution
• Mechanical stress: bending + • Aerodynamic stall: due to excessive incidence of the rotor fins.
torsion due to the aerodynamic ➔ Efficiency ↓
resultant
• Centrifugal stress: centrifugal
force
• Thermal stress: increase in
pressure + temperature
• Vibration stress:
• Rotating stall: local (between end of fins & housing, at the first
• Erosion stress: presence of
movable gates, at low speed. Local turbulence zone which cause an
particles in the air
increase in pressure leading the local air to go upstream and causing
• Solution: mechanical mounting
stall.
clearance, alloys
➔ Vibration, performance ↓
➔ Solution: reduce clearance between end of the fins and
the housing.

• Surging: consequences of an aerodynamic stall on the first movable

gates. Stagnation of air leading to an increase in pressure in the rear
parts of the compressor -> reversal of the air flow to the first stage.
Occurs while accelerating.
➔ EGT ↑, flameout, vibration, stopped engine
➔ Solution: fuel control unit, anti-surge devices :
1. Bleed valves: ↓ airflow at the rear stage, ↑ airflow at the early
stage. Automatically controlled by the fuel control & engine control
system. Located on the HP compressor. Based on the RPM: OPEN
for engine SU, low speed from idling to cruise, rapid deceleration &
CLOSE at high speeds. On Dual flow turbojet, bleed valves are
Variable bleed valves located between LP & HP compressor.
2. Variable pitch inlet guide vanes=Inlet guide vanes=IGV:
Automatically controlled by the fuel control & engine control
system. Located at the inlet of the first movable gate or rotor. OPEN
for idling speed & CLOSE for SU and TO
3. Variable pitch stator vanes= variable stator vanes= VSV: avoid
stall on the first stage of the compressor by controlling compressor
airflow. Located between 2 rotors. OPEN at low RPM, SU & CLOSE
for high speed and TO.
4. Double rotor compressor: LP&HP, avoid aerodynamic stall &
surging, controlled by fuel regulator.

03 COMBUSTION CHAMBER
a) PURPOSE: creation and combustion of the air/fuel mixture, delivers high energy to the gases
which will be used by the turbine and ejection channel.
b) CRITERIA: JET A1 is used.

➔ Theoretical combustion dosage = fuel mass/Air mass = 1/15.

45
 ➔ Richness r = dactual/dtheo, r>1 -> rich mixture -> acceleration, r<1 -> lean mixture -> deceleration.

➔ Swirling air: installed at the fuel injector to improve the air/fuel mixing with a helical
movement of the air.
➔ Fuel spraying: Simplex = single flow injector, Duplex injectors are used to reach high fuel rate
for high thrust, controlled by a shut-off valve.
➔ Thermodynamic: T/O, GA
Pressure

Ground idle RPM < Flight idle RPM

Minimum Idle
ignition
pressure Flame out Flame out

Metering= dosage
1/15
c) OPERATION: 2 flows

➔ Primary flow for combustion, T up to 2000°C, 40m/s

➔ Secondary flow for cooling T = 500°C, 4 times more air than primary flow, in order to have
T=1200-1400°C in front of the turbine.
➔ At the end of the CC, Fuel mass / total air mass = 1/50 to 1/70, 170m/s.

d) TYPES OF CC:

a. SEPARATED CHAMBERS = MULTIPLE CHAMBERS:

➔ Associated with centrifugal compressor.

➔ Intercommunication tubes connects the various chamber.
➔ 2 igniters distributed over 2 chambers, used at the same time.
b. MIXED CHAMBERS = ANNULAR TUBES:

➔ For axial compressor

➔ Increasing in thermal power, better pressure balance
➔ 2 igniters but only one is used for the SU.
c. ANNULAR CHAMBERS:

➔ For axial compressor

➔ Power, volume are important
➔ 2 igniters but only one is used.

46
04 THE TURBINE
a) PURPOSE: uses energy from gases to drive engine’s component (compressor, accessories and
sometimes propeller or blower). Engine uses axial turbine, APU uses centrifugal turbine.
b) DESCRIPTION OF AXIAL TURBINE:

➔ One stage is composed of one stator (deflecting) + one rotor (rectifying).

• Number of stages : 1 to 2 for a

compressor with 10 stages & 4 to 5
stages for 1 blower or propeller.
• HP turbine drives the HP compressor,
V and its accessories & the LP turbine
drives the propeller or the blower
(possibly with the LP compressor.
P

𝑆𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟

c) TYPE OF TURBINE: according to the degree of reaction σ = 𝑆𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒, 0 <
σ<1
1. REACTION TURBINE σ≠0: for dual flow, dual spool:

2. IMPULSE TURBINE σ=0: APU, turboprop:

47
 d) STRESSES:

STRESSES SUSTAINED BY THE BLADES STRESSES SUSTAINED BY THE FINS

Mechanical stresses: torsion + bending+ Mechanical stresses: torsion + bending +
vibrations vibrations & centrifugal force (++)
Thermal stresses: 1200°C up t0 1500°C Thermal stresses: highest temperature a 2/3 of
Chemical stresses: corrosion, erosion, hot the height of the fins
oxidation ➔ CREEP = Mechanical + thermal
Chemical stresses: corrosion, erosion, hot
oxidation
Solution: alliages, crystallisation, cooling (by HP air drawn from the compressor outlet)
Reduced thrust take-off procedure to limit EGT (the turbine limits the temperature within the
engine)

05 THE EJECTION CHANNEL

a) PURPOSE: ejects gases to the outside by creating a propulsive effect by increasing the speed of
the air flow.
b) TYPES OF EJECTION CHANNELS:

1. PROPULSIVE: convergent shape

PS6
PS5

2. NON-PROPULSIVE: APU

48
c) ABOUT EFFICIENCY:
𝑃𝑡5 𝑃𝑡5 𝑃𝑡5
=2 >2 <2
𝑃𝑡6 𝑃𝑡6 𝑃𝑡6
Mach=1 M=1 M<1, Qa is not max,
Qa is max, total combustion. Qa is max, partial combustion. Loss of thrust when velocity
Best efficiency Loss of thrust compared to decreases
Best thrust adapted, but CAP thrust
For cruising phase permits to have more thrust
SATURATED adapted SATURATED non-adapted
This relation P-M depends on the relation of St Venant

49
III/ COMPONENTS AND ADDITIONAL SYSTEMS
01 FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEMS
FUEL SUPPLY SYSTEM
a) THE SYSTEM:

FUEL TANK (JETA1, JET A…) FUEL REGULATOR

Regulates gas turbine,

HEAT EXCHANGER HE FILTER keeps performance of the
PUMPS driven by
(placed in front of the filter) engine in normal operating
engine accessory Always after the HE, in case of clogging (alarm in envelope, interface
gearbox. the cockpit), there is a bypass in the filter. pilot/engine.
• LP PUMP: from tank
The regulator has its own
to engine.
FUEL/OIL FUEL/AIR HE.
• HP PUMP: from
•Fuel heated by • very efficient because Tair ++,
engine to combustion
engine’s lubricating from the HP compressor.
chamber (injector).
oil.

• self-regulated.
Variable tilt HP gear = IF INTERNAL LEAK
plate = constant capacity
variable type: flow & • HE before HP pump:
capacity pressure have to oil goes into the fuel
type: be higher than Poil↓ “LOW OIL”, stop
complex, the one needed. engine.
weak, high • HE after HP pump:
accuracy. fuel goes into oil, Oil
quantity ↑, risk of
fire/explosion.

50
 b) OPERATIONS:

Pilot order GAS THROTTLE Temp Thrust/power

= HP VALVE QC requiered
Pressure

• For good performing of the engine, P,T are very important to stay inside the working envelop, and to avoid
stall, surging…
• REGULATOR DEVICE:
➔ To maintain the operating point (working area) in the restrictive envelop FUEL

➔ To alleviate the tasks for the crew CONTROL

➔ To formulate QC(N1, N2, T, P) for TO, taxi, climb… UNITS
➔ To control the fuel system, the valves to be monitored, limitations FCU

02 FUEL CONTROL UNIT FCU

MAIN FUNCTIONS AUXILIARY FUNCTIONS

Crew manual gas throttle Starting/stop the engine
➔ Translating to regulate the HP valve
Regulation of a characteristic value or Idling, depending on the T, icing, flight phase
parameter about engine
➔ Choose parameter constant when no
action on gas throttle
Regulation of Acceleration/deceleration Limitation of speed
➔ If QC ↑ -> Qa need to be ↓ to avoid Take-off protection
surging. Limitation of temperature
➔ If QC ↓ -> Qa need to be ↑ to avoid
flame out.
Composed of Gas throttle, start-up handle, heating valve control
Monitor: fuel flow QC, filter clogging indicator, fuel pressure & Temp indicator

a) FUEL SYSTEM:

JET A JET A1 JET B (cold region)

Flashing point 41°C 41°C -20°C
Freezing point -40°C -47°C -50 down to -58°C
Density 0.8kg/l
• Additives: to prevent from waxing, avoid formation of crystals.
• Fuel tanks: flapper/baffles valves - > to prevent fuel from flowing to wing tip.
• Venting of tanks: NACA connector, prevent low pressure or excessive pressure in the tanks, completely fill
the tanks, by air intakes on underside of wing.
• Overpressure valves: prevent deformation of wings with disc.
51
• Fuel indications:
➔ Via capacitor: mass, independent of temperature thanks to compensation resistors, in parallel.
➔ Manual: flow gauge (dipstick) with documentation. OR float gauge (float stick).
➔ Fuel contents, fuel low level, fuel pressure, fuel flow, fuel transfer status, fuel filter condition.
• Tanks are not heated.
• LP-pump: centrifugal, 115V/400, 20-100 PSI, for pressurizing the fuel. Prevents vapor lock & cavitation on
HP pump (driven by the engine). 2 for each tank, they are immersed for cooling and facilitates priming of
pump. Alarm is low pressure. Feed box: increases fuel level at pump location.
• Cross feed valve: through unique point, main method on large a/c -> pressure refuelling.
• Defueling: via gravity draining, defueling by suction, with LP pump.
• Fuel transfer: from one tank to another on the ground.
• Useable fuel: quantity that can be supplied to jet engine, unusable fuel is minimised by tanks sump pods.
• Jettisoning in flight: for a/c with MTOW>MLW. The fuel remaining after jettison must allow a climb from
sea level to 10 000ft and 45 min cruise at speed for max range.
• Fuel management: special fuel consumption -> minimise wind g-loads & preserve main tank fuel for
landing.
03 ENGINE REGULATION AND CONTROL

Anti-surging syst Control the clearances (LP

REGULATOR = FCU +
(BV, IGV, VSV) acceleration, HP acceleration
FUNCTIONS

MAIN ENGINE CONTROL

MEC

POWER MANAGMENT CONTROL FULL AUTHORITY DIGITAL ENGINE

PMC CONTROL FADEC
Partial authority (only N2 if failure) FADEC =ECU + HMU + probes +
alternator + gas throttle
Manages the speed, fixed thrust for
a throttle position, turbine
temperature limitations, high Single chain (APU)
Double chain
accuracy of regulation.
orders 2xECU electronical control
Heavy, expensive, complex. ECU HMU
unit + 2 x hydromecanic unit,
Performance from gas throttle, interacting between each
FMS, situation (SU, ventilation…), other.
configuration, IGV, BV, engine
operations, thrust reversal.

A/c system + own engine sensors.

Advantages: crew workload ↓, safety ↑ with more information,

continuous monitoring of the engines, engines continue to operate 52
if electronic failure

Protection of N1, N2 overspeed, EGT overheating.

04 LUBRICATION SYSTEM
a) PURPOSE: avoid friction, cool different part of the engine, drain particles, avoid
corrosion/oxidation.
b) LUBRICATED COMPONENTS: gear from angular gearbox & internal power T/O device, bearings,
reduction gears (propeller for turboprop).
c) STRUCTURE:
➔ Structural housing

Fastenings

FRONT REAR

Transmits thrust, Ensures longitudinal freedom

support weight, for the thermal expansion,
withstand support weight & transverse
transversal forces. forces.

Bearings

Have extremely reliable & solid shaft holders at several part of the engine

Mechanical stress + thermal resistance

BALL BEARINGS ROLLER BEARING

• Aerodynamic resultant • heat transfer from hot gases
• engine shaft : vibration • expansion -> need to have
some clearance (mm) to allow
• prevent displacement of the
for the elongation
compressor forward

d) OIL INDICATOR:

OIL QUANTITY

LEVEL DECREASING RAPIDLY NORMAL CONSUMPTION INCREASING OF OIL QUANTITY

Leaks in the piping system. Possibility of fuel going into the oil.

OIL PRESSURE

VERY LOW LOW REACHING HIGH VALUE

RED + ALARM -> stop Amber, problem with pump, Cold weather (viscosity
engine. oil to hot (tolerated if idling, 53
above idling -> monitor)
 OIL TEMPERATURE

LOW HIGH

Operation in high altitude Amber

Start up in low T°C. Drop of oil quantity, excessive

friction -> reduce engine speed.

05 DRIVING ACCESSORIES & PROPELLER REDUCER

a) GENERAL INFORMATION: power drawing is essential because it serves to drive accessories
necessary for the operation of the engine, electrical and hydraulic system. The drawing represents
only 1% of the shaft power (negligible effect on the engine performance).
b) POWER DRAWING THROUGH:

q
T/O power Angular gearbox Accessory drive gearbox + fire
detection system, driven by HP spool.
➔ Via HP spool

Intented for power generation: Intended for engine operation:

1 or 2 electrical alternator CSD HP fuel pump, fuel regulator or HMU, engine control
alternator, oil pump for lubrication, N2 sensor.
1 or 2 hydraulic pump

c) FOR TURBOPROPS: the propeller used 90% of the shaft power, the reducer provides rotational
speed with compatible one, increases the torque.
06 IGNITION DEVICE
a) PURPOSE: used to control the starting or maintaining the combustion in the CC, in any phase of
flight. Doubled & independent for safety
b) PRINCIPLE: in normal condition, the ignition device is not operational.

Energy taken from Electrical spark leads to

onboard network the ignition of the
mixture.

c) DESCRIPTION: the ignition box comprises:

➔ Transformer, rectifier, capacitor, resistor, inductance for the igniter -> spark
➔ Intensity of 1 A to 2,5 A, 10 to 20 J, 2 to 5 sparks/sec.
➔ Supplied by a 115V AC 400Hz or 28V DC.
➔ No test by the crew
➔ Can or cannot be used to T/O, bellow IDLING speed, both igniters are automatically tuned ON,
as in severe turbulences.
54
07 STARTERS, GROUND START
a) GENERAL INFORMATION: acceleration phase of a gas turbine to stabilized idling (30s-40s),
according to:
➔ Airflow, fuel supply, ignition of the mixture.
3 elements:
➔ Starter to start compressor + turbine rotation to idling speed.
➔ Ignition device
➔ Fuel program for stat-up (regulator)
b) STARTER:

1. PURPOSE: initially achieve the rotational speed: min ignition pressure, the
engine can continue autonomously after starter ignition. It is imperative to
reach idling speed quickly to avoid overheating.
APU/TURBOPRO use electric starter (50Hp), supplied by 28V DC battery,
GPU.
DUAL FLOW TURBOJET use pneumatic starter (300Hp), supplied by
compressor air.
2. COMPONENT: ratchet mechanism, motor with reducer. When coupling
rotates rapidly, clutch disengage due to centrifugal forces at 50% N2.
Secure-reengagement: when N2<20%, 5 min between 2 uses of the starter.
3. LOCATION: in the cone, or accessory gearbox.
c) GROUND START:
air

FUEL/AIR ignition
fuel

STARTER STARTER+TURBINE TURBINE

N2
15-25% 65%
50%
Autonomous speed Ground idle

d) START-UP ANOMALIES:

1. NON-ENGAGEMENT: spraying of fuel, white smoke, EGT LOW, tailpipe fire.

2. INSTANTANEOUD IGNITION: tailpipe fire, EGT ↑ quickly
3. HOT START: EGT ↑ quickly
4. HUNG START: difficulty to accelerate to autonomous speed, low Fuel flow,
antisurging device blocked, too low pneumatic starter pressure.
5. NO ROTATIONAL SPEED OF LP SPOOL: NO N1 rotation, N2 ↑.
6. NO OIL PRESSURE WHEN EGT ↑: EGT ↑

55
 e) CREW ACTION:
1. FOR TAILPIPE FIRE: close fuel valve + ventilation of the engine.
2. FOR SHUTING DOWN THE ENGINE: idling speed (T°C & creep↓).

08 THRUST REVERSAL
a) PURPOSE: breaking assistance by redirection of the exhaust gas flow.

b) TYPES:

1. SINGLE FLOW: 2 blocks = 2 eyelids, 2 actuating cylinders. New direction of

gases: oblique angle, generates partial inversion of thrust (70%). It is most
effective at the beginning of the landing, and max engine speed. Heavy,
costly, noise, stresses, surging…

2. DUAL FLOW: on the secondary flow, 36% of thrust, less risk of surging &
overheating, cost --. Types: doors, eyelids, movable ring gears.

c) ENERGY: pneumatic (HP compressor) or hydraulic

d) SECURITY IN FLIGHT: via isolation valve.

e) DEPLOYMENT COMMAND:

➔ Gas throttle to idling step.

➔ Acting on reversal lever upward 10° (opening of the isolation & pressurisation valve)
AMBER REV: during transition phase
GREEN REV: on fully deployed position
f) RETRACTION COMMAND:

➔ Reduction of idling speed, movement to retarded position, retraction at 70kt

AMBER REV: when normal retracted position
AMBER REV disappears & gas throttle are released.
g) OPERATIONS:

1. UNINTENTIONAL USE IN FLIGHT: thrust is automatically reduced; engine

remains idling or stop.
2. USE AT LOW SPEED: no to be used below a certain ground speed, except
emergency.
3. NOISE RESTRICTION at some airports.

56
IV ENGINE, OPERATION, CONTROLS & SURVEILLANCE
01 FLIGHT PROFILE
a) THRUST LIMITATION: max TO thrust & max continuous endurance thrust are certified &
demonstrated by the manufacturer.
b) ENGINE OPERATION AND CONTROL:

OPERATING PARAMETERS CONTROL/SURVEILLANCE PARAMETERS

Turbojet EPR, N1 Main N2, EGT, Fuel flow
Turboprop Thrust of propeller Secondary Vibration, oil system,
start-up, fuel system,
nacelle T°C, engine
trending
Represented on conventional or screen displays

c) PARAMETERS:

➔ EPR = Pt7/Pt2 (single flow), = Pt7 + Pt5/Pt2, (dual flow). Advantages: linearity with thrust,
indication does not consider the aging of the engine. Disadvantages: no probe for P t2, probe
icing problem -> higher value with low speed. EPR ↓ is speed ↑ (Attention ! )
➔ N1: Adv: represents acceleration of the secondary air flow for the fan. Disadv: N1 is not linear.

➔ Thrust of propeller: measurement of the torque meter & rotational speed. Position of throttle:
BETA mode for ground, ALPHA mode for T/O + flight (forward position, cst speed, pitch
variable), if BETA in flight: wind milling, thrust asymmetry, overspeed…
➔ N2: HP spool and gas generator

➔ EGT: represents levels of stress, fatigue, to be monitored during all the phases, between gas
turbine & free power turbine.
➔ ENGINE TRENDING: detection of advance failures, EPR, N1, N2, EGT, FF.

02 PROPELLER REGULATION ON TURBOPROPS

a) PITCH CHANGE SYSTEM: a double-acting cylinder mechanism supplied by lubricating oil: the
actuator receives a higher oil pressure on the large pitch side to provide a force that balances
with the lower oil pressure applied on the small pitch side assisted by the centrifugal torque.
b) OPERATING MODES:

1. FEATHERED POSITION AT 90°: minimum drag configuration

2. GROUND FINE PITCH AT 0°: taxi, for linked turbine, less risk of overheating.
3. HIGH-SPEED CRUISE AT 30°
4. INSTALLATION OF FLIGHT FINE PITCH STOPS & UNLOCKING: From TO:
speed ↑, pitch ↑, then locking. Unlocking for landing + protection in flight
from wind milling.
5. INSTALLATION OF THE SMALL HIGH SECURITY CRUISING STOP &
UNLOCKING: when high speed > 200kt.
6. PROPELLER OVERSPEED PROTECTION: automatically with actuator
57
 7. AUTO FEATHERING: on armed mode, close to ground (TO, LDG, APP), when
the torque is too low.
8. BACKDRIVING: removes propeller from feathering.
9. PROPELLER SYNCHRO: one engine is the reference, to reduce vibration,
workload ↓, reduces noise. Auto correction.
10. HOTEL MODE OR APU: one engine can be equipped with hotel mode, for
having APU’s functions, to supply with energy (pneumatic…)
11. REVERSE MODE: on the ground.

V/ AIRPLANE ENGINE PERFORMANCE

CHANGE IN THRUST

RELATED TO THE STATIC If PS ↓ -> FN ↓ because density↓

PRESSURE PS
RELATED TO THE If T ↓ -> density ↑ -> Qa ↑ -> FN T + 1 °C = -0.5% of FN needed
TEMPERATURE ↑ -> EPR ↑ Max F N

To increase the operation life

of the engine, it is better to use
lower rotational speed on TO,
we use so derated and reduces
thrust.

RELATED TO THE Alt ↑ -> density ↓ -> FN↑ If the crew wants higher FL:
ALTITUDE Lift ↓ because Qa ↓ ->
increasing of angle of incidence
-> drag ↑ -> necessity to
increase FN

VI/ AUXILIARY POWER UNIT APU

• PURPOSE: generates electrical and pneumatical energy. Used for cabin ventilation, heating, pressurization,
de-icing, gyro unit. It renders the a/c autonomous.

• ON THE GROUND: electrical (on board network) & pneumatic energy for parking operation. APU replaces
GPU.
• IN FLIGHT: depending on the context. In case of failure, defrosting operation, replace electrical or
pneumatic sources.
• DESCRIPTION: identical to a turbojet or turboprop, except that it is non-propulsive.
58
 PISTON
I/ GENERAL INFORMATION
01 ENGINE TYPE
They are reciprocating internal combustion engine; all the flow goes into the CC.

POSITIVE IGNITION ENGINE DIESEL ENGINE

4 strokes 4 strokes
Constant Volume cycle (Beau de rochas + Otto) Constant Volume-Pressure -> mixed cycle
Mixture (Air + gasoline) before introduction into the Fuel (Diesel, kerosene) directly injected into the
cylinder cylinder
Ignition by high voltage electrical device Ignition upon contact with air (heated by
compression)
No mixture control.
Power determined by fuel flow.
Intake is never heated
AVGAS 100LL JET A1

02 COMPONENTS
a) HOUSING: lower part = oil reservoir

➔ Crankshaft + camshaft (open intake/exhaust valve which close with spring) + cylinder
➔ Crankshaft rotation speed = 2 x camshaft rotation speed.

TDC : top dead center

BDC : bottom dead center

Torque: measured into the gearbox

b) CYLINDER + CYLINDER HEAD: chromium to increase resistance to wear:

➔ Intake & exhaust ports + spark plug

c) CONNECTING ROD: transmission, due to pin, of the force resulting from combustion to the
connecting pod which transmits to the crankshaft.

59
03 4 STROKES CYCLE

INTAKE COMPRESSION COMBUSTION-EXPANSION EXHAUST

(engine stroke)
Intake valve open 2 valves closed when Valves closed. Exhaust valve open
Piston TDC -> BDC BDC. TDC->BDC BDC
V ↑, P↓ (P<Patm) allow BDC -> TDC Just after, intake valve Otto: end of shock ->
introduction of mixture V ↓, (P,T) ↑ closed & exhaust valve both valves open
into cylinder. Spark when at TDC open

Complete cycle = 2 revolutions

04 DIESEL ENGINE PERFORMANCE

a) ADVANTAGES: better thermal efficiency, compression ratio ++, consumption --, fuel price --,
diesel less inflammable than petrol.
b) DISADVANTGES: heavier, manufacturing & maintenance cost ++, noisier, produce less max power
output.
c) OUTPUT & EFFICIENCIES:

d) DETONATION:

1. CAUSES: too low octane rating, excessive boost from turbocharger, high
cylinder head T°, engine overheat, high power at low RPM with constant
speed propeller, high manifold pressure (increase if throttle (=butterfly) is
open, at low RPM.
60
 2. PROCEDURES IN CASE OF: reduce manifold pressure & fully enrich the
mixture, during climb: retard the throttle.
3. OCTANE RATING: resistance to detonation, possibility to use a higher-
octane rating than designed.
4. PRE-IGNITION: mixture ignited by abnormal conditions within cylinder
before spark, before piston reaches TDC, due to hot sport in the CC.
05 FUEL SYSTEM
a) TYPES:

➔ Gasoline engines: AVGAS, MOGAS (risk of carburettor icing)

➔ Diesel engines: diesel, jet fuel
AVGAS MOGAS DIESEL
-60 -60 -18 Freezing T°C
-40 -40 55 Flashing T°C
COLOR
UL91 NO color
80 Red
100LL Blue
100 Green

b) OCTANE RATING: Octane rating ++ -> combustion harder.

c) FUEL TANKS:

➔ Dry wing: flexible tanks

➔ Wet wing: structural/internal tanks -> most used
➔ Usable fuel: for powering engines
➔ Unusable fuel: “sump pod”
➔ To avoid humidity & moisture -> completely fill the tanks, fuel is pressurized to avoid vapor
lock.
06 CARBURATOR
• Produces gaseous mixture.
• Chemical energy into mechanical energy.

POSITIVE IGNITION ENGINES DIESEL ENGINE

Spray carburation (< 200 SHp), flat type carburator One-time HP injection
By continuous LP injection (>200 SHp) + variable pitch propeller Injection pump or common rail

61
 FLOAT TYPE CARBURATOR < 200 SHp

Reservoir/tank :
Combustion chamber: Convergence +
Upper part : communication with the ambient divergence shape -> venturi effect.
air

Lower part: richness adjusting, damper

function, main spray nozzle -> emulsion tube

Principle: based on the ΔP at the venturi throat

and air inlet

1. WHEN ENGINE WORKING:

At the end of emulsion tube

V ↑ : venturi Main spray
Fuel Sprayed
P↓ : vaccum effect flows nozzle exits
Mixed with air

Gas throttle Butterfly Adjustment of mixture

controls valve allows

2. IDLING:

• ΔP too low -> bypass: injects fuel after butterfly valve which is partially closed
3. RECOVERY PUMP: enables fuel for being injected when acceleration.

4. ICING: ice on carburator can block/reduce mixture/air flow

• Symptoms: speed of engine ↓ with fixed pitch propeller, intake pressure ↓, MAP↓.
• Solutions: carburator heat device with valve & hot air, but reduces power as a result of richer mixture,
after ice melting, RPM ↑. The carburator heat is tested before each flight.
5. OTHER DEVICES:

• Primer pump: additional fuel for engine start up.

• Diffuser: maintain constant mixture with low & high-power setting on piston engine.
• Accelerator pump: for rapid throttle advance.
• Fuel strainers: upstream needle valves.

62
 LP CONTINUOUS INJECTION > 200 SHp

• Fuel is sprayed continuously into intake manifold.

• 3 controls: Gas throttle + RPM (propeller) + Richness.
• Mixture is produces from injector.
• Accuracy ↑, consumption ↓, icing ↓
• Air filter can be iced -> another one is fitted in parallel.
• Vapor lock: idling speed, on ground, when T°C +++.
ONE TIME HP INJECTION (DIESEL)

• Drives and controls the engine/propeller assembly by FADEC.

COMMON RAIL SYSTEM

• Injection controlled by signal delivered by computer, pre-heating carried out by glow plugs.
07 COOLING
a) LIQUID COOLING: water+ glycol, controlled by : T°C indicator + alarm warning light + low level
warning light.
b) AIR COOLING: cowl flaps 2/3 open on ground.

➔ Heat transferred to ambient air by direct contact.

➔ Cylinder head & cylinder are equipped with fires.
➔ For a/c speed low & T > Tcruise.

➔ The main reason for opening cowl flaps is to control CHT.

➔ Used for conditioning air (Carbon monoxide) detector in the cockpit.
08 LUBRICATION
• To reduce friction, efficiency ↑, cooling, drainage of impurities, improve sealing.
a) LUBRICANT:

➔ Mineral oil: until 5h.

➔ Detergent oil: prevent formation of deposit on diesel engine.
➔ DO NOT MIX LUBRICANT.
➔ Low viscosity, adhesion, flash point, ignition point, freezing point, solubility.
➔ LOW T°C: fluid oils well suited (not for high T°C).
➔ HIGH T°C: heavy bodied well suited (not for low T°C).
➔ Oil viscosity depends on oil temperature !

63
 b) TYPES OF SYSTEM:

WET SUMP SYSTEM DRY SUMP SYSTEM

For normal use For aerobatic flight
Oil inside the engine Oil outside the engine

c) ANOMALIES:

➔ Oil pressure: No pressure change after starting -> STOP the engine.
➔ Oil temperature: linked to oil quantity.
09 START UP- IGNITION
• The ignition system is doubled: each cylinder is equipped with 2 spark plugs with each 2 magnetos.
a) FOULING OF SPARK PLUGS:

➔ Fuel with too high lead content.

➔ Incorrect adjustment of carburizing device.
➔ Prolonged operation at idling speed.

b) INGITION SYSTEM CHECKS:

➔ Check after start-up (cut off test).

➔ Check during engine test (magneto test).
➔ After flight check (cut off test).
10 CARBURIZED MIXTURE
• 1/15: chemical ratio, but 1/12 enables best power in reality with a richness of 1.2.
a) ON TO CLIMB: richness power -> full rich position to deliver max power.

b) CRUISING: altitude ↑ -> density ↓ causing enrichment of mixture.

11 PROPELLER
a) GENERAL:

64
 b) FIXED PITCH PROPELLER:

• Max efficiency during cruise.

• Different modes:
➔ Tractive, transparency, braking, windmilling (to restart engine in flight)
• The thrust tends to increase the pitch, while the centrifugal force tends to decrease the pitch.
c) VARIABLE PITCH PROPELLER:

• A regulator changes pitch without pilot’s action, a counterweight detects a climb/descent, injecting oil
inside a piston, moving the propeller pitch.
• “Fine pitch” to stop the engine.
• Feathered position, pitch = 90° -> less drag.
• Reversing position: negative pitch : -10°/-20°.
• Propeller backdriving: to restart the engine in flight, from feathered to windmilling.
• Synchronization device: No for TO & approach, based on frequency, if ΔRPM>25 RPM -> the
synchronization box actives tacho generator.
d) PROTECTION AGAINST ICING:

➔ Chemical with glycol and water.

➔ Electronic: resistors on the leading edge.
e) POWER VARIATION & POSITION:

POWER VARIATION GAS PROPELLER RICHNESS

Increase 3rd ↑ 2nd ↑ 1st ↑
Decrease 1st ↓ 2nd ↓ 3rd ↓

65
12 PERFORMANCE
a) INFLUENCE OF FACTORS:

➔ Temperature ↑, power ↓ ; correction of T +/- 1%/Δ5°(ISA).

➔ Pressure ↓, power ↓.
➔ Best conditions: Density ↑: so, with T°C -- & P ++. & dry air.
b) INCREASE IN PERFORMANCE:

➔ Power = RPM x MAP

➔ A supercharger allows an increase in the MAP using a centrifugal-type compressor.
➔ To avoid too high MAP, we use an inlet pressure regulator which controls the wastegate=relief
valve (closed -> all gases go through the turbine, open the gases go through the bypass duct).
The valves also regulates the speed of the turbocharger.

66
022 INSTRUMENTATION

67
I/SENSORS AND INSTRUMENTS
01 PRESSURE GAUGES
a) DEFINITIONS:
Absolute Pressure AP: zero-referenced against a perfect, using an absolute scale.
➔ AP = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure = Pg + Po
Gauge Pressure Pg : zero-referenced against ambient air pressure.
Differential Pressure ΔP is the difference in pressure between 2 points.
b) UNITS:
Pascal (Pa), SI unit : N/m² 1 bar = 10 000 Pa
Bar (bar) 1 PSI = 0.07 bar
Inches of Mercury (inHg) 1 013.25 HPa = 14.7 PSI = 29.92 inHg
Pounds per Square Inch (PSI)
c) SENSORS:

Types of Measured In/for which Pictures

sensors Pressure devices
Diaphragms Low pressure •Altimeter
(0.1 to 50 PSI) •ASI
•Machmeter

Bellows •Medium • Fuel

(connected pressure (up Pressure
diaphragm to 50 PSI) gauge
chambers) •Differential
Pressure

Aneroide • Absolute • Low

Capsule Pressure pressure fuel
(sealed pump
diaphragms) • MAP

68
 Bourdon • High •Engine oil
Tube pressure Pressure
(500 to • hydraulic
3000PSI) pressure

02 TEMPERATURES
a) UNITS:
Celsius (°C) T°C = (T°F -32) x 5/9
Fahrenheit (°F)
Kelvin (K) TK = T°C + 273
b) SENSORS:

Type System Principle Other

Expansion •Bimetallic 2 different metals
• up to 60°C having different
thermal expansion
coefficients

Electrical •Electrical • Based on the

Resistance Wheatstone bridge
Thermometer • linear fonction of
(ERT) voltage

• up to 150 °C

Electrical Ratio Meter • used for engine oil

ERT temperature
Electrical •Thermocouple • electromotive force • Used to measure Cylinder head
• up to 540°C is created due to a Temperature
difference of
temperatures • for turbine engine we use chromal/alumel
between Hot source for the metals
and Cold Source
(constant)

69
03 FUEL GAUGE
a) UNITS:
Kilograms (Kg) 1Kg = 2.204 lbs
Pounds (lbs)
Liter (L) 1USG = 3.786 L
US gallon (USG)
b) SENSORS:

Types Advantages Disadvantages Principles

Electrical float gauge Easy to build •Inaccurate • DC powered
•Varying with • gives Volume
Temperature

Capacitance gauge • temperature, • wrong value if water • AC powered

altitude, acceleration in the tank • value deponds on
do not affect the nature of the
dielectric and density

04 FUEL FLOWMETER
a) INTRO:
• used to monitor fuel quantity
• inserted between High pressure Pump and fuel injector on jet engines
b) UNITS:
Liters per hour (L/h) US gallons per hour (USG/h)
c) SENSORS:

Types Principles Pictures

Volumetric Composed by a
flowmeters turbine rotor with a
magnet which creates
pulses with the
passage of the liquide

70
 Moving vane A spring-loaded vane
sensors mass is moved by the fuel
flowmeter flowing to the
carburator

Kinetic energy Consists of a AC

variation mass motor-driven
flowmeter impeller, a turbine and
synchro system

05 TACHOMETER
a) INTRO:
• used to monitor engine power
b) UNITS:
On piston engines : revolution per minutes (RPM)
On turbine engines : in percentage of rpm, with 100% corresponding to optimum turbine speed
c) TYPES:

Types Principles Others

Mechanical Rotation of a magnet
generating an induction field
proportional to the rotation
speed
Electrical 3-phase generator is driven by • Depends on temperature
the gear box on the engine + 3- variations
phase synchronous motor • Depends on the line
resistance
• Simple design
• Independent from the
aircraft power supply

Electronic Based on rotation of a fan • needs a power supply source

modifying the magnetic flux in
the sensor

NB : DC generator creates spurious signals contrary to AC generator

71
06 THRUST MEASUREMENT
• On a jet engine, Thrust is managed by either the Engine Pressure Ration (EPR) or the rotational speed of
the fan expressed as percentage of the maximum value (N1)
• EPR = (turbine outlet pressure)/(LP compressor inlet pressure)= Pt7/Pt2, measured by aneroid capsules
• N1 and EPR relate to the performances of the engine.
07 ENGINE TORQUEMETER
a) INTRO:
Power (W) = torque x rotational speed in RPM
b) UNITS:
Newton meter (Nm)
c) SENSORS:

Types Principles
Mechanical A pressure gauge based on a Bourdon tube
indicates oil pressure in relation with torque
Electronic 2 teeths wheels : one on propeller shaft, one on the
shaft, free of charge

08 SYNCHROSCOPE
a) INTRO:
• Used to set the engines at the same speed, to avoid uncomfortable low frequencies and vibrations. The
(outer) left engine is the master one, the other(s) is (are) slave(s).
• Avoids asymmetric flight condition, reduces fuel consumption
b) 2 TYPES:
1) Propeller synchroniser
The engines run with the same RPM
2) Propeller synchrophaser

The engines run with the same RPM and adjust the blades to the same position
09 ENGINE VIBRATION MONITORING
a) INTRO:
•Used to monitor engine vibration level (amplitude), which can be associated with a failure (overspeed) for
example.
b) SENSORS:
There are 2 types : magnetic and piezo sensors, based on the principle of accelerometer.

72
II/ MEASUREMENT OF AIR DATA PARAMETERS
01 INTRODUCTION
a) PRESSURE:
Static Pressure (Ps) : the pressure applied on all the parts of an object surrounded by air. Ps is measured by
a static source.
Dynamic Pressure (Pd) : the pressure created by kinetic energy of moving molecules of air due to the relative
speed of the plane.
Total Pressure (Pt) : Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure. Pt is measured with a Pitot tube.
During pressure measurement, we can expect antenna error, which is a factor of : aircraft position, airplane
configuration, speed, angle of attack…
Important to keep in mind the Pitot/Static system of the airplane, one exemple :

b) TEMPERATURE:
Static Air Temperature (SAT) or Outside Air Temperature (OAT) : the temperature of the still air surrounding
the aircraft.
Total Air Temperature (TAT) : As the sensor is moving at the speed of the aircraft, the air is compressed and
there is an adiabatic increase in temperature, known as RAM Rise. We have : TAT = SAT (1+ 0.2 KRM²),
KR = Recovery factor (0.7<KR<0.9)

73
02 INSTRUMENT

Instrument Principle Errors/… Blockage/Leak

Altimeter • Barometric : Static port
If Pressure ↓, True altitude ↓ ALT
If dissymetric flight : the
• Temperature : altimeter underestimates
If Temp ↓, density ↑, pressure ↓ so True or overestimates the
altitude(ZT) ↓. height.
→ « Colder = lower = Hazard »
ZT = ZI(indicated) +/- (4ft/°C/1000ft)
ALT Indication is frozen
• •Instrumental :
Mechanism, hysterisis (lag), position of the
• Servo-altimeter with electromagnetic pick up device plane (antenna error), time lag, pressure (cf
Pressurized If there is leak, the
ASI)
indication is :
1 ALT
1 higher
If we use Alternate static source, Altimeter will
2 2 the altitude of
overread
the cabin

Vertical • Time lag If the Static port is blocked, and

Speed the plane is
Indicator •Temperature, air viscosity climbing/descending, the
(VSI) indication will return to zero
• Static position error within 3/5 sec.

•Instantaneous VSI : VSI + accelerometers to reduce time

lag.
74
Airspeed • Instrument • If blockage in the static line :
Indicator If speed ↑, ASI underreads
(ASI) • Pressure If speed ↓, ASI overreads
→ position of Pitot/Static port
→ Manoeuvring • if blockage in the Pitot line :
→ compressibility (ASI overreads at high ASI acts as an altimeter
speed and high altitude
→density • If leak in Pitot line :
ASI displays zero
• Accuracy : 3% or 5kt
• If we use Alternate static
TAS = IAS +1%(IAS)/600ft +/-1%(IAS)/5°CΔ(ISA) source, ASI will overread

Instrumental antenna error

IAS CAS

Compressibility
factor kc

Density 1/√𝜌
EAS TAS

75
 Machmeter • Static and Pitot Same as ASI

• Instrument
z CAS TAS

Mach = M = TAS/LSS = TAS/(39√𝑆𝐴𝑇)

LSS = local speed of sound
LSS ↓

ANGLE OF ATTACK
Measuring the Angle of attack (AoA) is important because it is linked with the stall.

Flight path angle

76
Sensors :

• Paddle sensor : the simplest device : • Vane sensor = alpha vane, assembled with a synchro transmitter :

• Probe sensor : they are heated to protect them of icing

77
AIR DATA COMPUTER (ADC)
The ADC is a computer which accepts measurements of atmospheric data to calculate various flight related data.

78
 III/MAGNETISM
01 MAGNETIC FIELD AND DEFINITION
The Earth’s magnetic field is 11-degrees tilted from the spin axis of the Earth, so North geographic pole ≠ North magnetic pole.
a) INCLINATION:
Inclination is the angle between field line and Earth’s surface. Inclination varies with the latitude : 0° at the equator and 90°at poles.
The magnetic field is strongest near the magnetic poles and weakest near the equator.
b) VARIATION VAR = MAGNETIC DECLINATION:
Var True North TN We have mN = TN + Var.

Isogonic lines are lines of same variation, agonic line is a line of null variation.
Magnetic North Convention : Variation is positive if magnetic North if east of True North, and negative if it is to the west.
mN
Example : TN = 270°, Var = 3°W, so mN = 270 + (-3) = 263 °.

We find mN by a compass, which points the direction of the horizontal component of the magnetic field.
As the field is roughly vertical at the pole, a compass sis very inaccurate over there.

c) DEVIATION d:
We must know that an aircraft has its own magnetic field due to ferrous metal masses, magnet for example. So, a compass, when situated in an aircraft does
not show mN, but a « different North » called « compass North cN ». The angle between mN and cN is the deviation d.

We have cN = mN + d
d mN
Convention : deviation is positive if compass North if east of True North, and negative if it is to the west.

cN Exemple : mN = 350°, d = 8°E, so cN = 350 + (8) = 358°

79
Causes of deviation :
1. HARD IRON
These are ferrous metal masses having a permanent magnetic effect : their actions are constant.
Solution : Semi-circular compensator
2. SOFT IRON
These are ferrous metal masses having a temporary magnetic effect. These effects depend on aeroplanes’
heading and the local angle of dip.
Solution : quadrantal compensator
Isoclinic lines are lines with equal angle of dip.

Another solution to counter deviation is a compass swing :

• Measurement of the amount of deviation on a series of heading (swinging)
• Correction of this deviation (compensation)
• Recording of the residual deviation (compass regulation)

With this procedure, we can realize this card :

TO SUM UP:
TN
mN Var
mN = TN + var Var and d < 0 if W

d cN = mN + d Var and d > 0 if E

cN cN = TN + var + d

80
02 DIRECT READING COMPASS
a) INTRO:
It is used as a standby instrument, it does not need electrical or vaccum
supplied except for lighting purpose.
It indicates a compass heading by aligning itself with the horizontal component
of the Magnetic field, and not a magnetic heading because of a permanent
magnet bar inside the instrument.

b) COMPENSATION OF THE TILT:

The horizontal component of Earth’s magnetic field tends to tilt down compass magnets. To overcome this
problem, a pendulous system is used by displacing the centre of gravity of the needle.
However, this solution leads to some errors :
c) ERRORS IN FLIGHT:

Attitude error While climbing or descending, the needle can

consider a residual part of the vertical
component of the magnetic field
Longitudinal accelerations/deceleration For Northern Hemisphere
If HDG is EAST or WEST -> ANDS:
Acceleration: apparent turn to the North
Deceleration: apparent turn to the South

For Southern Hemisphere

If HDG is EAST or WEST -> SAND:
Acceleration: apparent turn to the South
Deceleration: apparent turn to the North

For both Hemisphere, if HDG is North or South,

no apparent turn

Turning error
In the Northern Hemisphere, in a turn, the N
compass lags on northerly headings and leads on 360 - E 360 + E
southerly headings.
The pilot
Angle of bank+Latitude overshoots
The Error E is 𝐸 = 2

The pilot
undershoots
180 - E S 180 + E

81
03 FLUX VALVE
a) PURPOSE:
To minimize the errors of the direct reading compass, we use a flux valve which allows to remotely sensor
the horizontal component of the magnetic field, without magnetic disturbances.
b) THE SYSTEM:
It uses a soft iron magnetic core to detect the magnetic field. The whole system is composed of the flux
valve, an amplifier, a motor, a directional gyro.

IV/ GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS

01 GYROSCOPE
a) DEFINITION:
A gyroscope is made up of a wheel which rotates very quickly 9000-12000 rpm.
It has one degree of freedom (= the number of axis around which the gyroscope can rotate in space,
excluding the gyroscope’s own spinning axis). We can increase the degree of freedom using gimbals.
If a gyroscope has a horizontal spinning axis, it is called a horizontal gyroscope.
b) PROPERTIES:
Rigidity in the space: the tendency of the gyro to remain in its plane of rotation and resist attempts to alter
his position. It is proportional to the rpm, and moment of inertia.
The inertia is greater when rpm is high and the mass of the spinning wheel is located further from the axis
of rotation.
The precession: when a force is applied to a gyro that tends to change the direction of the spinning axis, the
axis will move in a direction at right angle to the direction in which the force is applied

82
 c) GYRO WANDER:
A wander is any precession of a gyro without an obvious cause.

Real It is caused by
wander mechanical
imperfection:
Real drift: movement
around the vertical axis
Real topple: movement
around the horizontal
axis

Apparent Because of the Earth’s

drift rotation.
Movement around the
vertical axis:

= 15°/h x sin (Latitude).

Drfit is to the right in the

Northern Hemisphere,
to the left in the
Southern

Apparent Because of the Earth’s

topple rotation.
Movement around the
horizontal axis:

= 15°/h x cos (Latitude).

Drift is to the right in the

Northern Hemisphere,
to the left in the
Southern
Transport = °/ℎ =
wander GS x sin(TT) x tan (Lat)
60
GS = Ground speed
TT = average True Track
between A and B

d) TYPE OF GYRO:
Free gyro = space gyro: it maintains the same orientation in the space.
Tied gyro: it has its freedom of movement reduced or controlled by an external force.
Earth gyro: a tied gyro where the controlling force is the gravity of the Earth.

83
 e) POWER SOURCE:
• Air driven gyro: with vaccum pressure pump and airflow inlet
• Electrically driven gyro: with AC (or DC) motor.
f) RATE GYRO:
It indicates a rate of rotation due to the extension of the calibration spring between the gimbal and the
frame.
g) RATE INTEGRATING GYRO:
It indicates a rotational distance or an angular displacement. It is fully accurate for small angle. It uses a liquid
to reduce friction.
02 TURN AND SLIP INDICATOR – TURN COORDINATOR
• 1 degree of freedom.
• horizontal gyro, which axis is parallel to the wings.
• indicates rate of turn. Standard turn = 3°/sec = 360°/2min = 15%TAS, independent of the weight.
•it measures a yaw rate inversely proportional to the TAS.
• indication lower if gyro rotate slowly.
For the slip indicator:
• On the ground, for right turn: needle to the right, ball to the left.
• In flight :

NB:
The turn coordinator
indicates a roll rate, a rate of
turn and coordination.
The turn and slip indicator
shows the rate of turn and
coordination.
• During acceleration: climbing with right turn
84
03 ATTITUDE INDICATOR (ARTIFICIAL HORIZON)
• 2 degree of freedom
• vertical gyro
• 3 types: pendulous-flaps erecting, ball erecting mechanism and electrical erecting mechanism
• Error :
1) If gyro is spinning in an anti-clockwise direction: it will indicate a false climbing turn to the right
2) Left turn: it indicates a false descent, right turn, a false climb (max after a 360°)

pitch
error

turn
180 360

bank

NB: The adjustment knob is used to avoid parallax error.

04 DIRECTIONAL GYROSCOPE
a) DEFINITION:
A Directional gyro is a magnetic compass without magnetic and stability disturbances.
It is a tied gyro with 2 degree of freedom, and its spin axis is horizontal. They can be electrically or
pneumatically (the compass card is mounted on the outer gimbal) driven.
b) ERRORS:
However, we cannot erase all the errors:
•Gimballing errors: they occur while banking of pitching.
• Apparent and Transport Wander (as seen before)

85
05 REMOTE READING COMPASS SYSTEM
It is composed of the flux valve, a comparator (Magnetic heading VS Gyro Heading), an amplifier Azimuth
torque Motor, Direction gyro and an indicator.
The advantage of a gyromagnetic compass sis to combine the north-seeking ability of the magnetic compass
with the stability of the direction indicator.
06 SOLIDE STATE SYSTEM – Attitude Heading and Reference System AHRS
a) DEFINTION:
Nowadays, we do not use gyroscopes and other individual instruments, we use AHRS which is a systems
sensors that enables to compute the aircraft’s position thanks to magnetic field and acceleration. These
sensors are called MEMS accelerometers and are based on the variation of its capacity, we also find 3
magnetometers to measure the Earth’s magnetic field.

V/ INS AND IRS

INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEMS INERTIAL REFERENCE SYSTEMS

Stabilized Inertial platform Strapped down
3 integrating gyros + 2 accelerometers (servo- 3 ring laser gyros (2 laser beams + mirrors giving a
accelerometers with pendulum and torque motor) phase and rotation rate) + 3 accelerometers
strapped to the frame
ALIGNEMENT: no movement of the a/c, 20 min ALIGNEMENT: no movement of the a/c, 3-10min:
• Latitude & longitude • computing trihedron with respect to the
• Azimuth gimbal positioned to the true HDG Earth
• comparison inserted/calculated latitude • calculate only latitude
North alligned by horizontal gyro and east gyro
ERRORS: PROBLEM: detection of small movement, in case of
• Unbounded: increasing with time (or time²) laser lock in, we use a dither motor.
& distance
• Gimbaling: because of the bank angle
• average error = 1.5 Nm/H
• Accepts 10° error in latitude, none in
longitude
OPERATION:
• OFF
• STBY : self-test + initial position is entered via CDU
• ALIGN : alignment
• NAV : normal mode
• ATT : emergency mode : only Attitude and Heading are supplied
OUTPUTS: OUTPUTS:
• Position, GS, True Track, Wind ... • Position, GS, attitude, Wind, Drift…
Lighter, lower consumption
Instantaneous, easier, cheaper, more reliable.

86
VI/ AUTOMATIC FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS
01 GENERALITIES

BASIC MODES UPPER MODES

Manage the ATTITUDE variations of the a/c relative Manage the POSITION of the centre of gravity of the
to its centre of gravity (pitch, yaw, roll) a/c.
Automatically engaged if Autopilot is working Implemented only if basic modes are working
ENGAGED ENGAGED (green) or ARMED (white)
2 loops : 3 loops:
• control surface loop: stops movement when • control surface loop
the position is reached • internal loop
• internal loop: controls basic parameters • external loop: defines a suitable target pitch
(attitude, bank) attitude or bank angle
2 types of modes : lateral and vertical Guidance or Control modes
• on conventional a/c: bank angle & attitude
holding
• on modern a/c: Heading or Ground Track
holding & Vertical speed of Flight path angle holding
We can encounter a lot of AFCS : autopilot, auto throttle, yaw damper, automatic trim…
02 AUTOPILOT AP
An a/c can have 1,2 or 3 axis autopilots, varying from stabilization to stabilization and control of the a/c.
Regulation: an airplane for a single IFR pilot operation must be equipped with an AP with at least altitude
hold and heading modes.
There is different use of the AP :
• Manual flight

Instruments The pilot analyses and The pilot operates the control Aircraft
perceptions determines the flight surfaces. result
commands.

• Flight using a flight director FD

Flight Datas FD computer The pilots Aircraft

(INS, FMS…) operate the result
control
surfaces.

•Auto flight:
All is made by the autopilot thanks to an AP computer, AP servomotor.

87
•MODES AND ENGAGEMENT :
OFF
MAN: only Basic Modes, AP maintains a/c’s attitude (pitch + bank), react to the input (pitch or bank)
of the Mode Control Panel (MCP)
CWS Control Wheel Steering, basic mode only, if pilots move the yoke, the AP maintains the last
attitude
CMD: Basic and Upper mode, holding of V/S, altitude, heading.
• SYNCHRONIZATION LOOP
Its failure prevents the AP from being engaged
It ensures a smooth transition from manual to automatic flight.
•CONTROL LAW
It’s the relation between control surface deflection command issued by the computer and the deviation
signal.
• SAFETY FACTORS
For engagement of the AP: check AP integrity, turn thumbwheel centred, synchronization loop in service
For AUTO-disengagement of the AP: loss of attitude data, computer failure, loss of auto-trim -> « MASTER
WARNING » audio alarm + Red visual Warning
For MANUAL-disengagement: press AP disconnection push-button
•AP/FD MODES
To disengage a mode on one axis, engage another mode on the same axis.
a) FLIGHT DIRECTOR : DESIGN AND OPERATIO:
• It indicates to the pilot the OPTIMAL BANK ANGLE & ATTITUDE to be adopted to follow a selected path.
The FD is composed of a computer and cross bars.
« Roll »
• The aim is to have centred the crossbars,
« Pitch »
by AP or manually

• For this example, we have to pitch

down.

b) FLIGHT MODE ANNUNCIATOR (FMA):

• It is displayed on the PFD, it shows data about AP MODES, FD MODES, AUTOTHROTTLE engage status.
« FMA »
• ENGAGED modes are in GREEN.
• ARMED modes are in WHITE.
• The modes that have just been engaged are framed for a second. 88
 c) AUTOLAND:

NON-PRECISION or CONVENTIONAL Approach PRECISION Approach

Lateral guidance (ILS Localizer, VOR, NDB…)
Lateral guidance ILS Localizer or PAR
NO Vertical guidance Vertical guidance ILS Glideslope or PAR
Distance (NOT mandatory) Distance
Minimum vertical param : Read on the CAT I: Read on the Altimeter set to QNH -> DA
Altimeter set to QNH -> MDA (Min. Descent (Decision Altitude)
Altitude) CAT II/III : Read on radio altimeter
(2radioaltimeters) -> DH (Decision Height)
Minimum horizontal param : meteorological CAT I: meteorological visibility or RVR
visibility or RVR CAT II/III: RVR

Semi-manual or semi-automatic
approach

• Automatic landing: until touchdown of the wheels.

• Operation : Approach on LOC and GS
500 ft: FLARE armed + APs on LOC/GS
400 ft: AP nose up in case of GA
50 ft: FLARE engaged by APs + LOC but no GS
27 ft: RETARD engaged, thrust reduced
• 2 APs are engaged.
• FAIL PASSIVE system: if failure, no effect on instantaneous path but with auto disconnection of AP at a
certain radio altimeter height.
• FAIL OPERATIONAL system: the system is not degraded by a failure.
• The pilot must check the crosswind, pressure altitude and runway contamination before setting an
Autoland.
d) AUTOMATIC GO-AROUND:
• Controlled by pilot during approach via TOGA switches, the a/c follows runway centreline + constant IAS
• Fixed thrust mode on A/T, when engaged, 1 AP disconnects.

89
VII/ TRIMS – YAW DAMPER – FLIGHT ENVELOPE PROTECTION
01 TRIM SYSTEMS
• The aim of trimming is to cancel the pilot’s effort on the control wheel, or rudder pedal.
• On transport ac: on yaw, roll and pitch axis.
• 3 types of Pitch trim: Electric (switches), Manual (wheel), Automatic (AP)
• AUTOMATIC PITCH TRIM:
Pitch trim : the AP only acts on the pitch trim
It allows pilot to take back control of a correctly trimmed ac when AP disconnects
It eases the load on servo actuator and reduces hinge moment.
If failure, the AP disconnects.
• MACH TRIM:
At cruising altitude, we fly at Mach number, and because of compressibility effect, the centre of
pressure moves along the wing resulting in a natural nose-down moment at a certain Mach number. The
Mach tri mis designed to counter this pitch down attitude thanks to a deflection of the THS (Trimmable
Horizontal Stabilizer).
• ANGLE OF ATTACK TRIM:
At high Mach number & angle of attack a nose up moment occurs, the angle of attack trim counter
this by a THS pitched down. This function is inhibited when flaps/slats are deployed or on the ground.
02 YAW DAMPER
The goal is to prevent the Dutch Roll (a combination of rolling and yawing movement which could be fatal).
It takes place in series and downstream of the rudder, but NO feedback is provided to the pilot.
It is independent of the AP.
But it is not designed to provide balanced turn.
03 FLIGHT ENVELOPE PROTECTION (FEP)
• For ac without FEP, ac with conventional flight controls, a control position always corresponds to the same
control surface position. Exceeding the ac limits is possible. However, warning/indicator a set to inform the
pilot of exceeding these limits (speed, bank angle…), like stick pusher/puller depending of the angle of attack
and flaps position. It provides stall, overspeed protection
• For ac with FEP:
this ac has electrical transmission flight controls
Load factor limit: -1g < n < 2.5 g
It provides overbank, overpitch, high speed protection

90
VIII/ AUTOTHROTTLE – AUTOMATIC TRHUST CONTROL SYSTEM
01 SYSTEM
On modern aircraft, there are 3 scenarios:
Throttle FADEC/
Pilot lever Engine
ECC

Pilot
MCP A/T

FMS Limit N1/EPR

FMS

• MCP: Mode Control Panel

• FMS: Flight Management System
• FADEC/ECC: Full Authority Digital Engine Control/Electronic Engine Control, is a computer in the engine
nacelle and designed to ensure the overall control of the engine.
• A/T = Auto Throttle.
02 A/T and A/THR
• A/T (Auto Throttle): the computer acts upstream of the throttle levers, which therefore move under its
action. There is a match between the position of the levers and the thrust.
• A/THR (Auto Thrust): The computer acts downstream of the throttle levers, which therefore never move
automatically. There is no correspondence between the throttle position and the thrust.
03 OPERATING MODES
•Engagement: ARM + TOGA Switch on the throttle lever or Push-button on the MCP.
• SPEED mode: Acquisition and maintaining a target indicated airspeed.
• MACH mode: Acquisition and maintaining of a fixed thrust.
•TAKE OFF and CLIMB modes: Acquisition and maintaining of a fixed thrust. A reduction thrust is possible,
by entering an assumed temperature via MCDU, the thrust reduction value should never exceed 25% of the
day’s take-off thrust.
IV/ COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
01 VOICE COMMUNICATION
• Via Very High Frequencies (VHF):
From 118.000 to 136.995 MHz. 121.5 is dedicated to emergencies.
We use Amplitude Modulation (AM). The band is divided into 2 parts : Lower Side Band (for military purpose)
and Upper Side Band for civilian. VHF wave can be subjected to « anger phenomenon » : reflection, waves
return to the ground.
91
• via High Frequencies (HF):
From 3-30 MHZ, it is used for VOLMETs and to communicate with international stations.
• via SATCOM (Satellites)
Provided by Inmarsat with geostationary satellites transmitting in the UHF band. But they do not cover the
poles
Notes: Iridium satellites can cover the poles.
02 DATALINK COMMUNICATION
Different categories: AOC (operational), AAC (administrative), ATC (control, traffic), APC (passengers)
They use phase modulation and are character-oriented or Bit-oriented.
2 Possible equipments :
ACARS: Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System, operated by ARINC (North
America) and by SITA (Europe). Inboard, Flight Crew uses CDU (Control Display Unit) or MCDU (Multipurpose
CDU)
CPDLC: Controller Pilot Data Link Communications. It is a powerful mean for ATC com in oceanic or
remote areas, based on data authority concept.

Moreover, we can find the ADS (Automatic Dependent Surveillance) which broadcast data, information for
the ATC without Crew action.
X/ FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FMS
01 DESIGN
Its role is to facilitate the tracking of the flight laterally, vertically (and sometimes with and Aid fuel efficiency)
using the flight plan and other parameters entered by the crew, with its updated navigation database.
It can give an 3D flight management or 4D flight management if Required Time of Arrival is given.
• FMS = 1 or 2 FMC (Flight Management Computer) + 1 / 2 or 3 MCDU (Multipurpose Control and Display
Unit, these are the interfaces between pilots and computer).
INPUTS : ADC, IRS, AP, EFIS … OUTPUTS : FADEC, AP, MCDU, Nav radios….
• MODES:
DUAL INDEPENDANT SINGLE

MCDU MCDU MCDU MCDU MCDU MCDU

FMC FMC 92
FMC FMC FMC FMC
BACKUP : Both FMCs are down. The 2 MCDUs still have the active route in their memory, and it can be
modified by defining each waypoint its coordinates.
02 DATABASES
The FMC contains 2 navigation databases and 1 aircraft database.
a) NAVIGATION DATABASE:
Each database has a validity of 28 days. The checking of the date of validity must be made by the
crew via IDENT page. Flight crew cannot modify the database: they are read-only data.
Contents of the navigation database :

Contents Max number of

characters
NDB 3
AIRPORTS 4
VOR 4
DME/TACAN 4
RUNWAY 5
WAYPOINTS 5
SID/STAR 5
AIRWAYS 6

b) AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE DATABASE:

They contain: Fuel, optimum & max flight level, thrust, ToD, ToC, Speed…
03 OPERATIONS AND LIMITATIONS
a) COST INDEX CI:
CI = (flight time without fuel cost) / fuel cost
0 < CI < 999 or 9999. CI = 0 -> Max Range Speed. CI = 999- or 9999-min flight time speed.
So, if CI ↑ -> trip fuel & airspeed ↑.
b) FMS FUEL CALCULATIONS:
It takes several factors into account as the wind.
BUT it does not consider:
• Engine failure (pilot has to inform the FMS) • landing gear position
• Use of anti-icing • Flaps position • Use of spoilers
c) FMS POSITION:
• FMS receives for the alignment info from: IRS (The first 3 pages are IDENT, POS INIT, ROUTE),
GPS, VOR/ILS, DME.
• Updating the position: via (accuracy ++) LOC+ GPS, LOC + DME, GPS, DME/DME, VOR/DME
(accuracy --). At no time, the position can be reset. The position is the most inaccurate at the end of the
cruise.
93
The FMS can be used as guidance for non-precision approach, vertical guidance on pressure altitude (flight
path angle + airspeed) and possibility of temperature compensation function. And it can generate
warning/advisory messages.
XI/ ALERTING SYSTEMS, PROXIMITY SYSTEMS
01 GENERAL
WARNING: immediate flight crew awareness & immediate flight crew response -> RED indication

. Visual, audible, tactile (at least 2).

CAUTION: immediate flight crew awareness & subsequent flight crew response -> AMBER indication
. Visual, audible, tactile (at least 2).
ADISORY: flight crew awareness & may require subsequent flight crew response -> BLUE or WHITE
indication.
02 FLIGHT WARNING SYSTEM FWS
• centralises failures coming from all the aircraft systems
• centralises dangerous flight conditions
• prioritises & generates warnings
• displays on ECAM or EICAS the procedure to follow
• some warnings and cautions can be automatically inhibited during Start UP or TO to avoid false
warning, or can be cancelled by the crew
03 STALL WARNING SYSTEM
• Cancelled on the ground
• Stall occurs when AoA is critical
• alerts when the speed reduces at rate < 1kt/s or Speed < 5kt or 0.05xCAS + stall speed
• stick shaker linked with AoA
• stick pusher: push down the control column + A/T action
04 OVERSPEED WARNING
• VMO & MMO (max speed and Mach nb, calculated by ADC with Static & Total pressure)
-> Aural warning + overspeed message
05 TAKE-OFF WARNING
•Aural warning if: wing flaps or leading-edge devices, wing spoiler, speed brakes, longitudinal trim
devices are not within the approved range of TO position.
• NO alarm does not guarantee that the stabilizer, flaps are correctly set, but in the green sector.

94
06 ALTITUDE ALERT SYSTEM
• alerts when the pilot is approaching a pre-selected altitude (800ft) or deviating (200ft) from it.
07 RADIO ALTIMETER
• provides True height bellow the lowest wheel from 0 ft to 2500 ft, but necessity to compensate for
residual height & cable length. Accuracy: +/- 2 ft (0 ft to 500ft).
• continuous wave radar on 4,2 – 4,4 GHz (SHF)
• compares frequency of Reception and Transmission signals, 2 antennas.
• supplies AP/FD, GPWS, TCAS
08 GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM GPWS
• Caution & warning triggered in the range of 50 ft to 2500 ft above the ground
• mandatory for all turbine engine aircraft with MTOM > 5.7t
• inputs : ADC, radio alt, NAV ILS, flap position, landing gear
•

MODE Warning
Excessive rate of descent « Sink rate » + « whoop whoop PULL UP »
Excessive closure rate to terrain « Terrain » + « whoop whoop PULL UP »
Alt. Loss after TO or GA « Don’t sink »
Unsafe terrain clearance based on a/c « Too low Gear », « too low terrain », « too low
configuration flaps »
Excessive deviation from Glideslope « GlideSlope »
Call out Height « 300ft », « 50ft »…., bank angle warning
Windshear « Windshear »+ « Pull up »

• EGPWS = Enhanced GPWS: with terrain database, GPS, the EGPWS gives information about the
terrain ahead. Caution : 40-60 s from projected impact, Warning 20-30 s from projected impact.

95
09 TRAFIC COLISION AND AVOIDANCE SYSTEM TCAS
• on turbine powered a/c with > 19 seats + >5.7t., TCAS computer uses configuration of the a/c,
pressure altitude from mode C transponder, height from Radio Altimeter.
• TCAS I: gives only Traffic Advisories (TA)
• TCAS II: gives TA and Resolution advisories (RA) :

A/C 1 A/C 2 Functions TCAS uses 1030 MHz

Mode C or S NO Transponder A/C get Nothing interrogation signals
Mode C or S Mode A TA and 1090 MHz
Mode C or S Mode C or S TA & RA response signal.
Upper antenna of
TCAS is separated
from transponder
antenna & directional

• symbols displayed on the ND

• TA & RA are based on time.

XII/ INTEGRATED INSTRUMENTS – ELECTRONIC DISPLAY UNIT
01 MECHANICAL INTEGRATED INSTRUMENT

Attitude
Director
Indicator
ADI

96
Horizontal
Situation
Indicator
HSI

Radio
Magnetic
Indicator
RMI

02 ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS EFIS

a) ECP: EFIS CONTROL PANEL:

It is used to control the EFIS mode.

97
 b) EFIS MODES:

ILS MODE

VOR MODE

NAV MODE

ARC MODE

PLAN MODE
• True North UP
• Screen centerd on a selected waypoint

98
XIII/ MAINTENANCE, MONITORING AND RECORDING SYSTEMS
01) COCKPIT VOICE RECORDER CVR
• at least 2 hours of recording, 30 min for the oldest a/c. Recording from prior a/c movement
to flight completion.
• for a/c > 5.7 t or > 9 pax.
• Composition:
1) CONTROL UNIT : Micro + test button + erase button (for deleting data on the gnd)
2) UNDERWATER LOCATOR BEACON : until 14000 ft deep, activated when immersed
• 4 channels:
1) Com transmitted or received by the cockpit
2) Audio environnement of cockpit
3) Crew member’s com via interphone
4) Crew member’s com via public address
➔ Cabin attendant’s com in the cabin via interphone are not recorded.

02) FLIGHT DATA RECORDER FDR

• at least 25 hours of recording
• Composition:
1) Flight Data Acquisition Unit (FDAU)
2) Shock resistant with ULB, event switch, recording system.
• records operating condition of flight (time, alt, attitude, airspeed, hdg…
XIV/ DIGITAL CIRCUITS AND COMPUTERS
• Hardware: Physical part of computer
• Software: Intelligence of computer, computer program…
• Von Neumann Architecture: common memory for instructions + data + CPU + ALU + CU +
memory.
• Buses :
1) Parallel buses: simultaneously via several wires, fast, short distance
2) Serial buses bit after bit via single pair of wires, slow, long range
• Chips Memories :
1) ROM Read ONLY memories, permanent data
a. Memory remain when not Powered
b. Non-volatile
c. PROM, EPROM
2) RAM: Random-access memories
a. Read or written
b. Lost when not powered
c. Volatile
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 • Central Processing Unit CPU : carries out instructions of a computer program, composed of :
1) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): heart of CPU, basic operation
2) Control Unit (CU): directs operations & flow of data
3) Registers
• Multitasking: software tricks, appearance of running program is simultaneous,
switches rapidly between each program
• Multiprocessing: several CPU, hardware solution.
➔ Multiprocessing > Multitasking

100
031 MASS & BALANCE

101
I/ UNIT CONVERSION
• 1 lb = 0.45359 kg or 1 kg = 2.2046 lb • 1NM = 1 852 m
• 1 ft = 0.305 cm or 1 m = 3.28ft • 1 USG = 3.785 L
• 1 inch = 2.54 cm • 1ImpG = 4.546 L
01 FUEL DENSITY OR SPECIFIC DENSITY
Published in the flight Manual if the actual fuel density is unknown.
EX: specific gravity = 0.812, What is the mass in lb of 1292L of fuel ?
➔ 1292 x 0.812 = 1049 kg. OR 1 kg = 2.2046 lb -> 1049 kg = 1049 x 2.2046 = 2 313 lb.

II/ MASS
• Masses are defined according to structural, performances and operational aspects.
NB: In this subject, we consider “weight W = mass M”.
01 STRUCTURAL MASS LIMITS
• The following masses are based on the airplane maximum structural capability. These certified masses are
published in the Flight Manual and they are fixed.
a) MAXIMUM TAXI (RAMP) WEIGHT MTW:

➔ It is the maximum mass allowed for movement of the airplane on the ground.

b) MAXIMUM (STRUCTURAL) TAKE-OFF WEIGHT MTOW:

➔ It is the maximum mass allowed at the start of the take-off run.

c) MAXIMUM (STRUCTURAL) LANDING WEIGHT MLW:

➔ It is the maximum mass allowed for a normal landing of the airplane.

d) MAXIMUM ZERO FUEL WEIGHT MZFW:

➔ It is the maximum mass allowed before loading fuel on board.

➔ The mass is limited by the maximum bending moment produced at the wing root (wing/body
intersection).

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 ➔ It is recommended to maintain the fuel CG (=centre of gravity) of the wing at the most outboard
location of the wing.
➔ Consequences: for refuelling, it is recommended to fill the outer wing tank first, the inner wing tank
and the centre tank. For fuel consumption, it must be done in the centre tank first, then in the inner
wing tank and finally in the outer wing tank.
02 PERFORMANCE MASS LIMIT
• The performance mass limitations depend on airport infrastructure and weather conditions.
a) MAXIMUM PERFORMANCE TAKE-OFF MASS:

➔ Field length, obstacles clearance, brake energy limits…

b) MAXIMUM PERFORMANCE EN ROUTE MASS:

c) MAXIMUM PERFORMANCE LANDING MASS:

➔ Field length and go-around climb gradient.

03 ALLOWABLE TAKE-OFF MASS
• The allowable take-off mass takes into account both performance & structural limitations.
• It is the maximum permissible T/O mass for a given flight. It is the lowest between the Structural limited
mass and the performance limited mass.
a) DETERMINATION OF THE ALLOWABLE T/O MASS:

• To determine the allowable take-off mass, we take the lowest of:

TAXI ZERO FUEL TAKE-OFF LANDING

MTW MZFW MTOW structural MTOW structural
– + MTOW performances The lowest MTOW performances The lowest
Taxi fuel Usable T/O fuel +
Trip fuel

NB: all mass above must be performed to comply with the brake release condition.
b) USUABLE T/O FUEL FOR MASS AND BALANCE:

It is the sum of: trip fuel + contingency fuel + alternate (diversion) fuel + final reserve fuel + additional fuel.

Contingency fuel Final reserve: 30min at

(unexpected changes 1500ft above alternate
in flight) terrain for turbine.
45 min for piston

Engine failure,
depresurization

T/O fuel = (Trip + contingency + alternate + final reserve + additional) fuel

Block fuel = T/O fuel + taxi fuel 103

 c) CALCULATION OF ALLOWABLE TAKE-OFF MASS:

Ex:
Max ramp mass = 62 900kg Trip fuel = 5 200 kg
Max structural take-off mass = 62 350kg Taxi fuel = 250 kg
Max structural landing mass = 54 450 kg Contingency fuel = 300 kg
Max zero fuel mass = 50 240 kg Final reserve fuel = 800kg
Alternate fuel = 1 000 kg
Performance limited take-off mass = 60 450 kg
Performance limited landing mass = 52 250 kg

TAXI ZERO FUEL TAKE-OFF LANDING

MTW MZFW MTOW structural MTOW structural
– + MTOW performances The lowest MTOW performances The lowest
Taxi fuel Usable T/O fuel +
= 62 900 = 50 240 + 5200 = 60 450 Trip fuel
– 250 = + 300 +800 = 52 250 + 5 200 = 57 450
62 650 +1000 = 57 540
➔ The lowest is 57 450 kg, it is the allowable take-off mass.

d) OPERATIONAL MASS:

• EM = Empty Mass (or Basic Mass) • BEM = Basic Empty Mass

• DOM = Dry Operating Mass (or Operating Empty Mass) • OM = Operating Mass
(DOI: Dry operating Index, index for position of CG at DOM, DOI calculated from DOMxCG arm/constant).
• ZFM = Zero Fuel Mass • TOM = Take-Off Mass
• TM = Taxi Mass • LM = Landing Mass
• TL = Traffic Load
• Allowable TL = Allowable TOM – OM = Maximum TL obtained by allowable TOM

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 Mass of the structure, powerplant, seats,
EM
systems, unusable fuel, trapped fluids
Engine oil, permanent
Standard items +
one for any flight
emergency equipment, +
empty loading units.

Obtained by weighing, reported

BEM
on the weighing schedule.
Operational items, Crew (+hand baggage +
variable/occasional doc), catering, potable +
items for a given flight water, toilets fluids
Calculated by the operator,
DOM reported on the load manifest.

+
+ Useful load
ZFM OM

+ +

TOM

Taxi/ramp + -
Structural Mass LM Planned LM at destination

e) EFFECT OF OVERLOADING:

• Performances are reduced:

➔ Take-off distance ↑ and climb gradient ↓.

➔ Landing: Landing speed ↑ -> landing distance ↑.

➔ Climb: rate of climb ↓.

➔ Cruise: ceiling height and range ↓.

• Stall Speed VS ↑. • Wear on tyre and brakes ↑.

• Manoeuvrability ↓ . • Structural safety margins ↓.
f) WEIGHING PROCEDURE:
➔ Must be accomplished by the manufacturer or by an approved maintenance organisation.
➔ Weighing must be performed in a minimum of 3 points.
➔ Weighing must be accomplished in an enclosed building.
105
 ➔ All usable fluids (fuel, lavatory fluids, potable water) must be removed, excepts engine oil.
➔ Ensuring that the airplane is clean.
➔ When ?
1. INDIVIDUAL AIRPLANE: weighing every 4 years (expensive).

2. FLEET WEIGHT OR A GROUP OF IDENTICAL AIRPLANES (condition: fleet average DOM/CG VS

individual aeroplane DOM/CG meets the tolerance of +/- 0.5% MLM or +/- 0.5% MAC):
➔ Weighing a minimum number of airplane every 4 years AND
➔ The mass evaluation of each aeroplane of the group must not exceeded 9 year.

N = Nb of identical a/c in the fleet Min nb of weighing

2 to 3 N
4 to 9 (N + 3) / 2
N ≥ 10 (N + 51) / 10
NB: if any change occurs in the airplane equipment, the operator must readjust the mass without having to
weigh the airplane.
To compute the mass, use nose wheel assembly + left main wheel assembly + right main wheel assembly
masses for example.
g) STANDARD MASS VALUES FOR CREW, PASSENGERS AND BAGGAGES:

1. STANDARD MASS VALUES FOR CREW:

➔ Flight crew: 85 kg, including hand baggage.

➔ Cabin crew: 75 kg, including hand baggage.

2. STANDARD MASS VALUES FOR PASSENGERS:

➔ Passengers seats ≤ 19, including hand baggage and checked baggage:

NB OF SEATS 1 to 5 6 to 9 10 to 19
MALE 104 kg 96 kg 92 kg
FEMALE 86 kg 78 kg 74 kg

➔ Specific case for a/c with number of seats < 10: 2 possibilities:
1) Use standard masses of the above table, or
2) Verbal declearation of passenger + standard mass for hand bag (6kg) and clothes
(4kg).
➔ Passenger seats ≥ 20:
1) Standard mass including hand baggage but not checked baggage:

NB OF SEATS 20≤ 30 ≤, ALL ADULT

MALE FEMALE
NON-CHARTER FLIGHT 88 kg 70 kg 84 kg
CHARTER FLIGHT 83 kg 69 kg 76 kg
106
 2) Standard mass for checked baggage or the baggage is weighed:

TYPE OF FLIGHT STANDARD BAGGAGE MASS

DOMESTIC 11 kg
EUROPEAN REGION 13 kg
INTERCONTINENTAL 15 kg
ALL OTHER 13 kg
Weighing machine: 150kg / 500g accuracy.
3. INFANT/ADULT:

➔ Infant : < 2years old -> 0 kg. BUT if the enfant has a seat, 35kg is applied.
➔ 2 years ≤ child < 12 years -> 35 kg.
➔ ≥ 12 years -> adult (refer to the previous tables for the mass).
III/ BALANCE
01 GENERAL
• Prior to every flight, the crew must determine the CG position of the aircraft (in % of MAC (Mean
Aerodynamic chord) or in balance arm), for trimming purpose.
• To ensure that the CG is within the authorised limits (including). The limits are published by the
manufacturer.

Forward CG limit
Aft CG limit

107
 02 INFLUENCE OF CG POSITION
If CG is AFT of the aerodynamic spot AS, If CG is FORWARD of the aerodynamic spot AS,
application point of FL. application point of FL.

FL
FL

Gust CG
CG
Gust

Longitudinal static instability Longitudinal static stability

➔ Increase in manoeuvrability in pitch. ➔ Reduce in manoeuvrability in pitch.

VS PERFORMANCES LONGITUDINAL MANOEUVRABILITY

STABILITY
FORWARD ↑ Requiring a balancing download from the ↑ leads to higher ↓
CG = HEAVY tailplane -> large elevator deflection -> stick force in
NOSE Drag ↑ -> performance (fuel consumption, pitch (take off
range, TO/LDG distance, Rate of climb) ↓ rotation) because
“heavy nose”
AFT CG = ↓ ↑, power ↓ for a given speed, difficulties ↓, ↑
HEAVY TAIL to recover from a spin

03 BALANCE DEFINITIONS
a) CENTRE OF GRAVITY CG: point through which all the aircraft mass is said to act. It is
computed along the longitudinal axis of the a/c.
b) DATUM: fixed point designated by the manufacturer from which all balance arms are taken
in the calculation of the CG. This point may not physically be on the a/c.
c) BALANCE ARM: distance from the datum to the CG of mass. CAUTION: By convention, all
balance arms behind of the datum are positive, and all balance arms forward of the datum
are negative.
d) STATION/POSITION: a location in the a/c identified by a number designating its distance
from the datum.
e) MOMENT = weight x balance arm. It can be negative or positive according to the sign of the
balance arm and the mass (positive mass if load is added, negative mass if load is removed).
f) INDEX: non dimensional figure which represents a value of moment used to simplify the CG
calculations. Usually, it represents a moment divided by a constant.

108
04 CG CALCULATION
a) CG EXPRESSED IN DISTANCE RELATIVE TO DATUM, BY BALANCE ARM:

𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝐶𝐺 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

1. EQUILIBRIUM QUESTION:

B A
Equilibrium -> sum of moment = 0

FA ➔ BFB – AFA=0
FB

What is the distance of displacement of

3m
the triangle to balance the beam ?
1kg
2x – (3-x)1 = 0 -> x = 1m.
2kg
x

l3=8m
Moment 1 = 2x50 = 100
50kg l2=5m 20kg 100kg Moment 2 = 5x20 = 100
l1=2m CG
Moment 3 = 8x100 = 800.
L = (100 + 100 + 800)/ (50 + 20 +100) = 5.9m.
W
L=?

datum
➔ To perform moment, keep in mind the following international convention:

• If mass REMOVED, mass is NEGATIVE (and vice versa).

• If mass is FORWARD (left of) the datum, balance arm is NEGAVITVE (and vice
versa)
Ex 1:
datum
Mass of nose wheel : 7 800 kg.
Mass of left main wheel: 11 800 kg.
Mass of right main wheel : 11 400 kg.
CG ?
7.5m 6.8m ➔ CG = (-7.5x7800 + 23200x6.8)/31000=3.2m (positive ->
behind the datum)

109
 Ex 2:
Initial mass = 40 156 kg Initial balance arm = 16.7
Load 1 added = 1000 kg Balance arm 1 = 3.8m
Load removed = 5000 kg Balance arm 2 = 22m
New CG ?
➔ CG = (sum of moments)/(sum of mass)= (40156x16.7 + 1000x3.8 – 5000x22)/(36156) = 15.6m
b) CG EXPRESSED IN % OF MAC:

1. BASIC FORMULA:
➔ The manufacturer defined a particular chord from the wing which is the MAC: AB
➔ The CG is expressed in % of MAC (CG = 33% of MAC means that the CG was positioned at 33% of the
length of the chord measured backwards from the leading edge of the MAC)

AB = MAC
A CG B

➔ CG= %MAC = AG/AB x100.

2. FORMULA RELATIVE TO DATUM:

LEMAC: dist from MAC
LEMAC Leading edge to datum

MAC = AB
CG
A B These 2 figures are given
by the manufacturer.

datum L

𝐴𝐺 𝐿 − 𝐿𝐸𝑀𝐴𝐶
𝐶𝐺 = %𝑀𝐴𝐶 = 100 = 100
𝐴𝐵 𝑀𝐴𝐶

Ex
CG = 15% MAC, LEMAC = 625,6 in, MAC = 134,5 in. What is the position of CG in relation to the datum?
➔ CG position = L= 15/100 x MAC +LEMAC = 20.175 + 625.6 = 645.775in.

110
 3. CG CALCULATION WITH MOMENTS:
l2

l1
CG

m1
m2
L W=Mg

𝑚1𝑙1 + 𝑚2𝑙2
𝐿=
𝑀

4. ADDING OR REMOVING MASS:

Li
CG

m
Wi = Mig
Lf Wf = Mfg

CAUTION : sign of MASS (added ? removed ?)

𝑚 𝛥𝐶𝐺 𝑚 𝛥𝐶𝐺
𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝐺 ∶ = 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚: =
𝑀𝑓 𝛥𝑑𝐶𝐺𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑖 𝛥𝑑𝐶𝐺𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙

m = mass to be added/removed.
ΔCG = distance between final and initial CG position
Mi = total mass of the airplane before adding or removing the mass m
Mf = total mass of the airplane after adding or removing the mass m
ΔdCG: distance between position of m and the initial position of CG

111
 5. REPOSITIONING/TRANSFERING MASS:
l2
l1
Li

Wi = Mig
Wf = Mfg
Lf

“New moment = Old moment – Moment of mass removed from position 1 + Moment of
mass repositioned at position 2”
➔ MfLF= MiLi – ml1 + ml2

6. GRAPHIC METHOD:

IV/ FLOOR LOADING LIMITATION

01 TYPES OF LOADING
a) CONTAINERISED CARGO: mainly baggage

b) PALLETISED CARGO: items, parcels … covered with nets and secured by straps.

c) BULK CARGO: last minutes baggage, crew baggage, live animals, paper, mails… located at the
rear part of the tail.
➔ ALL loading devices must be locked properly to avoid unplanned variation of CG in flight and structure
damage.

112
02 LIMITATIONS
a) AREA OR DISTRIBUTION LOADS LIMITATIONS: distribution load limitations protect the aircraft
floor panels from fatigue phenomena. They are expressed in kg/m² or lb/ft²…
b) RUNNING OR LINEAR LOADS LIMITATIONS: they protect the aircraft under floor frames from
excessive loads. It applies to the longitudinal direction of the aircraft. They are expressed in
kg/m, lb/ft…

113
032 PERFORMANCES

114
I/ CLASS OF PERFORMANCES – REGULATION

CLASS OF PERFORMANCES JET TURBOPROP PISTON

M > 5700kg or Nb of pax seats ≥ 9 Class A Class A Class C
M < 5700 kg and Nb of pax seats < 9 Class A Class B Class B

REGULATION CLASS A PERFORMANCES CLASS B PERFORMANCES

Certification CS 25 CS 23
Operation EASA AIR OPS Class A performance EASS AIR OPS Class B performance
II / DEFINITIONS – CALCULATIONS
01 STALL SPEED
➔ VSR= Reference stall speed, it must not be lower than VS1g, used for Certification Specification CS 25.

➔ VS0= Stall speed in landing configuration, used for Certification Specification CS 23.

➔ VS1=Stall speed in other configuration than landing configuration, used for Certification Specification
CS 23.
02 DENSITY ALTITUDE
It is the pressure altitude PA corrected with temperature. It is used to determine a/c performance.
03 WIND CALCULATION
• Wh, speed = Wspeed x cos (α):
Wh= headwind
➔ If cos(α)>0 -> Headwind
α
W = total wind WC= Crosswind ➔ If cos(α)<0 -> Tailwnid
• Wc, speed= Wspeed x sin (α)
• Ground Speed GS = True AirSpeed + Head/Tail wind = TAS + Wh,speed

04 PRESSURE ALTITUDE PA
All performance charts are given with pressure altitude, ie according to 1013Hpa. 1Hpa = 30ft.
PA = Altitude + (1013 – QNH)x30.
Ex1: Aerodrome Altitude = 2000 ft, QNH = 993. Δ(HPa) = 1013 – 993 = 10. Δ(ft)= 300ft -> PA = 2000 + 300 =
2300ft.
Ex2: Aerodrome Altitude = 2000ft QNH = 1023. Δ(HPa) = 1013 – 1023 = -10. Δ(ft)= -300ft -> PA = 2000 - 300
= 1700ft.
To know if you have to add/subtract Δ(HPa), draw a schema knowing that pressure decreases with altitude.

PA = 2300ft 2000ft
QNH = 993

115
1013
05 Δ(ISA) COMPUTATION
• ISA = at sea level : 15°C, 1013 HPa, -2°C/1000ft.
Ex: If Zp = 5000 ft, OAT = 10°C, what is ΔISA ?
➔ Under ISA condition : T°CISA at 5000 ft = 15 – 2x5 = 5°C, but here, T°C = 10 °C, it is warmer

-> ΔISA=+5°C.

116
III/ TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCES

CLASS A PERFORMANCE CLASS B PERFORMANCE

VMCG & VMCA VMC
• VMCG = CAS, Minimum control on ground speed
with critical engine inoperative using:
➔ Primary aerodynamic control only
➔ No nosewheel steering.
➔ No crosswind is taken into account.
➔ Applicable on both wet and dry runway
The VMCG varies according to density (T°C, P) and
rudder efficiency.

• VMCA = CAS, Speed at which it is possible to • VMC (for MEP = Multi Engine Piston and
maintain straight flight in case of critical engine turboprop) = CAS, Speed at which it is possible to
failure without yaw or with a bank angle less than maintain straight flight with bank angle no more
5°. than 5° in case of critical engine failure.
The VMCA varies according to the remaining engines
thrust, ie it varies according to T°C & PA.
➔ VMCA ↓ if altitude ↑.
Take-off speeds Take-off speeds Take-off speeds
• V1 = decision speed:
➔ If engine fails before V1 -> NO GO
➔ If engine fails after V1 -> GO
V1 > VEF ≥ VMCG (if V1< VMCG, we consider both
speeds equal)
V1 ≤ VR
V1 ≤ VMBE
SEP MEP
• VR = rotation speed: • VR ≥ VS1 • VR ≥ 1,05VMC
VR ≥ 1,05 VMCA VR ≥ 1,10 VS1

• VMU = minimum unstick speed

• VLOF = Lift -off speed expressed in GS)

VLOF ≤ Vtyre

• V2 = climb safety speed or initial climb speed at 35 • V2 ≥ 1,2 VS1 • V2 ≥ 1,10 VMC
ft. Depends on flaps, P and T°C. V2 ≥ 1,20 VS1
V2 ≥ V2MIN, the highest speed of:
➔ 1,1 VMCA
➔ 1,13 VSR (jet/twin and tri-turboprop)
or 1,08 VSR (quadri-turboprop)

• Take-off sequence:
VMCG < VEF < V1 < VS < VMCA < VR < VLOF < V2

117
 Runway length available
• TORA = Take-Off Run Available
• TODA = Take-Off Distance Available = TORA + Clearway CLWY
• ASDA = Accelerate Stop Distance Available = TORA + Stopway STWY

CLWY must not exceed 50 % of TORA, making TODA 150% of TORA.

Minimum width of a CLWY is 152m (500ft) and it is under the control of airport authorities.
TORR, TODR, ASDR on dry runway TORR, TODR, ASDR
Principle: Distances calculations are based on
critical engine failure or all engine operatives, the
one that gives the highest required distances.

• Take-Off Distance Required TODR: • TODR:

➔ Distance from brake release to a screen ➔ Distance from brake release to 50 ft.
height of 35ft (15ft on wet runway).
➔ It is the highest of : • Reference zero point at 50 ft.
TODN-1
1,15 TODN

• Take-Off Run Required TORR:

➔ Distance from brake release to equidistant
point between VLOF & 35ft.
➔ It is the highest of :
TORN-1
1,15 TORN

• Accelerate Stop Distance Required ASDR:

➔ Distance from brake release to full stop of
the airplane.
➔ It is the highest of :
ASDN-1
ASDN

For ASDR calculation: Requirements:

• 2-second reaction time are taken into account • Runway without CLWY nor STWY:
between V1 and the first mean of stopping the ➔ TODR x 1,25 ≤ TORA
airplane.
• On dry rwy -> reverser is not used • Runway with CLWY or STWY:
• On wet (and contaminated rwy) -> reverser is ➔ TODR ≤ TORA
taken into account. ➔ 1,15 TODR ≤ TODA
➔ 1,3 TODR ≤ ASDA
Requirements:
• TORR ≤ TORA • Particularities for perfo B: factors to apply on
• TODR ≤ TODA (TORA + CLWY) TODR:
• ASDR ≤ ASDA (TORA + STWY) ➔ Paved and wet rwy: 1 (because T/O)
➔ Dry grass rwy: 1,2
➔ Wet grass rwy: 1,3
➔ Rwy slope: 5% for 1%upward rwy slope (no
correction for downward rwy slope)

118
 Balanced field length and balanced V1 - unbalanced field length
• Balanced field length if TODA = ASDA or CLWY = STWY
• Unbalanced field length: ASDA ≠ TODA
• Balanced V1 if TODRN-1 = ASDR

➔ Advantage of the balanced V1 or balanced field length method:

Increase of safety margin because the required field length will be the shortest.

Unbalanced RWY – Influence of CLWY and/or STWY

mass
• Adding CLWY or TODA > ASDA -> Field
m/m length mass ↑ and V1 ↓.
m/m
• Adding STWY or ASDA > TODA -> Field
« Adding CLWY » length mass ↑ , and V1 ↑

V1
V1 V1 V1
V1
Variation of TODRN-1 and ASDR according to V1
distance
• If V1 ↓ -> ASDR ↓ & TODRN-1 ↑
• If V1 ↑ -> ASDR ↑ & TODRN-1 ↓

V1
Balanced V1

Take-off flight path Take-off flight path

With critical engine failure, the T/O flight path starts from 35 ft and ends at The take-off path
1500ft or when Enroute configuration is achieved. starts from 50 ft and
1500 ft AAL or transition to Enroute ends at 1500 ft or
altitude achieved when Enroute
configuration is
achieved.
Clean configuration Acceleration
Acceleration height
(min 4000ft AGL) N-1 TO thrust
V2 Acceleration
capability equivalent
Gear up
V2 to 4th segment (1,2%)
35ft

1st segment 2nd segment 3rd segment 4th segment

119
 Climb limitation.
The climb limit mass does not vary according to the
wind as these performances are based on the Air
gradient Ag%

𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑅𝑜𝐶. 6000

Ag% = . 100 =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡(𝑎𝑖𝑟) 𝑇𝐴𝑆. 6080
(𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 − 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔)
= . 100
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Obstacle limitation Obstacle limitation

• Vertical obstacle clearance: • Vertical obstacle clearance:
➔ Net gradient = Gross gradient – 0.8% (twin) ➔ From 50ft to loss of the visual reference: N
– 0.9% (tri) – 1% (quadri) engines
➔ Vertical obstacle clearance : 35 ft between Net gradient = average N engine gradient x
obstacle and the lowest part of the plane in 0.77
the Net take-off flight path ➔ from loss of visual reference: N-1 engines
➔ Required vertical obstacle margin: 50ft.
• Horizontal obstacle clearance:
The take-off flight path is defined by the half • Horizontal obstacle clearance:
width: The take-off flight path is defined by the half
➔ 90m + 0.125D or width:
➔ 60m + ½ wingspan + 0.125D if wingspan ➔ 90m + 0.125D or
<60m ➔ 60m + ½ wingspan + 0.125D if wingspan
<60m
Maximum half width of the take-off flight path
according to change of track and flight conditions: Maximum half width of the take-off flight path
Change of track CT Maximum width according to change of track and flight conditions:
VMC CT < 15° 300m Change of track CT Maximum width
CT > 15° 600m VMC CT < 15° 300m
IMC CT < 15° 600m CT > 15° 600m
CT > 15° 900m IMC CT < 15° 600m
CT > 15° 900m
• Maximum bank angle BA with N-1 engine:
Below 50ft -> BA = 0° • Maximum bank angle BA:
Up to 400ft -> BA ≤ 15° Below 50ft -> BA = 0°
Above 400ft -> BA ≤ 25° Above 400ft -> BA ≤ 25°

Increase of V2 speed (improved T/O climb)

• Conditions: climb limit mass < field limit mass
• Principle: the climb limit mass will increase if V2 increases.
Take-off on wet runway
TODR= distance from brake release to a screen
height of 15ft.
Compared to a dry runway:
➔ Mass: the reduction of the screen height to
15ft allows to reduce mass penalty
➔ V1 must be ↓

120
 Take-off on contaminated runway
• The runway is contaminated if 25% of the runway surface is covered by the contaminant.
• A runway is contaminated if it is covered by a water depths equal or more than 3mm.
• Water equivalent depth = contaminant depth x density (specific gravity).

• Compared to a dry runway:

➔ Standing water, snow, slush: TODR and ASDR ↑
➔ Compacted snow, ice: TODR is constant, and ASDR ↑
➔ Field length limit mass and V1, VR, V2 ↓

• Forbidden case:
➔ Reduced T/O thrust
Reduced T/O thrust
• The maximum thrust reduction permitted is 25%.
• Aim:
➔ improve engine life.
• Condition:
➔ the actual take-off mass < performance
limit mass
• Forbidden cases:
➔ contaminated
➔ Windshear
➔ Antiskid inoperative
V1 VR/V2 TODR/TORR (N-1) ASDR Field length Air climb Climb limit
limit mass gradient mass
Tailwind * ↑ ↑ ↑ ↓ No impact No impact
Low density (1) ↑ ↑ ↓ ↓ ↓
Uphill rwy slope ↑ ↑ ↑ ↓
High flaps ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↓
setting
Wet rwy ↓ ↑ Mass penalty
↓ (15ft)
Contaminated ↓ ↓ Slush, snow: ↑ ↑ ↓
rwy Ice, comp. snow: CST
High actual T/O ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↓
mass
V1 ↑ ↓
V1 ↓ ↑
Engine/wing ↑ ↑ ↓ ↓ ↓
anti-icing ON
ASDA > TODA ↑ ↑
TODA > ASDA ↓ ↑
Forward CG ↑ ↑ ↓ ↓ ↓
ANTISKID ↓ ↑ ↓
INOPERATIVE
*According to regulation, no more than 50% of headwind and not less than 150% tailwind are taken into
account in the flight manual for take-off and landing performances.
• (1): low density is met at: High T°C, High PA or low pressure (or low QNH), high degree of humidity.

121
• In case of derated take-off -> TODR ↑ & ASDR ↓.
• A downhill has no effect on MTOM.
IV/ PRINCIPLE OF FLIGHT FOR PERFORMANCES
Vocabulary:
D = Drag = Thrust required = Tr Ta = Thrust available.
Pr = Power required = thrust required x Speed . Pa = Power available = Thrust available x Speed.

JET PROPELLER
Jet thrusts
The 3 certified thrust setting for a jet aeroplane
are=T/O, GA (Go around), MCT (Max Continuous
Thrust
Induced drag & profile drag
Tr
• If speed ↓, induced drag ↑.

• The highest induced drag is met at VS0, (stall speed

at landing configuration).
TAS

Vmd (Minimum Drag Speed) & Vmp (Minimum Power Speed)

Tr Pr
Angle of attack
α2
α3 α3
α2 Minimum
Minimum
Power
drag
TAS
TAS
Vmp Vmd Vmp Vmd

Relation between Speed / Angle of attack α / Lift coefficient CL

Speed ↓/↑ -> Angle of attack ↑/↓ -> CL ↑/↓.
Effect of mass
For a given altitude and configuration
Tr m2 > m1 m2 > m1
Pr

m2 m2
m1 α2 m1 α3
α2 α3
TAS TAS

If mass ↑, drag and power required curves move UP and RIGHT

122
 Effect of altitude
z2 > z1 For a given mass, IAS, and configuration. z2 > z1
Tr
Pr

z2 z2
α2
z1 α2 z1
α2
α2
TAS TAS

When altitude ↑, Drag curve moves RIGHT Power required curves moves

Effect of flaps/landing gear

For a given mass, and altitude
Tr
Pr
30°
30°
0°
α2 0°
α3
α2 α3
TAS TAS

With high flaps setting (or gear down), the drag and power required curves move UP and LEFT.
1st and 2nd regime (jet) / maximum speed in level flight
Tr

Max Thrust available

Thrust available
α2

TAS
VS
2nd regime 1st regime Max speed in level flight is
Vmd reached when thrust is max
nd
The 2 regime is the backside of the thrust curve = reverse command curve -> speed is unstable.
.and drag is max
A ↓ of speed in this region results in an ↑ of drag and an ↑ in thrust.

123
V/ CLIMB

Climb equations
Hypothesis: low angle of attack
L • Vertical axis: L =Wcos(ϒ)
T
ϒ • Aerodynamic axis: T = D + Wsin(ϒ).
D

W ϒ
Variations of CAS (IAS), TAS, and Mach number M
z z
z CAS TAS CAS TAS M
M M TAS

CAS

Speed Speed Speed

A climb at constant CAS -> risk of exceeding MMO (Maximum operating Mach).
Above the tropopause, if the climb is performed at constant Mach, TAS remains constant, CAS↓

Speed/ angle of attack / Lift coefficient CL

Altitude increases and constant speed -> TAS ↑ -> angle of attack ↓ -> CL ↓.

Crossover altitude
It is the altitude at which we switch from IAS to Mach number.
z 280kt IAS ↓ when z ↑
290kt

M
Ground and air climb gradient
ℎ ℎ
𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 % = . 100 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 % = . 100
𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑜𝐶
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 % = . 100
𝐺𝑆

𝑇−𝐷 𝑇 1 𝐶𝐿 𝐿
𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 % = . 100 = ( − ) 100, 𝑓 = = 1% = 0.57°
𝑊 𝑊 𝑓 𝐶𝐷 𝐷

VX and VY
VX = best angle of climb speed = best speed for obstacle clearance, max excess of thrust.
VY = best rate of climb speed, reach FL with the shortest time, max excess of power.
➔ VX ≤ VY.
Flight path angle during climb = angle related to the ground .
Climb angle = angle related to the air.
RoC = Rate of Climb or Vertical Speed.

124
 Ta – Tr = excess of thrust Pa – Pr = excess of power
T P
Tr
Ta
Ta – Tr max Pa – Pr max
α2
TAS TAS
Climb
gradient
RoC

Max climb gradient

Max RoC
TAS TAS
VX VY

Variation of VX, climb gradient, VY, and Rate of Climb

VX (TAS)
Climb gradient ϒ, VY (TAS) RoC, VZ (3)
angle of climb (3)
Mass increases ↑ ↓ ↑ ↓
Flaps/landing gear extended ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Altitude/OAT increases ↑(4) ↓ ↑ (4) ↓
Headwind ↑ (1) - - (2)
(1) Climb flight path angle = angle related to the ground -> ground distance ↓.
(2) Consequence: climb duration remains unchanged with wind.
(3) Acceleration in climb: ROC & ϒ ↓.
(4) In term of IAS, VX = constant, VY ↓
• Vx < Vxe < Vye < Vy
VI/ CRUISE

JET PROPELLER
En route limitations En route limitations
• Net gradient = Gross gradient + (1.1%, 1.4%, and 1.6%) • At the flight preparation stage, the cruise
altitude must not exceed the altitude
• Objective of the Driftdown procedure: corresponding to a minimum RoC of 300
In case of engine failure in cruise, this procedure allows to ft/min with maximum continuous thrust.
clear obstacle during descent to level-off altitude.
• Net gradient = Gross gradient + 0.5%
• The NET flight path of the airplane must: • 1000ft above the landing aerodrome.
➔ Clear all obstacles with a margin of 2000ft during
descent OR
➔ Have a positive climb gradient at 1000ft above all
terrains and obstacles along the route AND Have a
positive climb gradient at 1500ft above diversion
aerodrome.
• Key points:
➔ Fuel jettison is permitted provided having enough
fuel to reach diversion aerodrome.
➔ Driftdown should be performed at VMD speed.
➔ Level off altitude depends on mass, T°C.

125
 Extended Range Twin Operations ETOPS
• Basic rule: no more than 60min from an
adequate aerodrome at one engine speed, No
wind (calm air), and in ISA condition.
• Possibility to increase the time 90 min, 120min,
180min.
Buffeting
Buffeting = aerodynamic characteristics of the airplane. It is a manoeuvre Mach range (buffet onset
boundary) characterised by low buffet speed and the high buffet speed.
If mass ↑ -> Mach range ↓. If Altitude ↑ -> Mach range ↓.
If CG forward -> Mach range ↓. If bank angle ↑ -> Mach range ↓.

Specific fuel consumption SFC, Fuel flow FF and Specific fuel consumption SFC, Fuel flow FF and
specific range SR specific range SR
• SFC: in kg/hour/unit of thrust. • SFC in kg/h/unit of power.
• FF in kg/h. FF = SFC x D. • FF in kg/h. FF = SFC x Pr.
• SR or fuel mileage in NM/kg. • SR in NM/kg.
SR = TAS x FF = TAS x SFC/D (NO WIND). SR = TAS / FF = TAS / SFC x Pr.

Cruise altitudes

• Aerodynamic ceiling (coffin corner): Altitude at which low buffet speed = high buffet speed. Flying at
an altitude close to the aerodynamic ceiling will limit manoeuvrability.

• Absolute ceiling: altitude at which the RoC = 0 ft/min.

• Service ceiling: altitude at which the RoC ≠ 0 ft/min (100ft/min for piston engine aircraft).

• Maximum cruise altitude: max altitude that an aircraft can maintain at maximum cruise thrust.

• Optimum altitude (jet airplane): altitude corresponding to max SR. Flying below optimum altitude can
be considered if at lower altitude, considerably less headwind or more tailwind. ATC may not allow pilot
to fly at this altitude.

• Altitude variation according to mass: If mass ↓ -> optimum altitude, aerodynamic ceiling, and absolute
ceiling ↑.

• Principle of step climb technique: an ascending cruise is not permitted by ATC: advantage -> reduce
fuel consumption or increase range.

Definition of max endurance and max range speeds

• Max endurance speed (or holding speed) = speed corresponding to a min FF. used to have a maximum
endurance.

• Max range speed = speed corresponding to a max SR. Used to have a minimum fuel consumption
between TOC and TOD.

• Max endurance speed is lower than Max range speed -> the angle of attack of the Max endurance
speed is higher than the angle of attack of the max range speed.
126
 Max endurance ME / Max range MR / Long range RS speeds

α4 α3 = Vmp α2 = Vmd = L/Dmax α1 = 1.32 Vmd

Jet VS VX VY 99% MR in
Climb cruise no wind
ME (holding) MR LR
Propeller VS ME MR
VX VY
Climb cruise
• VY for a jet is normally between α1 and α2.
• LR speed is the speed corresponding to a SR equal to 99% of max SR of maxi range speed.
LR speed is higher than MR speed.
• MR corresponds to the min SFC.
Cost index Ci
𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤… )
𝐶𝑖 = 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
, Ci = 0 -> Speed = MR, if Ci ↑ -> speed (Mach) ↑.
Variation of ME speed, FF, MR speed, SR
ME speed FF MR speed SR / Range
Mass ↑ ↑ ↓
Altitude ↑ ↓ ↑ up to optimum then ↓
Headwind - ↑ ↓
Forward CG (1) ↑ ↓
(1) The forward CG unchanges SFC and increases longitudinal stability, and VS increases.

VII/ DESCENT

Descent equations
• Vertical axis: L=Wcos(ϒ)
D L
• Aerodynamic axis: T = D - Wsin(ϒ).
ϒ’
T
W

• Descent flight path angle = angle related to the Ground.

• Descent angle = angle related to the Air.
Variations of CAS (IAS), TAS, and Mach number M
z z
z CAS TAS CAS TAS M
M M TAS

CAS

Speed Speed Speed

A descent at constant Mach -> risk of exceeding VMO (Maximum operating limit speed).
Formulas of descent gradient ϒ’

(𝑇𝑟 − 𝑇𝑎) 𝑇𝑟
ϒ′ (%) = 100 = 100 Ta = 0 because descent.
𝑊 𝑊

127
 Speed / angle of attack / Lift coefficient CL
• Altitude ↓ and constant Mach -> TAS ↑ -> angle of attack ↓ -> CL ↓.
Descent speeds
• Minimum glide / angle of descent ϒ’ speed = Vmd.
➔ Speed used to have a longest glide distance.

• Minimum rate of descent (VZ’) speed = Vmp

➔ Speed used to have a max endurance (in case of all engine inoperative).
Variation of angle of descent and rate of descent
Angle of descent Rate of descent Glide speed IAS
Mass ↑ - (1) ↑ ↑ (1)
Flaps / gear extended ↑ ↑
Altitude ↓ Constant Mach ↑
Constant IAS unchanged
Headwind ↑ (2) - (3) ↑
(1) Provided that descent IAS increases.
(2) Angle of descent related to the ground = descent flight path angle.
(3) Time to descent remains unchanges with wind.

RESUME OF SPEEDS AND ASSOCIATED ANGLES OF ATTACK

α4 α3 = Vmp α2 = Vmd = L/Dmax α1 = 1.32 Vmd

Jet VS VX VY 99% MR in
Climb cruise no wind
ME (holding) MR LR
Propeller VS ME MR
VX VY
Climb cruise
Jet & VS Min ROD Min glide angle
propeller speed
Descent Max time Max distance
Tr=drag Power required

α2
α3 α3
α2

TAS TAS
Vmp Vmd
Vmd 1,32 Vmd
Jet MR Jet ME
Propeller - Propeller MR

• WIND affects RANGE.

• MASS affects TIME

128
VIII/ LANDING

JET CLASS B
Reference landing speed Reference landing speed
Vref = 1,23 Vsr0 (CS 25) Vref = 1,30 Vs0 (CS 23)
Wind -> Vref Constant and Vapp ↑
Field length landing limitation Field length landing limitation (piston and
turboprop A&B
• Field length landing performances are identical • Field length landing performances are identical
for destination and alternate aerodrome for destination and alternate aerodrome

• Landing distance = from 50 ft to full stop. • Landing distance = from 50 ft to full stop.
• Demonstrated landing distance ≤ 0.6 x LDA. • Demonstrated landing distance ≤ 0.7 x LDA.
• LDR (required) dry = demo LD x 1.67. • LDR (required) dry = demo LD x 1.43.
• LDR wet = demo x 1.67 x 1.15 = demo x 1.92. • LDR wet = demo x 1.43 x 1.15 = demo x 1.64.

• Note: for wet rwy, a figure lower than 15% is • Particularities for class B performances:
acceptable if it is specified in the flight manual. Increase landing distance by
➔ 1.15 on dry grass runway
➔ 5% for 1% downward rwy slope (no
correction if uphill rwy slope).

Go-around limitation Go-around limitation

• Aim: having minimum angle of climb in case of
go-around

• The fuel damping is authorized is case of

emergency to meet the go-around limitation. The
go-around limitation remains unchanges with wind
as it is related to the air gradient.

Approach configuration: Approach configuration:

Flaps: approach Flaps: approach
N-1 engines N-1 engines
Gear UP Gear UP
Gradient: 2.1% (twin), 2.4% (tri) and 2.7% (quadri). Gradient: 0.75% at 1500ft above landing AD.

Landing configuration: Landing configuration:

Flaps: landing Flaps: landing
N engines N engines
Gear DOWN Gear DOWN
Gradient: 3.2% Gradient: 2.5%
Effect of parameters on landing distance and on go-around gradients
• If T°C or altitude ↑: Landing distance ↑ and go-around gradient ↓.
• High flaps setting: landing distance ↓ and go-around gradient ↓.
• Headwind: landing distance ↓ and go-around gradient is unchanged.
• Antiskid inoperative or contaminated rwy of high mass: landing distance ↑.
• Runway slope correction (only for class B): increase landing distance by 5% for 1% of downhill rwy
slope (no correction for uphill rwy slope).

129
033 FLIGHT PLANNING &
MONITORING

130
I/VFR NAVIGATION
01 RADIO NAVIGATION CHART
a) RESTRICTED AIRSPACES:

➔ P area: strictly prohibited to air traffic.

➔ R area: restricted area, subject to certain condition.
➔ D area: danger area.

b) MINIMUM HEIGHT:

➔ Over high-density area: 1000ft above the highest obstacle in a 600m radius around the a/c.
➔ Otherwise, 500 ft above ground level or water level.

c) MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDE MSA:

➔ If obstacle height ≤ 5000ft -> obstacle clearance is 1000ft.

➔ If obstacle height > 5000ft -> obstacle clearance is 2000ft.

➔ Shown by a magenta color on chart: 43=4300ft, within a rectangle.

➔ On VAC, MSA is represented by (upper right corner on the VAC chart):

d) ALTITUDE CORRECTION:

➔ From pressure: 1 HPa=28 ft or 30ft.

Ex1: Aerodrome Altitude = 2000 ft, QNH = 993. Δ(HPa) = 1013 – 993 = 20. Δ(ft)= 600ft -> PA =
2000 + 300 = 2600ft.
Ex2: Aerodrome Altitude = 2000ft QNH = 1023. Δ(HPa) = 1013 – 1023 = -10. Δ(ft)= -300ft ->
PA = 2000 - 300 = 1700ft.
To know if you have to add/subtract Δ(HPa), draw a schema knowing that pressure decreases
with altitude.

PA = 2600ft 2000ft
QNH = 993

1013

131
 ➔ From temperature: Ztrue=Zindicated + 4ft/1000ft/1°CΔISA. “The warmer the higher, the colder the
lower”
Ex: Zindicated= 6500ft, T°C = 0°, ΔISA=-2°C
‘’-‘’ because colder than ISA
➔ Ztrue = 6500 – 4ftx6.5x2 = 6448ft

Height Altitude Pressure altitude (FL)

QFE

QNH
1013.25HPa

e) SEMI-CIRCULAR RULE IN VFR:

➔ Above 3000ft QNH or above Transition Altitude, we flight in Flight Level FL according to the
semi-circular rule.
➔ On a given chart, the transition altitude TA is the altitude above which we flight at FL.
➔ On a given chart, the transition level TL is the level below which we flight at an altitude.
➔ We choose a FL according to the Magnetic Track the pilot follows.

359°

0°
FL
45 FL
« EVEN » 65 35
85 55
105 75 « ODD »
125 95
… 115
135
180°
…

179°
• Information for Airports:
Airport ID
XXXX
xxxxxx Airport name
350 124.25 22
Length of the longest rwy 22 = 2200m
Elevation
Frequency 132
 f) RADIO NAVIGATION:
➔ VOR : gives outline of the position, oriented from magnetic north.

➔ DME: gives outline of the distance.

02 ROUTES – DISTANCES – TIMES

Time of Climb (min) = H/ROC H : height in ft,

ROC : Rate of climb in ft/min,
Dair = 100 x H / ϒ GS: Ground speed in kt,
DGND = Dair x GS/TAS TAS: True Air speed in kt,
Dair: air distance in NM
DGND = Hx GS / (ROCx60) DGND: ground distance in NM

➔ For distance, time, use Ground speed.

a) TOP OF CLIMB TOC AND TOP OS DESCENT TOD:

TOP TOD

II/ IFR NAVIGATION

01 CHARTS
• Upper limit for low Enroute routes depends on the country: FL 195(FRANCE) FL 245(GERMANY).
• The green color is associated with VFR chart, the blue one with IFR chart.
• Information for Radio navigation:
Not continuous

* TALLA Freq VOR/DME : 108 – 117.95 MHz

D
113.8 TLA (v)
VDF available
133
DME capability
• Atlantic polar high altitude Enroute: at high latitude, pilot encounters difficulties to get magnetic headings,
that’s why they use a new reference with North Grid Chart:

02 ALTITUDES
a) MINIMUM EN-ROUTE ALTITUDE MEA:
➔ It is the minimum altitude ensuring obstacle clearance (1000ft or 2000ft) +/- 5 to 60NM from
track & reception of radio signals.
b) MINIMUM OBSTACLE CLEARANCE ALTITUDE MOCA:
➔ It is the minimum altitude ensuring obstacle clearance +/-5 NM from the track. No mandatory
reception of radio signals. The altitude is followed by the letter “T” on chart.
c) MINIMUM OFF-ROUTE ALTITUDE MORA:
➔ It is the minimum altitude ensuring obstacle clearance +/- 10NM from the track, with 1000ft
clearance for obstacle ≤ 5000ft, or 2000 ft clearance for obstacle > 5000ft. The altitude is
followed by the letter “a” on chart.
d) GRID MORA OR MINIMUM SAFETY GRID ALTITUDE:
➔ It is the altitude ensuring obstacle clearance out of airway on a quadrantal with a 1°-latitude
and 1°-longitude. It is noted 53 on chart, meaning 5300ft.

e) MAXIMUM AUTHORIZED ALTITUDE MAA:

➔ It is the highest altitude authorized within an airspace.

03 STANDARD INSTRUMENT DEPARTURE SID / STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVAL ROUTES STAR

• Magnetic tracks are shown on the chart.
• A circle on the upper part represents the MSA, with a 25NM radius, a navaid (VOR, NDB…) is the centre of
the circle.
• All the trajectories, altitudes, limitations are shown on the SID and STAR.

134
04 INSTRUMENTS APPROACH CHART
• Divided into :
➔ Initial approach segment with the IAF
➔ Intermediate approach segment between IAF and IF
➔ Final approach segment between IF and FAF
➔ Go-around segment from MAPt (Missed approach point)
For information (you do not need to know it for 033):

A/C CATEGORY SPEED AT THRESHOLD

A < 90 kt
B 91-120 kt
C 121 – 140 kt
D >141 kt

• 2 Types of approach:
➔ NON-PRECISION APPROACH: defined by the Minimum Descent Altitude (Height) MDA(H).
➔ PRECISION APPROACH: defined by Decision Altitude (Height) DA(H).
• Continuous descent final approach CDFA can be used:

Conventional approach

• If CDFA is not used, the operator ensures that the minimum RVR value is increased by 200m for CAT A/B,
and 400m for CAT C/D.

135
05 COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO NAVIGATION AIDS

• The range d (in NM) of the VHF frequencies is d=1.23√ℎ, h is the aircraft height in feet.

3 letters, 50NM range

2 letters, 10-25NM range

06 SEMI-CIRCULAR RULE
• According to the magnetic track

NON-RVSM RVSM
0°-179° ODD 180°-359° EVEN 0°-179° ODD 180°-359° EVEN
180 180
190 190

290 290
300
310 310

330 390
400
390 410

410 430

430 450

FL XXX: 2000 ft separation

136
III/ FUEL PLANNING
01 BASIC PROCEDURE: REGULATED FUEL
TAXI FUEL: only departure taxi fuel.

engine ON fuel +
APU fuel +
Taxi fuel

TRIP FUEL: From break released to touch-down at destination.

SID fuel +
Climb fuel +
TOC to TOD fuel +
Descent to IAF fuel +
Approach fuel +
landing fuel

CONTINGENCY FUEL: Considered as not burned for calculation.

• 5% of trip fuel if no ERA,

3% of trip fuel if ERA
The highest
• 5min holding at 1500ft above
destination airport, ISA

ALTERNATE FUEL: from missed approach to landing at alternate airport, excluding a missed approach at
the alternate

FINAL RESERVE FUEL: Considered as not burned for calculation.

• Piston: 45min fuel

• Jet: 30min fuel at holding speed

at 1500ft AGL, with estimated
mass at alternate or destination
(if no alternate is required)

ADDITIONAL FUEL: (for question, if min quantity of fuel is asked, do not include additional fuel)

• if no alternate and IFR flight:

15min holding at 1500ft, ISA

• if failure: fuel enabling to

descent, hold 15 min and
approach + landing.

EXTRA FUEL: according to the commander

137
02 DECISION POINT PROCEDURE / REDUCED CONTINGENCY FUEL (RCF) PROCEDURE
• Applied on contingency fuel, for long-haul. Alternate

Departure A Decision point P Destination B

Diversion C

Q1 = Taxi + TripAB + 5%TripPB + Alternate (if P >6h from B) + Final reserve + Additional + Extra.
Contingency fuel
/!\
Q2 = Taxi + TripAC + 5% TripAC + Alternate (if P >6h from B) + Final reserve + Additional + Extra.
3% TripAC (if ERA)

➔ The highest of Q1 and Q2.

03 ISOLATED AERODROME PROCEDURE

• Applied on additional fuel • Includes final reserve in the additional fuel
• No alternate is available
The lowest •45min + 15% cruise
Piston planned flight time
•2h cruise
Q= Taxi + Trip + Contingency + + Extra
2h cruise above
Jet
destination
04 PREDETERMINED POINT PROCEDURE PDP
• Isolated airport for which no alternate at destination is available, but diversion is.
• Applied on additional fuel & includes final reserve

Departure A Predetermined Destination B

point P

Diversion C

a) FOR PISTON:
•45min + 15% cruise planned
Q1 = Taxi + TripAB + 5%TripPB + The lowest flight time + Extra.
•2h cruise

Q2 = Taxi + TripAC + 5%TripAC + 45min fuel + Extra

➔ The highest of Q1 and Q2

b) FOR JET:
Q1 = Taxi + TripAB + 5%TripPB + 2h cruise + Extra.
Q2 = Taxi + TripAC + 5%TripAC + 30min 1500ft, holding speed + Extra.7 The highest of Q1 and Q2
138
/!\ ON INTEGRATED CRUISE TABLE, USE AIR DISTANCE /!\

05 FUEL TANKERING PROCEDURE

• Fuel cost varies between airports
• Sometimes, it may be worth carrying extra fuel when the fuel price at destination airport is noticeably
higher than that of the departure airport. However, fuel tinkering generates a surplus fuel burn due to
increased aircraft total weight. We use graph to determine if it is advantageous to carry extra fuel.
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒
• Fuel price ratio = 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒.

/!\ ON FUEL TANKERING GRAPH, USE AIR DISTANCE /!\

139
IV/ PRE-FLIGHT PREPARATION
01 AIR INFORMATION PUBLICATION AIP
• Permanent, if modification, published as SUP AIP, updated every 28days.
• Date: YY/MM/DD
Ex: information on customs, health formalities…
02 NOTICE TO AIRMEN NOTAM
• By Aero Information Service.
• Quickly published, less than 3 months durations if NOTAM > 3 months -> published as SUP AIP.
• Sunrise SR hours = SR -30min.
• Sunset SS hours = SS + 30min.
03 METEROROLOGICAL AIRPORT REPORT METAR
• Validate at time of observation, observation each 30 or 60 min, trend forecast of 2 hours.

DZ Drizzle PL Ice pellets BC Patches

RA Rain GR Hail BL Blowing
SN Snow GS Small hail TS Thunderstorm
SG Snow grains FG Fog PR Partial
BR Mist SA Sand MI Shallow
DU Widespread dust HZ Haze DR Drifting
FU Smoke VA Volcanic ashes SH Shower
PO Dust SQ Squall FZ Freezing
FC Funnel cloud SS Sandstrom DS Dust storm
VC Vicinity - Light + Heavy
BCMG Becoming NOSIG No significant change TEMPO Temporary
for the next 2 hours
NSW No significant weather
➔ FEW, 1 to 2 Oktas, “few” SCT, 3 to 4 Oktas, “scattered”.
➔ BKN, 5 to 7 Oktas, “broken” OVC, 8 Oktas, “overcast”.
04 TERMINAL AERODROME FORECAST TAF
• Forecast message.
• Short TAF (FC): valid for 9h, repeated every 3 hours.
• Long TAF (FT): valid for 24h-30h, repeated every 6h.
05 METEO CHARTS
LEVEL OF PRESSURE HPA FL 500 180
300 300
1013 0 250 340
850 050 200 390
700 100 120 450
140
• Angle measured according to true north.

06 POINT OF EQUAL TIME PET

• Between 2 airports (A&B): PET is the point located on the a/c route from which the flight time to join one
airport or the other would be equal
DABGSBACK DPET
DPET = , TPET = , DPET in NM, TPET in h, GS in kt.
GSBACK + GSOUT GSOUT

07 POINT OF SAFE RETURN PSR = POINT OF NO RETURN PNR

• It is the furthest point on the route beyond which the a/c could not fly back to the departure point,
considering its onboard safety endurance (maximum time during which an a/c can fly without using its
regulatory reserve fuel ≠ total endurance).
A.GSBACK
TPSR = , DPSR = TPSR x GSOUT, A in hours (safety endurance).
GSBACK + GSOUT
NB: In case of any wind, PSR will always be closest to the departure airport.

141
 V/ FLIGHT PLAN
I-IFR
V-VFR
Y-I to V
Z-V to I
S-scheduled
N-NON S
G-general
M-military

Estimated off-
block time
CALL SIGN
Flight crew qualification
Of a/c
TAS, N(kt),
K(km/h), b)squawk
M(Mach)

F (FL), S(m), A(ft) a)Std Equipment

N if no equip.
L≤7T S = VHE, VOR,ILS
ROUTE: Notify change of 5%TAS, Mach 0.01, coordinates 4135N00415E,
7T<M<136T X-MNPS/W-RVSM
30min or 200NM max between 2 points.
H≥136T

From T/O to IAF

at destination
ZZZZ if not

SELCAL, HOSP (with injured people)

Total endurance TBN =”to be notified”

(without taxi fuel) if unknown

Cross out if not

equipped

01 MANDATORY FILING OF THE FLIGHT PLAN

• any IFR flight • flight including borders crossings • flight following designated routes
02 REPETITIVE FLIGHT PLAN RPL
• Facilitates operations for regular flight.

• Conditions: IFR, several consecutive weeks at least 10times or every day during at least 10
consecutive days. 142
03 FLIGHT PLAN SUBMISSION PROCEDURE
• At least 60min before estimated time of departure from the gate.
• 3h before departure if flight route via North Atlantic, for ATFM.
• In flight, to the ATC, 10min before estimated time of arrival in this concerned airspace.
04 FPL ACTIVATION
• After acceptance by ATC.
05 FPL DELAY MODIFICATION/CANCELLING
• FPL must be amended, or new FPL must be submitted when delays exceed after estimated off-block time:
30min for controlled flight or 60min for non-controlled flight. The delay is considered.
• An IFR FPL cancelled by the pilot becomes a VFR one.
06 FPL CLOSURE
By ATC, 30min max after landing.
07 FPL COMPLIANCE
• The pilot must take actions if a/c deviates from its route, TAS changes by 5% or more, the estimated elapsed
time may include an error of 3min.
VI/ FUEL MONITORING
• At touchdown, the minimum fuel on the tanks must be at least the final reserve fuel.
• The minimum fuel at destination airport (with alternate) must be: Alternate fuel + final reserve fuel.
• The minimum fuel at destination airport (without alternate) must be: final reserve fuel.

143
040 HUMAN
PERFORMANCE &
LIMITATIONS

144
I/ PRINCIPLES
01 HUMAN FACTORS IN AVIATION
• Competency: skills, knowledge, attitudes required to perform a task.
• Skilled pilot: trains regularly, knows how to manage himself, and how to keep resources for coping with
the unexpected.
02 AIR ACCIDENT STATISTICS
• 1 accident per million airport movements (sabotage, terrorism excluded).
• Pilot errors/human factor represents 70-80% of the accidents (lack of good judgment…).
• The GPWS (Ground Proximity Warning System) has decreased the number of accident since 80-90s.
• 49% of accident happen during final approach & landing.
• There is hardly ever single cause responsible.
03 FLIGHT SAFETY CONCEPTS
a) THREAT & ERROR MANAGEMENT MODEL – TEM MODEL
THREAT ERRORS additional error, undesired a/c
Not caused by the crew Action/Non-action of crew state).
• LATENT • ACTIVE which leads to discrepancy.
UNDISERED A/C STATES
Difficult to detect Easily Flight crew induced a/c
(shortened turn- identifiable • A/C OPERATION position/speed deviation,
around, optical Manual handling, flight control associated with a reduction of
illusions, cockpit (speed deviation, flaps…), safety margin.
design error…) taxiing to fast, false frequency,
interaction with controls ,
• A/C HANDLING
• ENVIRONMENTAL automatic system
Attitude, speed deviation,
Can be planned (Weather,
lateral deviation
traffic, terrain…)
• PROCEDURAL
Interact with procedures (SOPs,
• GND NAVIGATION
• ORGANIZATIONAL No cross check, callout
Wrong taxi, runway…
Usually latent, can be omitted, wrong checklist…)
controlled at their sources by
aviation organization • INCORRECT A/C
• COMMUNICATION
CONFIGURATION
Interact with people (missed
System, engine thrust, flight
call, misinterpretation…)
control…

• CREW RESPONSE
• CREW RESPONSE
Trap the error, exacerbate, No
Mitigation (risk ↓, safety ↑),
response (no importance,
worsening, no response.

145
 b) SHELL MODEL

S oftware
NON PHYSICAL ASPECT
(SOPs, checklist, OM, warning system…)

H ardware
ALL-SOLID OBJECTS, INFORMATION
DISPLAY
L E nvironment
(Meteo, operational, eco, disturbance of
biological rhythm…)
Displays, misinterpretation of altimeter

L iveware

INTERFERENCE BETWEEN PEOPLE

• Responsible for flight safety:
-> Safety manager & safety review board.
-> In the aviation industry: everyone involved.
04 SAFETY CULTURE
a) SWISS CHEESE MODEL BY JAMES REASON
 b) SAFETY CULTURE
• This concepts is used in the industries at risk to describe the way in which safety is managed. It reflects
attitude, beliefs, perceptions, and values shared by the personal of an organization in terms of safety. It
includes national culture, professional culture, and organizational culture.
• “Safety culture is a subpart of national culture”.
• The component of safety culture are:
1. Informed culture: organizer has a good knowledge, in charge of gathering information from
accident.
2. Reporting (confidence to allow reporting)
3. Fair
4. Flexible
5. Learning.
• Closed culture; the co-pilot won’t speak up and acts as captain orders him to do
• Open culture: promotes safely-related information, analyses and share pf analyses, whether it be within
the company or the professional aeronautics community.
• Non-punitive culture: without sanctions against actors who report dangerous acts, in contrast to a punitive
culture.
II/ PHYSIOLOGY AND HEALTH OF THE AVIATOR
01 THE ATMOSPHERE
a) ULTRAVIOLET UV RAYS
1. UV-B: 280-315nm, major cases of skin cancers, stopped by windows.
2. UV-A: 315-400nm, untimely skin aging
• We have a capital, depending on skin classification (1: albinos, 6: black)
b) BAROMETRIC PRESSURE P
• At MSL, ISA, P=1013.25 HPa = 760 mmHG = 29.92 inHg.
• The Pressure ↓ as altitude ↑.
• From GROUNG to 100-km altitude, the atmosphere is composed of 78%N2, 21% O2 and 1% Argon.
• Psea level = 2 x P18 000ft = 5 x P38 000ft.
c) ATMOSPHERE LAYERS
• Troposphere: 0 to 8/15 km, stratosphere from 8/15 km to 50km, Tropopause thickness from 1 to 4 km.
d) BOYLE’s MARRIOT LAW & CHARLE’s LAW
• PV= cst -> Leading to barotrauma.
• PV= nRT

147
 e) DALTON’s LAW & HENRY’s LAW
• PTOT = sum of Partial pressure Pi (Dalton’s law) -> explains altitude hypoxia.
• Solubility = CST x Partial pressure (Henry’s law) -> explains bubbles of Nitrogen (N) & bends.
f) GAZ DIFFUSION LAW
• Describes kinetic of difference of gases between porous compartments when partial pressures are
different.
• In human tissues, gas diffusion might be long time (appearance of symptoms).
• Diffusion rate ↑ with temperature.
• Small molecule diffuses faster than large one.
02 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM/CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
• The goal of the human body is to obtain O2 and discharge CO2.
• Metabolism, which designates the chemical activity inside the cells, plays a major role. The 3 functions of
the metabolism are:
1. Ventilation
2. Blood circulation
3. O2/CO2 transfers.

03 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• 2 stages (linked with the heart):
1. EXTERNAL RESPIRATION, in the lungs.
2. INTERNAL RESPIRATION, in the body tissues.
• This system is regulated by the brain to balance O2/CO2 balance.
• The main components are: pharynx, lungs, trachea, bronchi, alveoli
a) LUNGS
• 5.5 to 8 L/min, 12 to 1 =6 cycle/min, with a 1.2L residual volume. Volume of 4.5L for woman, 5L for man.
• Exhaled air: 15% of O2, and 4% of CO2
b) BRONCHI

148
 c) ALVEOLI
• Thanks to haemoglobin which transports O2 to
tissues, the alveoli are small balloons which give
O2 to the blood and get CO2 from the blood.
• Partial pressure: 47 mmHg for H 2O
40mmHg for CO2
100mmHg for O2

d) VENTILATION
• It is detected by the Automatic Nervous System (ANS) based on O2/CO2 balance.
• Each breath represents 1/10 lung capacity.
• The air inside the lung: higher concentration of CO2 & lower concentration of O2 than surrounding
atmosphere. This difference ↑ as altitude ↑.
e) SIMPLIFIED SCHEMA

O2 - -
Heart CO2 ++ Pulmonary
artery

O2 + +
CO2 - -
lung
Pulmonary
vein

04 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM = CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

• It is composed of the heart and the vessels.
• Transport of O2/CO2, information about chemical substances.
a) BLOOD
• Composed of plasma with red (transports O2) and white ( “soldiers”: protects us against foreign substances
thanks to antibodies (weapons)) cells + platelets. Total volume of 4.5 to 5L. Composed of 55% of plasma and
45% of blood cells.
• Blood flow at rest is 4.5 – 5 L/min, and 30L/min during sport.
b) HEART
• It is the muscular pump, divided into 2 parts:
➔ LEFT and RIGHT heart, synchronized in frequency, without connection.

149
• contraction is called “systole”
Both cause a pressure pulse.
• Looseness is called “diastole”
• Heart rate: 60-65 cycles / min at rest, up to 180-200 cycles-min for intensive sport.
• The amount of blood pumped depends on: heart size, pulse rate, strength of heart contraction. It is
controlled by the ANS. Contains 2 ventricles, 2 arteria and 4 valves.
c) BLOOD PRESSURE
• Measure of the blood pressure against the walls of the main arteria (left heart) at the same height as heart.
• Systolic pressure/diastolic pressure measure is as follow : 120/70 mmHg meaning “12/7” when we go to a
doctor.
• Regulated by adapting the flow of O2 into vital organs.
d) BLOOD VESSELS
• Form the vascular system with arteries, capillaries, veins
e) BLOOD DONATION
• More susceptible to hypoxia and fainting after a blood donation.
f) HEART ATTACK
• Most common cause of death men over 40 years old.
• Total blockage of coronary artery leading to death of a part of the heart.
• Factors: smoking, cholesterol, diet, high blood pressure, family history (major factor).
05 DISORDERS
a) ANEMIA
• 25 % of world population.
• Lack of red blood cells to carry enough O2, lack of haemoglobin.
• Causes: blood loss, faulty production/destruction.
b) HYPERTENSION c) HYPOTENSION
• From above “16” a “9” (Systolic • From below “9” and “6”.
pressure/diastolic pressure measure is as follow :
• Consequences: coronary artery disease (narrow
120/70 mmHg meaning “12/7” when we go to a
arteries) leading to chest pain, “high solicitation”
doctor).
of the left heart, stroke, kidney failure.
• Due to narrow arteries, elasticity ↓, causes a less
• Remedies: constriction of arteries, cardiac
blood circulation.
output ↑, heart rate ↑.
• Consequences: coronary artery disease (narrow
arteries) leading to chest pain, “high solicitation”
of the left heart, stroke, kidney failure.
• Factors: tobacco, alcohol, stress, salt, overweight.

150
 d) HYPOXIA
• Due to a low O2 concentration, symptoms are linked with the altitude:

Cabin altitude Consequence Threshold

4 000 ft Night vision ↓
6 000 ft Reaction threshold
8 000 ft Effects may appear, especially under
stress
10 000 ft Need of O2 mask = critical cabin altitude To 12 000 ft: disturbances
14 000 ft Performances ↓↓
18 000 ft Pilot may become unconscious
22 000 ft Critical threshold
• Consequences: think capacity + physical capacity ↓, euphoria (dizziness, tingling), false sense of security
& well-being, headache, vision ↓, blue color nail (cyanosis).
• Type of hypoxia:
1. Atmospheric hypoxia: caused by a decrease of O2 pressure.

2. Anemic/Hypemic hypoxia : blood cannot carry O2.

3. Circulatory: the quantity of circulating blood is not sufficient.

4. Stagnant: due to excessive g-forces.
5. Histotoxic: due to toxic substances, affect short-term memory (12000ft).
• Body response: pulse/rate & depth of ventilation ↑ ( +20 % at 15 000ft, + 50% at 20 000ft for the
ventilation).
• Factors: smoking (haemoglobin prefers CO than O2).
• Sport increases hypoxia tolerance.
e) EXPLOSIVE DECOMPRESSION
• From 5 000ft cabin altitude to actual a/c altitude within milliseconds.
• Unconsciousness may occur before hypoxia (within 6-8 sec if no O2).
• Consequences: barotrauma, shock, anxiety, physical injuries…
• First action is to put O2 mask within max 5 sec.
• We define an action time as the Time of Useful Consciousness TUC which is the limit time between the
initial event and loss of consciousness.

Decompression altitude TUC (calm subject) Mask setting

10 000 ft 100 % O2 + outside air
20 000 ft 30 min
25 000 ft 3 – 5 min
30 000 ft 1 – 2 min
35 000 ft 30 – 90 sec (learn 45sec) 100 % O2
> 40 000 ft 15 – 20 sec 100% O2 under positive pressure

151
 f) HYPERVENTILATION
• Body over breaths due to some psychological distress (fear, anxiety…)
• CO2 is more eliminated from blood, disturbing the chemical balance.
• Symptoms: dizziness, fainting (because blood circulation to brain is slowed down), muscle spasms,
sweating, tingling in the lips, acidity of the blood ↓, blood turns more alkaline.
• WARNING: Using O2 mask won’t help because it will increase the O2/CO2 imbalance.
g) DECOMPRESSION SICKNESS- BENDS
• Gases turning into bubbles inside the body (Nitrogen N bubbles).
• Symptoms can appear after a delay because of low diffusion of N:
1. Joints pains (bends) 1st symptoms.

2. Skin symptoms (creeps).

3. Bubbles in the lungs (chokes).
• Remedies: get a high pressure area
• To avoid it: wait 24h between flying and diving / snorkelling and flying (no waiting time), 12h between
rapid decompression without symptom/flying. (age and obesity ↑ symptoms).
h) CO CARBON MONOXID
• Hemoglobin has a huge affinity with CO, less than O2 (210-250 times over O2).
• WARNING: CO is colourless, odourless, tasteless.
• In an a/c, CO is mixed with exhaust gases.
• Crew action in case of CO detection: O2 mask and divert.
• Consequences: loss of muscular power, headache, loss of consciousness, dizziness, nausea.
i) ACCELERATION g
• According to the 3 axis (vertical (upward) gz, lateral gy, anteroposterior gx).
• 3 types:
1. Linear acceleration (straight line)
2. Angular acceleration (rotation)
3. Radial acceleration (curved path)
• Duration:
1. Short < 1 sec
2. Long > 1sec
+Gz Effect 4-5.5g Black veil
2g Moderate compression on seat, 4.6-6g Risking of unconsciousness (0.5g after
sensation of heaviness black veil)
3g Great heaviness, no walk Tunnel vision 7g No mobilization of head
3-4.5g Possibility of grey veil 8g No members moving

152
• Remedies: musclo-respiratory manoeuvres (2 +/- 0.5g), training in centrifuge, anti-g equipment, seat at
30°.
• Factors: low blood sugar, obesity, hypoxia.
j) OZONE
• 90 % in the stratosphere (10 to 50 km high).
• Prevent us from UV radiation, contains O3, absorbs UV B better than UV A.
• Formed when air or oxygen is subject to electrical discharges.
• Could be dangerous for us, lethal above 10 ppm, on ground 0.005 to 0.05 ppm.
• Galactic radiation is stable & predictable , highest at high latitude.
• Record of radiation above 49 000 ft.
• Max dose of cosmic radiation for crew: 20 msv/year = amount of background radiation, at 100 msv/year
you can encounter adverse effects.
• Industrial zones -> produces ozone.
k) HUMIDITY
1. ABSOLUTE: H2O vapor quantity in the air (g/m3), stable even with temperature variation,
except if there is condensation
2. RELATIVE = (Absolute humidity/Max humidity) = U in % U is proportional to 1/T.
• Inside an a/c, humidity U ~ 5-15 %.
l) EXTREM TEMPERATURE
1. DESERT/ HIGH TEMPERATURE: we lose 1L/h at the highest temperature.
2. COLD AREAS: Thermal exchange x 26 more in water than the air, increased by motion (stay
motionless is so advised), hypothermia body temperature < 37°C, body uses intense
vasoconstriction to resist to physical stress, sleepiness + apathy, O2 demand initially ↑.
• Thermal thrill: muscular activity converted into heat: metabolism & O2 consumed ↑.
III/ MAN & ENVIRONMENT: THE SENSORY SYSTEM
5 senses: vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell.
Decision-making: single-channel processor, decision are made sequentially, by prioritization.
01 NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Thanks to nerves, sensors & motor nerves.
• Nerve impulses = electrochemical phenomenon.
• Neurones = conducting elements.

153
02 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM CNS
• It controls PNS and ANS • SPINAL CORD
• The Brain is composed of:
1. BRAINSTREAM
2. CEREBRUM: sensory & emotions : 2
hemispheres
3. CEREBELLUM: movements of
balance, equilibrium posture, reflex
centre for equilibrium.
03 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM PNS
• Brings information between CNS & organs,
composed of nerves. It comprises Automatic
Nervous System ANS (active during stress
reactions) for heart rate, respiratory rate.

04 REFLEX CONCEPT
• Regardless of external environment
• Principle : sensor -> spinal cord -> muscle (reaction)
05 RESONANCE OF BODY PARTS
• Vibrations from 1 to 100Hz.
06 NEUROSENZORY FUNCTIONS
a) SENSITIVITY
• relationship between physical input and sensory perception, scale from 0 to 10.
b) THRESHOLD EFFECT
• No information if stimulation remains below this threshold.
c) ADAPTABILITY
• Erasing of the stimuli for a prolonged period -> sensory illusions -> endanger safety.

154
07 VISION
a) EYE DESCRIPTION
• Each eye contact collects light rays reflected by an object.

Ciliary muscles for accommodation Retina Choroid for circulation to

retina
Pupil ; controls the amount
of light entering the eye Sclera (« white of the eye”) -> protection

Acqueous humor Fovea (area of best day vision & no night vision
Vitreous
Cornea ; bends the humor Optic nerve
light to the retina

Iris, gives the colour eye

Papilla (blind spot)
Crystalline lens, refractive power (16 to 30)

• Visible spectrum: 397 to 723 nm.

• Near object -> lens gets more spherical.
b) BINOCULAR VISION = STEREOSCOPIC VISION
• Perception of depth at close/medium distance.
c) PHOTORECEPTOR CELL
CONES ( 5 to 7 millions), RODS (130 millions)
Near the optical axis -> fovea, perception of At the periphery of the retina (max 20° of
colour, not sensitive to the light, Central retina is eccentricity), sensitive to the light and to
linked to the visual acuity, but sensitive to hypoxia. movement. Peripheral retina is linked to lateral
Best visual acuity. vision & night vision (which depends on rhodopsin
(protein), on smoking, age, and alcohol, at the best
after 30min of night time). Sensitive to hypoxia
(stronger on the rods than the cones).

d) VISUAL ACUITY
• Ability of the eye to distinguish objects.
• Pilot must have ≥ 7/10, or 10/10 with binocular.
• Emmetropia: eye of normal optical power.
• Discrimination of 2 points under an angle of 1’.
• Factors: hypoxia, age, distance from fovea.
• The acuity is best within 3-2 degrees from fovea & ↓ rapidly. Toward the periphery of vision.

155
 e) DISORDERS

NORMAL VISION MYOPIA HYPERMETROPIA ASTIGMATISM

(Due to unequal curvature of cornea)

• GLAUCOMA (due to age), high pressure inside the eye.

• CATARACTS: clouding of crystallin lens:

• PRESBYOPIA: loss of elasticity, linked with the age, optical performances ↓, lens gets harder.
• AMETROPIA: refraction disorders.
f) BRIGHTNESS
• An object with less brightness or more blurry than normal can be perceived at an excessive distance.
g) COLOR VISION
• Cones (RED, BLUE, GREE).
• At low intensity, any colour is perceived as white except red which remains red.
h) GLARE THREAT
• Occurs after high intensity light.
• Rapid (not immediate) reflex for modulating the amount of light entering the eye by the pupil.
• 20 min prior landing -> darken the cockpit (30min of adaptation for night vision, but only 10 sec adaptation
from dark to light).
• Against lightning intensity, cockpit light ↑, look inside the cockpit, sunglasses, blinds, or curtains.
08 MOTION SICKNESS
• Vestibular system, vision, proprioceptive senses, gastro-intestinal system are involved.
09 KNOWLEDGE
• The acquisition of knowledge is acquired by: the eyes for 75%, the ears for 13%, the nose for 2-4%.

156
10 HEARING

a) OUTER EAR (air)

• Captures sounds thanks to auricle & auditory canal.
b) MIDDLE EAR
• Hammer, anvil, stirrup, eustachian tube (middle ear to throat).
• Pathologies: Barotrauma: deficit to equalize pressure between outer & middle ear.
Hearing loss: transmission of sound vibration impaired.
c) INNER EAR (fluid=endolymph)

• Cochlea: hearing -> thanks to auditory nerve.

Acoustic nerve
• Vestibule: equilibrium -> thanks to vestibular nerve.
The vestibule detects direction/variation of gravity due to otolithic apparatus (utricle + saccule) with scilias,
it also detects angular movement due to semi-circular canals.
d) DEAFNESS
• Of transmission: defect in outer or middle ear.
• Of perception: defect of the inner ear or nerves.
e) AUDITORY PERCEPTION
• 20 Hz to 20 KHz, 0 dB to 120 dB
talking Lawn motor,
crying a/c
moto

40 60 100 120 dB

• Disorders (fatigue, perfo ↓…) might appear if 8h at 90dB, 2h at 100dB, 30 min at 120 dB.
• Threshold of pain: 140 dB.
• Noise Induced Hearing Loss HIHL: governed by intensity & duration of noise in excess of 90 dB, affects
sensitive membrane in the cochlea.
• We can listen to 500words/min, and speak 125 words/min.
• Presbycusis is a gradual loss of hearing with age, beginning with the loss of the high tones first

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11 PRIORECEPTORS
• Skin, muscles, tendons, joints which generate additional information for CNS.
12 SUMMARIZE
HUMAN SPACE ORIENTATION =
VISION + EQUILIBRIUM + PROPRIORECEPTORS (“seat-of-the-pants sense”)
➔ SENT TO CNS

Well interpretation Disorders due to numerous sources (25% of accident)

Conscious Unconscious
= ILLUSION

13 ILLUSIONS
a) BY PHYSICAL DEFORMATION OF INFORMATION
• Heat, rain, snow -> deformation of visual information.
• Fog, clouds increase distances.
b) BY ERRONEOUS PHYSIOLOGICAL RECEPTION

• Error of movement = auto • Illusion of apparent • Other type:

kinetic illusion Distance error: different light
More important at night intensity for each eyes.
Remedy: scanning Black hole effect: pilots think
Ex: star is an aircraft they are higher than they
actually are.
Coriolis: stimuli of several
semi-circular -> vertigo,
tumble
(you can
see an old or young woman)

c) BY CONGNITIVE INTERPRETATION OF INFORMATION ERRORS

• Rely on instrumentation, NEVER on your perception
• The outline of a cloud can be perceived by the pilot as the horizon, inclined runway…
• Somatogravic illusion: during acceleration you can have a pitch up illusion.
14 CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
• Resynchronizing is faster for westbound ( East to West) flight: 1-1.5h a day.
• Free running circadian rhythm: 25 h, the circadian rhythms varies according to each person.
• Sensorimotor performance is better in the evening, and intellectual performance is better in the morning.
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15 THERMAL RHYTHM
• Temperature is the lowest at 05:00, early in the morning.
• Peak performance occurs at the time of rising/high body temperature.
• Hyperthermia: 14 days adaptation.
• Vasodilatation: ++ sweating to regulate body temperature.
16 SLEEP
• Sleep pattern depends on body temperature, for adults it lasts 8h, half the waking time.
• We can divide the sleep as:
Stage STAGE 1: Transition activity/sleep = 10 min, slow eye movement.
Cycle …… STAGE 2: 50% of total sleep cycle.
Stage STAGE 3-4: Orthodox sleep, deep sleep: physical recovery of fatigue.
SLEEP ……. Stage REM: Rapid Eye Movement = paradoxical sleep, cycle ↑ -> amount of REM ↑.
Cycle ……. The interruption can be harmful. 4-5 REM for a 8h sleep. It refreshes brain and
Stage
organizes memory.

17 BAROTRAUMAS = DYSBARISM
• Gases expansion within cavities of body causing pain, due to altitude and ΔP.
• Treatment do not descent, Valsalva method.
• Prevention: drink non-carbonated , but do not drink when pain is here
a) ENT BAROTRAUMA / AEROTITITS
• Inside the middle ear with Eustachian tube, you can encounter hearing difficulties.
• Stop descending if occurrence.
b) BAROTRAUMA OF THE SINUSES / SINUSITIS
c) AERODONTALGIA
• Within teeth, only when climbing.
18 OBESITY
• According to Body Mass Index BMI (kg/m²)
BMI < 15 -> anorexia nervosa
BMI < 18.5 -> Emaciated
21 < BMI < 25 -> Normal man
19 < BMI < 23.5 -> Normal woman
BMI > 25 -> overweight
BMI > 30 -> obesity for man
BMI > 29 -> obesity for woman

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19 DIABETE
• Type 1 : we don’t know the reason.
• Type 2: family history, obesity, no sport.
• Hypoglycaemia causes headache, lack of concentration.
20 FOOD
• Energy from carbohydrates, protein, and fats, breakfast = 25 % day calories.
• Waste of metabolism: CO2, H2O.
• Trace elements from balanced diet
21 CAFFEIN
• From coke, tea, chocolate (++), excessive consumption > 250mg/day.
22 SMOKING
• Can cause hypoxia -> Hypemic hypoxia
• Vision ↓
• Carcinogen substance: TAR, addictive substance: nicotine.
23 ALCOHOL
• Metabolized by the liver, no alcohol 8h prior flight.
• Lack of coordination if alcohol quantity > 0.05% blood, degrades paradoxical sleep.
• Lose 0.01 to 0.015 g/100ml per hours, for calculation take 15mg/100ml/h.
24 FEVER
• Dengue via mosquitos, yellow fever via infected mosquitos.
25 DISEASES
a) HEPATITIS A
• Via contaminated food/H2O, can be prevented by gamma-globulin or vaccination.
b) CHOLERA, DYSENTERY, TYPHOID
• Via contaminated food/H2O
c) TETANUS
• Via bacteria, via puncture in the skin.
d) HEPATITIS B or C
• ex: from tattooing with improperly sterilized needles.

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III/ PSYCHOLOGY
01 PROCESSING OF INFORMATION
a) ATTENTION
• Ability to direct one’s activity, is limited, it is like the filter of perception.
1. SELECTIVE/FOCUSED ATTENTION: when one must focus on single stimulus among several. Ex:
call sign, listening when flying.
2. SWITCHING/DIVIDED ATTENTION (highest level): processing several stimuli at the same time.
Ex: making radio call while taxiing.
• Motivation on attention: alertness & attention ↑.
b) VIGILANCE
• Sustained attention, state of awareness. Ex: continuously scan for other a/c during flight.
• Hypo-vigilance = low vigilance, influenced by monotony, tiredness, lack of stimulation, muscular heaviness,
difficulties to stay awake.
c) PERCEPTION
• Mental mechanism by which humans take in knowledge of the world around them.
• Based on last experience & knowledge & intensity of stimuli.
• Based on sensory threshold: smallest intensity of a stimuli.
• Be careful on adaptation/habituation.
• Conscious perception: mental process involving experience/expectations.
• Cognitive illusion: mental construction of the environment.
• 2 complementary types of process:
➔ Data-driven process: bottom-up system: from senses to brain
➔ Concept driven process: top-down system, from brain to sensors (ex: size object)
• First stage of info process: sensory stimulation
• Human info processing is powerful due to flexibility and variety of registers.
• Perception is central for safety.

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 d) MEMORY MEM
SENSORY MEM SHORT TERM/ WORKING MEM LONG TERM MEM
200ms to 1s From sensory mem, sensitive All knowledge, unlimited, is
to interruption, limited in size influenced by experiences,
(7 +/-2items) and in time (20- repetition, expectations…
30sec), without rehearsing, for 3 steps:
immediate use, tricks: 1. ENCODING:
grouping information… semantic (word) > episodic
(event)
2. STORAGE:
procedural: know-how (skills,
motor program) or
declarative=knowledge.
3. RECALL: mentally
rehearse information in order
to avoid erasing, pre-
activation
e) SELECTION OF RESPONSES
• Learning: ability to gather knowledge or skills.
• Skills: capabilities of completing tasks with knowledge/training.
• Quality of learning: feedback on it one’s own performance.
• Approaches to guide learning:
1. BEHAVIOURAL 2. COGNITIVE 3. MODEL
Procedure, mechanism. Know-how/skill, learning by Instructor shows to trainee,
discovery. learning by imitation.

• Ways to improve memorization:

1. MNEMONICS 2. MEMORY TRAINING (association,
Retention of information ↑ categorization…)
Gestalt laws: shape of objects
• Learning skills, according to Anderson in 3 steps:
1. COGNITIVE 2. ASSOCIATIVE 3. AUTONOMOUS/AUTOMATIC
Acquisition of knowledge Knowledge to know-how Consolidation
• Methods:
1. MOTOR PROGRAM
Rapid/precise responses
Cognitive & physical rehearsal is very important (mental training too)
Without continuous conscious control: “the more behaviour is automatic, the less it requires conscious
attention & the more it frees mental resources”. Associated errors: action slip (incorrect action),
environmental capture (habit)
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2. MENTAL SCHEMAS
Memorize representation of procedures which can be reactivated by the pilot at will.
Understanding ↑.
02 HUMAN ERROR & RELIABILITY
a) SITUATIONAL AWARNESS
• It’s the perception of elements within a volume of space and time, comprehension of their meaning &
projection of their status.
• When perfection matches reality.
• Factor: ergonomics (human/workplace interface), workload, competence.
• Use of mental model for anticipation, management of information.
b) HUMAN ERROR

LAP

VOLUNTARY INVOLUNTARY

DAMAGE PLEASURE OPERATIONAL ERRORS

SABOTAGE INDISCIPLINE VIOLATION ACTIVE LATENT

According to Immediate Dormant during
regulation consequence incubation period
Error during maintenance

c) TYPES/ FORMS OF ERRORS

1. OF OMISSION 2. EXECUTION/COMISSION 3. SEQUENCE 4. TIME
Non execution Wrong runway

• According to James Reasons: slips (wrong actions), lapses (memory failures), mistakes (decision error).
• Error tolerance: minimizing effects of errors.
• Vulnerable system: if an error is allowed to affect the system.
• Fuel-saving policies/rostering affects human errors
• Pretty good realistic pilot: 1 over 1000 times error, a normal pilot: 1 over 100 times.
• Tolerant to error: when consequence won’t seriously jeopardize safety.

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03 ACTIVITY CONTROL
• RASMUSSEN, Skill rule knowledge model
• Associated with behaviour problem solving
a) KNOWLEDGE-BASED OPERATION
• New situation, analytical made is required. Ex: divert to another airport.
• Numerous error.
b) RULE-BASED OPERATION
• Familiar, known situation, creating “shortcut”, time saving.
• After application: come-back to automatic mode.
• Error of technical knowledge, application of a poor rule (of a good one).
c) SKILL-BASED OPERATION
• Frequently encountered situation, auto behaviour, more saving time & attention.
• Acquired with practice & experience.
• Error: routine error.
• Ex: coordinated turn, riding bicycle.
• Pilots with no experience refer to more information than experts for a same tasks.
d) MOTIVATION
• Excessive motivation: stress ↑ which limit attention management capabilities but reduces performance.
Also, arousal is rising.
• Main sources of motivation in day-to-day life:
• Maslow’s Theory: hierarchy of needs
➔ Control of one’s own situation.
Self achievement
➔ Fear of punishment
Self esteem
Belonging- love ➔ Success

Protection/security ➔ Money
Physiology

• High performers: people who love work, motivated by feeling trusted/involved.

• To counteract loss of concentration: eat small snacks.
04 DECISION MAKING
• Def: voluntary & conscious process of selection, from among possible solutions, for a problem. The good
decision depends on analysis of situation. The assertiveness is the best personality to decision making.
• The decision is valid for a given time, made by the PIC

164
 a) STEPS
Detect
Estimate
Choose
Identify
Do
Evaluate
b) ELEMENTS INFLUCENCING DECISION-MAKING
FACTORS BIASES
Task-related (complexity) Confirmation (interpreting/seeking information in
Cognitive (attention, perception, skills…) a way to confirm one’s preconception)
Fact altering the physical & psychological state Belief (favouring one’s own beliefs over more
(fatigue, stress…) rational approaches)
Personality Valance effect (underestimate rare effect)
Motivation, emotion Status-quo (choosing the most familiar)
Psychosocial Overconfidence effects (overestimating one’s own
abilities)
Conformity (accepting the decision of the group)

• Collective decision: better decision, avoid errors in decision-making, bring crew to gather, could be perform
by the crew. The PIC should explain during or after de decision making process.
05 AVOIDING & MANAGIN ERRORS
a) COORDINATION
• SOP (Standard Operational Procedures): written instruction that must be followed in order to perform a
task safely, and by optimizing the operational requirements & production. Must be shaved by the crew &
updated if modification allowing more synergy.
• Briefing: Regulatory requirements (Take-off, landing…) or on request by the crew. It must be: standard
type (can be revised for another flight of same type), short & precise, understandable by all the crew.
• Checklist: verification tool to check something.
b) COOPERATION
• Mutual benefit to work together to save time & resources, it allows for synergy, sharing common task,
confidence.
• Coaction: parallel working to achieve one common objective.
• Group: set of person united by a common goal (without leader), we can encounter 2 types of groups:
➔ Primary group: a family celebrating birthday.
➔ Secondary group: group of friend (less personal than the first group).
• Team: a group with a specific organization (leader).

165
• These groups/teams, a built with:
SYNERGY COHESION GROUP THINKING
Good : 1+1 > 2 Forces uniting team members Exacerbated cohesion ->
Bad: 1+1 < 2 Advantage in times of difficulty negative
Must be built up from briefing Team spirit ↑ Feeling of invulnerability
to debriefing More or less unconscious
support of a solution from
group member

• Team building: according to Tuckman: Forming, storming, norming (structure), performing, adjourning.
➔ STATUS: position of a member within a crew.
➔ ROLE: via behaviour, the functions that must be performed by a member.
➔ Interactions between STATUS and ROLE can lead to conflict (training captains flying together,
senior captain as a co-pilot and a young captain…)
• Peer-pressure: self-imposed pressure in order to live up other’s performance or expectation.
06 HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
a) BEHAVIOUR
• Action/Reaction of an individual, outward results of personality, product of personality & attitude.
• Assertive behaviour helps you get what yo want and need.
b) PERSONALITY
• Psychological characteristics
• Based on heredity, up bringing, experience, childhood environment.
• It develops during the first few years of your life.
c) ATTITUDE
• Tendencies to respond to people, things, event in a particular manner, it’s adaptable.
• It’s the product of personal disposition & past experience with reference to a situation.
• Dangerous attitude:
➔ Anti-authority “Don’t tell me what to do”.
➔ Impulsivity “ Do something and quickly”.
➔ Invulnerability “This cannot happen to me”, “accident can only happen to other”.
➔ Macho “I can do it”.
➔ Resignation “Forget it, it’s not worth it”.

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 d) LEADERSHIP
• Based on relationship oriented & task oriented categories (Blake & Mark).
• Leadership style:
AUTOCRATIC/AUTHORITARIAN LAISSEZ-FAIRE SYNERGISTIC
Excessive authority, overload No authority, passive approach, Regulate information,
inversion of authority motivates crew, decision
making with crew members
e) FOLLOWERSHIP
• Ability or the capacity to actively follow a leader.
f) SELF-ASSERTION/ASSERTIVENESS
• Important element of safety, making oneself be heard & defending one’s point of view within the crew for
it to be taken into account.
g) COMMUNICATION
• Information: measured in bits, reduces uncertainty for the receiver.
• Effective communication: sensitive to workload & interruptions. From A to B with a minimum of change.
• We can divide communication as:
➔ NON-VERBAL COM = META COMMUNICATION.
70-80% of human communication
Body language, tone, silence, rate…
Can serve as a substitute for oral speech
Paralanguage
➔ VERBAL COM.
07 HUMAN WORK OVERLOAD & WORK UNDERLOAD
a) STIMULATION/AWARNESS
Performance « Inverted-U shape »
Optimum • Workload depends on: current situation, experience,
ergonomics of systems, acceptable if required 60% of resources.

• Under workload: unexpectedly poor landing at a familiar

airport with perfect conditions.

Stimulation

b) STRESS
• It is a mechanism by which an individual can respond to situation which he may have to face. During stress,
vigilance increases.
• Stable -> homeostasis.

167
 • 3 Steps according to the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), associated with the ANS:
1. ALARM STAGE: recognises stressor & prepares the body for action:
-> Arousal level & adrenaline secretion ↑
-> Heart rate & respiration ↑, release of glucose
-> Stress resistance ↓
2. RESISTANCE STAGE:
-> Fats transformed into sugar to extend energy
-> Appearance of psychosomatic disorders when lasting over long time
3. EXHAUSTION STAGE:
-> Fatigue -> depression, energy ↓, diseases
c) STRESS & PERFORMANCE
Performances
Break point, arousal & stress ↑↑

Hypostress
Hyperstress

Eustress = good stress

Stress intensity

• Stress promotes more physical strength than mental performance.

• Perception of stress depends on subjective evaluation of the situation & capabilities to cope with.
d) STRESS FACTORS
1. PHYSIOLOGICAL 2. PSYCHOLOGICAL
Physical stimuli, environmental Loss of a spouse, job, debt…
(noise, heat, vibration…).
e) EFFECT OF STRESS
1. ACUTE STRESS 2. CHRONIC STRESS
Initial exposure to stressor, first Prolonged exposure to stress, to
reactions. avoid it: address the physical
causes of stress.

f) FATIGUE: causes: sleep loss, jet lag

1. ACUTE/SHORT-TERM FATIGUE
Time span of a day, quickly
recovered during night of sleep.
2. CHRONIC FATIGUE
Time span of a week/month

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08 ADVANCED AUTOMATION IN COKPITS
a) ADVANTAGES
• Reduces workloads, more time to monitor system, when managed properly, you get a better situational
awareness.
• Also, safety is improved.
b) DISADVANTAGES
• Mode confusion.
• Passive monitoring: pilot watching rather than analysing & checking.
• Automation complacency: monitoring/cross checking ↓ because of belief of infallibility of automatic
system.
• Difficulty to make last minute change.
• Difficulty to understand all modes.
• Lost of situational awareness if pilot is complacent.
• Visual/aural alerts limit communications.
• Resolution of problem without the pilot noticing.
c) HUMAN VS MACHINE
• Human > Machine thanks to its creativity, innovation, and adaptability.

169
050 METEOROLOGY

170
I/ THE ATMOSPHERE
01 COMPOSITION, EXTENSION, AND VERTICAL DIVISION

• Earth closest to the sun during winter (1st of January)

23°26’
cancer • Coriolis force -> deflection to right in northern Hemisphere

• Atmosphere: dry air, 78%N2, 21% O2, 1% of rare gases (0.9%

of Argon) -> constant concentration. CO2, H2O (25 % of
capricorne atmosphere mass) varying with altitude.

• 50 % of atmosphere mass within the first 5km.

a) INTERNATION STANDARD ATMOSPHERE ISA:

➔ T= 15°C at MSL, -2°C/1000ft.
➔ Tropopause: 11-12km (36090ft) / -56,5 °C up to 20km.
➔ P= 1013 HPa.
➔ Humidity 0%.

b) DEFINITIONS:
➔ Greenhouse effect: traps sun radiation thanks to CO2, H2O, and methane.

➔ Ozone layer: “solar cream” against UV (from 15km to 45km).

➔ Aerosol: dust, sand, volcanic ashes within the atmosphere -> enables changing of state of
water thanks to condensation nuclei.
c) LAYERS:

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02 AIR TEMPERATURE
a) THERMAL EXCHANGES:
Atmosphere absorbs 90 % of Earth radiation.

Atmosphere is warming thanks to condensation

and convection.

Convection (vertical) Advection = horizontal

movement with wind.

The wind ↑ TSFC – T4ft.

Water has higher specific
heat= thermal capacity than Conduction
land -> we need more energy
to heat water than land. 51% of solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth -> Earth
radiation.

Capacity of reflexion = albedo = 31% for the Earth.

• Lat 40° is the balance latitude -> rear pole has deficit in solar radiation, equator has surplus of solar
radiation.
• Latent heat represents the energy necessary to supply the change of state, it is the most important
phenomenon for redistribution of energy.
b) INVERSION: temperature inversion: temperature increases with altitude -> low level turbulence.
1. RADIATION INVERSION = NOCTURAL INVERSION: clear sky, earth radiation are spread in the
atmosphere, the ground becomes colder than the air layer.
2. SUBSIDENCE INVERSION: Subsidence of air layer (old high-pressure system), piling up ->
compression -> T°C ↑
3. FRONTAL INVERSION: occurs when a warmer layer goes over a colder one.
warmer
4. VALLEY INVERSION:
colder

c) DIURNAL VARIATION ΔT:

➔ Tmin=30 min after sunrise, Tmax= 2h after the sun into meridian plan (“zenith”). Insolation is
max at local noon. ΔT max over large land.
➔ ΔT depends on: ->Nature of ground (++ dry ground, -- at sea), -> humidity (++ dry air), -> height
of the sun (++ in summer), -> latitude (++ at low latitude), clouds (++ with clear sky).
➔ Change of state:

172
03 ATMOSPHERE PRESSURE
• 1013.25 HPa = 760 mmHG = 29.92 inHg.
• Pressure is divided by 10 every 15km
• On chart, isobar is a line of same QFF.

LEVEL OF PRESSURE FL APPROX. ALT (m) VARIATION IN ALT OF 1

HPA HPa
m ft
1013 0 0 8 27
850 050 1500 10
700 100 3000 11
500 180 5500 15 50
300 300 9100 22
250 340 10400 26
200 390 11900 32
120 450

Terrain below sea level Terrain above sea level

Atmosphere cooler than QFF < QNH QFF < QNH
standard atmosphere

• On chart, a V-shape area = trough = elongated area of Low Pressure (LP).

• Isohypse = line of same true altitude of a pressure level = same geopotential.
• Reducing distance between isobar: T°C ↓, P↑.
II/ THE WIND
01 DEFINITION & MEASUREMENT
• Wind is a horizontal displacement with respect to the ground, measured at 10m above ground.
• Synoptic wind: Geo North, METAR/TAF/SPECI, average wind during 10min.
• Aeronautical wind: Magn North, ATIS/TOWER, average wind during 2 min.

173
02 CAUSES OF WIND
a) PRESSURE FORCE FP:
➔ Horizontal gradient: LP to HP -> intensity, speed. Geostrophic wind Vg:
➔ Pressure force: HP to HP: movement. ➔ Straight movement,
constant velocity

b) CORIOLIS FORCE FC: ➔ Coriolis force in equilibrium

with Pressure force
➔ Deviates direction of wind.
➔ Stronger near the equator
➔ Normal and proportional to the speed.
➔ Varies inversely with
➔ Depends on Latitude. Coriolis Force
Gradient
➔ Deviate to the right into the North. Hemis. wind

➔ Coriolis = zero at the equator.

c) CENTRIFUGAL FORCE FE:

➔ Toward the exterior: outside the trajectory

➔ High Pressure system: Gradient wind > Geostrophic wind

➔ Low Pressure system: Gradient wind < Geostrophic wind

d) FRICTION FORCE:
➔ Wind vector makes the angle α with isobar at the surface: α = 10 ° over sea, α = 30° over
ground, α = 20° at night at surface, clockwise in the north Hemisphere, counter-clockwise in
the Southern. α ↓ when altitude ↑
➔ Magnitude of real surface wind = 70% of geostrophic wind at sea = 50% of geostrophic wind
over land.
➔ Wind wears in and above the friction layer, friction ↑ when speed ↓

α Vg

• LP system Gradient wind < Geostrophic wind < HP system Gradient wind.
• Strongest wind at surface in the transition zone between 2 air masses.
• Error in geostrophic/gradient wind calculation -> isallobar effect due to rapid change of pressure.

174
 e) CONVERGENCE/DIVERGENCE:

High altitude

LP Convergence caused by friction forces HP

III/ GENERAL GLOBAL CIRCULATION

IV/ LOCAL WIND

01 ANABATIC & KATABATIC WIND

ANABATIC WIND Day Increasing along slope 6-8kt 100-200m thickness

KATABATIC WIND Night Decreasing along slope 6-8kt 50-100m thickness

02 MOUNTAIN & VALLET WIND

10-15kt 5-10kt

1000ft 3000ft thickness 500ft – 1000ft thickness

175
From mid-morning to afternoon From night to early morning

➔ Fog, stratus toward the land ➔ Evaporation fog above sea

V/ MOUNTAIN WAVES
• Condition on the air mass: sufficiently stable, speed of 20-30 kt, normal to the mountain range or within
30°
Orographic/Mountain waves

Rotor

• Amplitude depends on the speed, relief, and stability of the air masses.
VI/ TURBULENCES
01 CATEGORIES

TURBULENCE SYMBOL G-LOAD OTHER

Light NO < 0.5g

Moderate 0.5< <1 Able to control all the time, occupant

feel restrained, difficult walking.
Moderate change of altitude.
Severe >1 Sudden change of altitude/attitude,
uncontrollable, extremely restrained by
belt. Tossed object.
Extreme -2< <5

02 TYPES
a) FRONTAL: created by change of direction & speed of wind between 2 air masses.

b) CONVECTION: thermal column, cumulus, vertical speed >1m/s, during early afternoon

c) FRICTION/MECHANICAL: depends on roughness of surface, displacement of air > 20kt, near

ground, link with free atmosphere, conditions: strong wind, rough terrain, steep lapse rate.
d) OROGRAPHIC: rapid air flow >20kt, slope <40°: windward, low turbulence, steeper flow: leeward
-> downdraft up to 5-10m/s.
e) CLEAR AIR CAT: no convection (no clouds), link with jet stream, trough (LOW), ridge (HIGH), near
tropopause, area with strongly curved, closely packed isohypse, most severe: curved jet stream
near deep trough.

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VII/ JET STREAM
01 DEFINITION
• Wind speed > 60 kt, on chart only jet stream with > 80kt are showed, jet is not straight.
• Like a tube, speed is most important in the core, 100 x wider than thicker.

T°C - Bellow the core:

T°C + CAT
• When flying to the lower T°C -> crosswind
from the left

• When flying to the warmer T°C -> crosswind

from the right
T°C +
T°C - Core dimension:

Equator • Length : 1000NM

North pole
• Width: 150 NM
Downwind sight (the wind goes « toward” the sheet) • Vertical extend: 1800ft

JET LATITUDE SPEED DIRECTION ALTITUDE

SUMMER WINTER SUMMER WINTER
ARTIC - 60° (US) Eastbound (W FL200-300
-> E),
Westerly
POLAR (US) 60° 35° Fastest in Japan W-> E SUMMER
60-80 kt 120-150 kt FL400
WINTER
FL300
SUBTROPICAL 35° 20° March < 60kt 120-150kt W->E FL400
EQUATORIAL July to August 5-20° 60-90 kt E->W (only in FL450
From longitude 120°E -> moderate to the Northern
10°W strong Hemisphere)

• Occluded front crossed by a Jet.

• Found on the significant weather chart SIGWX.
• The jet core is north of surface system.
• They are Ci (Cirrus) cloud band on equatorial side of the Jet stream.
• Polar front jet
Jet

300-450 NM

50-200 NM
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VIII/ THERMODYNAMICS
01 GENERAL
• water represents 0-5% of the atmosphere. 0 g/m3 near the poles, 25g/m3 near the equator.
• Dew point temperature is the temperature at which it is necessary to cool the parcel of moist air,
maintaining constant pressure so that it saturates.
02 DEFINITION
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 𝑚𝑣
a) MIXING RATIO r: 𝑟 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉
= 𝑚𝑎

𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑉 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥

b) SATURATION MIXING RATIO rw: rw = = . It depends on
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑉 𝑚𝑎
temperature and pressure.
➔ P=cst, if T°C ↑, rw ↑

➔ T°C=cst, if P ↓, rw ↑

➔ A saturated air cannot get more water

➔ After saturation of a mass of air -> rain…
c) DALTON’s LAW:

➔ The pressure of a mixture gas is equal to the sum of the partial pressure of the components
of the mixture.
➔ PTOTAL= Pdry air + Pwater vapour = Pdry air + e, e is called vapour tension.

➔ If we had “water” inside a mass, e ↑.

e
Liquid

Vapour

T°C
Dew point

➔ If T°C ↑ -> ew ↑ -> rw ↑ -> U ↓, U = humidity.

➔ LOWER troposphere -> max water vapour, condensation easier.

➔ MID troposphere -> less water vapour, clouds with less water.
➔ HIGH troposphere -> very less water vapour (Ci, Cs, Cc clouds).
➔ A parcel of air is defined by T°C, P and dew point, a particle of air by T°C and P.
d) HUMIDITY U: U(%) = 100 x e/ew = 100 x r/rw.
➔ U is inversely proportional to the temperature !
➔ The height of lifting condensation level depends on T°C and dew point.
➔ U is lowest between Lat 30°-40° N at July.
➔ If U=100%, more water vapour at equator than the poles.
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 e) SUPERCOOLING, FREEZING RAIN FZRA:
➔ Liquid water at -15°C < T°C < 0°C.
➔ Ceases under action of sudden shock.
03 CHANGE OF STATE

04 ADIABATIC PROCESS
• For a particle :
➔ DRY ADIABATIC LAPS RATE DALR: -1°C/100m or -3°C/1000ft.
➔ SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPS RATE SALR: -0.6°C/100m or 1.8°C/1000ft.

Example: If at 500 ft T°C=20°C and at 2500ft

T°C=15°C, we have an external environment
laps rate of -2.5°C/1000ft .

➔ the parcel of mass is conditionally

instable.

• Cloud base (ft) = (T°Csurface – Dew point) x 400.

• SALR ≠ DALR because of release of latent heat.
• The Foehn effect: as a parcel of air arrives normally to a mountain range, the parcel is lifted up on the
windward side, clouds are forms, leading to rain. Then the air passes over the mountain chain, to the leeward
side leading to a warm and dry air.

Cold and Warm and dry air

wet air

179
IX/ CLOUDS & FOG
01 CLOUDS
a) SATURATION PROCESSES:
1. COOLING:
➔ Condensation by isobaric cooling: low layer, advection (can form cloud & fog) & radiation,
saturation due to “ground cooling” which cools the air close to the ground.
➔ Condensation by adiabatic cooling: rising motion (turbulence, orographic movement…), most
frequent process, formation of NS & AS clouds.
2. HUMIDIFICATION: water comes from evaporation, leading with coastal fog, evaporation
fog, St, Sc clouds.
3. MIXING: average temperature between 2 air masses of 2°C difference.

b) TYPES OF CLOUDS:
1. STRATIFIED CLOUDS: Stability, smooth flight, low ceiling & low visibility.
2. CUMULUS FORM: Instability, convective clouds

180
 42 500ft
Cumulonimbus Cb:
Cirrus Ci: Cirrostratus Cs:
• ++ RA/SN/ sleet hail, TS, max
• Stable, white • HALO, arrival of
height 20km
filament, NO RA, stable warm sector,
HIGH narrow band, fibrous ice crystal
hair like
➔ Capillatus Cb:
Cirrocumulus Cc:
• Anvil, plume, vast, mass of
• Arrival of unstable warm sector, blanket hair, virgo, hail, TS
20 000ft
Altocumulus Ac : Cumulus Cu :
• pebble, cylindric form, never • Top limited by temperature inversion,
touch the ground, blanket cold moist air over war surface, well
defined, NO RA, instability, air rises
rapidly during formation
➔ Ac-Castellanus: Nimbostratus Ns:
➔ Cu mediocris:
• turrets form, thickness • In warm sector,
• -- RA/SH/SN, thickness > 1500
MID >1500m, arranged in line, RA/SN, grey/dark, reach
VIRGA (SH does not touch the ➔ Tower Cumulus TCU: the ground, blocks out
ground), instability. the sun, FZRA
• ++ RA/SH/SN/sleet hail, stage before
➔ Ac-Lenticularis: Cb, Tcloud> Tambient , cauliflower
• Mountain, NO RA, stable, ➔ Cu Humilis:
never touch the ground,
• fair weather cumulus, uneven heating
pebble/cylindric, moderate
instable atmosphere
turbulence
➔ Cu calvus:
Altostratus As:
• Chantilly like
• Frosted glass, cloudy layer,
sheet, or layer of started
fibrous
6 500ft

Stratus St : Strato cumulus Sc :

LOW • Uniform base & appearance, • Pebble, slabs, NO RA, clear of ground
Drizzle DZ, from earth radiation
during night in moderate wind

181
02 FOG – MIST – HAZE
a) FOG: FG , Visibility < 1000m, U = 100%,
Liquid water -28°C < T < 0°C, T > 0°C
• Process: cooling & humidification
Liquid + icing water -40°C < T < 0°C
Ice Crystal -58°C < T < -40 °C • Freezing fog: supercooled water droplets
• Shallow fog: < 2m above ground, < 10m above sea

TYPES OF FOG CONDITIONS PROCESS DISSIPATION

RADIATION FG Clear night, wind 2-6kt, Isobaric cooling by earth Warming up, wind,
high humidity, High radiation, deepest fog change of air masses, if
pressure system, 30min after Sunrise, wind speed ≥ 13 kt ->
autumn thickness 500ft, lifting of fog into stratus.
ADVECTION FG Wind < 15kt, (Tair mass – Arrival of warm sector No wind, just the
TGND) ++, cold seasons which cools down the passage of the warm
ground, horizontal sector, change of air
displacement, thickness masses.
500-800m
Type:
• Coastal fog: over land in winter, over sea in summer (over the coldest)
• Sea fog: thermal contrast between different oceanic currents
• Steam fog: cold air over warm sea current, < 500ft, cold air mass, NO wind,
can appear suddenly by day or night.
EVAPORATION FG Increase in water vapour Wind, warming up
by evaporation of
ground, water bodies,
thickness < 50m
FRONTAL FG In front of a warm front, Normal band where Passage of warm front
day & night frontal surface meets
the ground, rain falls
from warm to cold air
OROGRAPHIC FG High relative humidity, Change in wind
day & night
Type:
• Slope fog: adiabatic cooling

• Valley fog: Temperature inversion

b) MIST: BR, , 1000m ≤ visibility < 5000m, 60 % < U < 100%.

c) DRY HAZE: HZ, visibility ≤ 5000m, U<60%, visibility reduction caused by lithometeor (dust, sand,
pollution).
d) MEASUREMENT OF VISIBILITY: by transmissometer, visibility reported if < 1500m.

182
 e) ON CHART AND METAR/TAF:
➔ CAVOK: NO clouds below 5000m above AAL or MSA, NO Cb, NO TCU, visibility > 10km, NO
significant weather (SH, TS, RA…).
➔ ISOL: individual CB or TCU isolated < 50%.
➔ OCNL: CB or TCU, 50-75%, well separated.
➔ FRQ: CB/TCU with little or NO separation > 75%.
X/ PRECIPITATION
01 PROCESSES
a) BERGERON-FINDEISEN = ICE CRYSTAL PROCESS:
➔ Transfer from supercooled water droplet onto ice crystal after evaporation, in the top of
clouds, T°C < 0 °C.
➔ Small size droplet, 16h to make 4 mm drops.
➔ In our latitude, temperate region, it is the predominant process.
➔ Mixed phase, sublimation.
b) COALESCENCE = COLLISION PROCESS:
➔ Crystal rises & falls, when one collides with droplets, the droplets freeze onto crystal, leading
to a bigger crystal etc …
➔ Part of clouds where T°C > 0°C
➔ Predominant in tropical region, in the mid latitude it produces drizzle or very light rain.
02 TYPES OF PRECIPITATIONS

TYPE ABBREVIATION CLOUDS OTHER

Drizzle DZ St 0.2 to 0.5 mm, mid latitude, clouds with only water
Rain RA Ns, As
Freezing rain FZRA Ns, As Indicated by ice pellet, ahead of warm front in
winter
Snow SN Ns, As
Snow in grain SG St, supercooled
fog
Ice pellet PL As, Ns, Cu < 5mm
Rain shower SHRA Cu, Cb, Ac
Snow Shower SHSN Cu, Cb, Ac
Fine hail GS Cu, Cb < 5mm
Hail GR Cb Irregular shape,
Hailstone: continental regions in mid-latitude
Large hailstone: associated with TS (thunderstorm)

183
XI/ AIR MASSES – FRONTS
• Air mass = extensive body with temperature and humidity in horizontal uniform planes.
01 AIR MASSES
• Classified according to T°C (origin) and humidity (paths used, travel). Warm air mass= mass cooled from
below.
a) CONTINENTAL: dry, through continent, cold, will not warm up, NO cloud. Polar continental
(coldest), from Siberian landmass.
b) MARITIME: humid, through sea, will warm up, cumuliform clouds, hot.
• 3 processes of cooling air mass:
➔ Cooling at the base = stagnant on cold ground = conduction, inversion -> instability ++.
➔ Advection over colder surface.
➔ Expansion.
• STABLE WARM AIR (winter & autumn)

WARM SECTOR

PRESSURE Rising Constant Modérato decrease

DEW POINT Falling Constant Progressive increase
WIND From the NW, turbulent From SW Strengthening from the S
VISIBILITY Good outside precipitation Poor medium

184
• UNSTABLE WARM AIR (summer & autumn)

PRESSURE Rising Low, variable Low

DEW POINT Falling Negative High, irregular
WIND From the NW, turbulent From SW, weak From the S, SW, weak
VISIBILITY Good outside precipitation Poor Good outside precipitation

02 FRONTS
a) DEFINITIONS: it is the ground trace of a frontal surface which is the transition between two air
masses.
➔ Frontogenesis is the formation of the front, frontolysis if the disappearance of it.

b) TYPES OF FRONTS:
Warm front Stationary front
Cold front Occluded front

➔ Cold front: backward, 300km length, 2% slope, 40km/h.

➔ Warm front: ahead, 6000km length, 1% slope, 25km/h.
c) OCCLUSION: when the angle of the warm sector closes -> the cold front overtakes the warm front.
1. COLD OCCLUSION:
185
 2. WARM OCCLUSION:

d) OTHERS:
• Speed of a warm front = 2/3 of the speed between isobars along the front.
• The low-level clouds in front of a warm front are caused by rain dragging & condensation.
• T°C arctic maritime air > T°C polar continental air
• Interval between polar frontal waves in Western Europe is 1-2 days.
XII/ PRESSURE SYSTEM
01 TYPES
a) THERMAL HIGH-PRESSURE SYSTEM, “COLD HP SYSTEM”:
i -
n Low-pressure system, low geopotential at high altitude
t
e
n
HP system
s
i +
t
y
b) DYNAMIC HIGH-PRESSURE SYSTEM, “WARM HP SYSTEM”:
i
+
n
t HP system, high geopotential at high altitude
e
n
s
HP system
i
t -
y
Convergency at high-altitude -> dynamic HP on ground, mechanical subsidence
NB: Subsidence, in a HP system causes dry air & temperature inversion. A ridge is a associated with
divergence & subsidence, clear sky, good weather.
In January, HP system are located in Azores, Siberia, South Pacific.
c) THERMAL LOW-PRESSURE SYSTEM:

Rising motion because of warm ground.

Over land in summer.

186
 d) DYNAMIC LOW-PRESSURE SYSTEM:
Mechanical lift.
Widen even more with altitude.
Divergence at high altitude -> dynamic pressure on the
ground.
A Trough is the extension of a LP zone, strong windshear,
convection, SHSN.

In January, a LP system is in Iceland, Greenland.

In Summer, LP over North Canada.
NB: Thermal pressure system is formed close to the ground whereas a dynamic one is formed in high altitude.
Thermal depression is deepest than a dynamic one.
e) PERMANENT ACTION CENTERS:
➔ Worked by couple : HP Azores + LP Iceland North Atlantic.

➔ Over continents, we will always have: winter thermic HP system & summer thermic LP system.

02 TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS TRS

a) DEFINITION:
➔ It refers to tropical cyclones, hurricanes. It is a strong, warm core LP depression.
➔ No TRS between 4°S – 4°N because Coriolis force is too weak.
➔ TRS are formed between 5°-15°, 2/3 of TRS between 0-180°E.
b) CONDITIONS:
➔ Hot water (26°C to 60m deep), very warm summer, low vertical shear of wind, high moisture,
small region (100-200km).
c) TYPES OF TROPICAL DEPRESSION:

Tropical Tropical Tropical Severe Tropical

< 34kt ≤ 47kt ≤63kt
disturbance depression storm Tropical storm revolving storm

d) CHARACTERISTICS:
➔ TRS eye: from surface to tropopause, 10-20NM, indicated by dense Ci clouds.

187
 e) LOCATIONS:

XIII/ INTER TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE ITCZ = DOLDRUMS

01 GENERAL
• Between FL 120-160, icing zone FL160-260, freezing altitude 15 000ft. Max Latitude 25°N/S
• Equatorial depression, it is the zone on convergence between trade winds of the Northern hemisphere and
the Southern hemisphere, leading to convergence -> rising motion -> clouds. The convergence is one
consequence of the difference location of the meteorological equator & geographical equator.

meteorological equator

geographical equator
Trade winds

ITCZ in summer

ITCZ in winter

• The track variation of the ITCZ is more important over continent than ocean.
• Dakar-Rio: ITCZ is located between 0-7° N.
188
• Associated weather: CBs, strong convergences.
• ITCZ is associated with the monsoons (= trans-equatorial trade-wind flows) over: Asian continent, Australia,
Africa (Harmattan in winter, monsoon in summer, 2 wet seasons in Kenya), Amazonia, Mexico.
• Horse Latitudes: dry & clear due to Azores HP system.
XIV/ CLIMATIC ZONES

65° Polar

Disturbed / cold temperate

40°
35° Warm/temperate, HP & hot in summer/rain fall --, LP in winter

Steppe/arid subtropical

20°
Savannah / tropical
10°

Equatorial

10°
Δ(yearly rainfall) ++ / wet & dry period
20°

35°
40°
Weather governed by travelling frontal
depression, chilly summer / mild winter
65°
T°C year < 10°c

189
 LP system

Subtropical HP system

NE Trade wind

Australia: Weather
influenced by subtropical
SE Trade wind HP, with passage of fronts
in the adjacent zone if
westerly waves.
Subtropical HP system

LP system

• Flat pressure pattern: isobar are spaced & disorganized. In Summer, fine weather, possibility of TS in
afternoon.
• Cold drop: an extensive zone of cold air at high altitude, surrounded by relatively warm air. Associated with
bad weather, TS, lightning, ++RA. Direction and speed wind are difficult to forecast. A cold drop is identified
by isohypses. Between 16 000 ft and 30 000ft -> highest activity in afternoon.
• Roaring forties: 40°-50°S.
01 LOCAL WINDS
a) MISTRAL: b) TRAMONTANE:
➔ When depression over the gulf of Genoa ➔ LP system over Corsica
➔ In summer, 40 to 75 kt
c) AUTAN:
➔ SW of France, N of Spain
d) BORA:
➔ Cold wind, north if Italy, dry katabatic wind,
Violent gusts, over Adriatic sea

190
 e) HARMATTAN:
➔ Hot, dry air, with dust, North-easterly wind in North Africa,
“Dust and poor visibility”.
f) SIRROCO: Algeria g) CHICHILI: Tunisia h) GHIBLI: Libya
Southerly
i) KHAMSIN: Egypt, warm wind
j) CHINOOK FOEHN WIND:
➔ Rise in T°, katabatic wind, on Rockies mountain.
k) PAMPERO:
➔ Between Argentina & Uruguay, marked an advanced cold air. Spring & summer.

tramontane

XV/ IN FLIGHT HAZARDS

01 ICING
• Any deposit of ice or snow on an a/c.
• Opaque or transparent / brittle or adherent.
• Parameters: T°C, amount of liquid water, size of drops. Worst icing effect at T= -15°C.
• Freezing Fog FZFG: fog with supercooled droplets.
a) PROCESS OF ICING:
➔ Sublimation: water vapour into ice, early in the morning, winter.
➔ Freezing of liquid water: classic transformation of water into ice by cooling.
➔ Cessation of supercooled state: most of the cases on a/c in flight.
b) ICING OF CARBURATOR:
➔ Depression in the carburator will cause a decrease in temperature of 15°c to 20°C.
➔ Icing possible from -5°C to 20°C, and more than 30°C under conditions (low power setting,
humidity).
191
 c) ICING INTENSITY:
➔ Light : in stable cloud
➔ Moderate : in unstable cloud, need to change course and altitude is desirable.
➔ Severe : In Ac, Cu, Cb clouds, need to change course & altitude -> Divert.
d) TYPE OF ICING:
➔ Clear: slow freezing, large supercooled droplets, water droplets spread out extensively,
transparent, moderate to severe icing. Unstable clouds, as Ns (0 to 10°C), partly freeze on
impact
➔ Rime: freeze immediately, small supercooled droplets, opaque, brittle. Stratiform clouds, light
to moderate icing.
➔ Mixed ice: Rime & clear
➔ Hoar frost: sublimation, unclear air, from cold air into warmer moist air (as in a quick descent
or climbing through inversion, or a/c on the ground + inversion).

02 TURBULENCES
• Classified according to acceleration (see page 7-8).
• Avoidance:
➔ For convective turbulence: reduce speed, reach subsidence inversion
➔ For CAT: change level.
03 WINDSHEAR
• Change of velocity &/or direction over short distance.
• Close to inversion and TS.
a) VERTICAL WINDSHEAR (kt/100ft):
➔ Vertical variation of speed in horizontal wind

b) HORIZONTAL WINDSHEAR (kt/NM):

➔ Horizontal variation of direction

192
 c) UPDRAUGHT/DOWNDRAUGHT SHEAR (kt/100ft):
➔ Horizontal variation of the vertical wind component
• A wind gradient is a shear if difference in IAS >15kt & vertical speed > 500 ft/min.
• Avoidance:

If tailwind ↑: below, TAS↓ If Headwind ↓: below, TAS ↓

If tailwind ↓; above, TAS ↑ If tailwind ↑; above, TAS ↑
➔ In cruise: Reduction of speed
➔ Landing/Take-off:
04 SQUALL LINES
• Associated with Cb, TS.
• With secondary cold front or in front of active cold front.
05 TORNADO FC
• Diameter: 300 to 400 km. Speed of displacement 40 to 60 km/h, lifespan < 10min, max wind speed 200kt.
Over sea it is called waterspouts.
• WAT = West African Tornado = line squall caused by atmosphere waves.
06 THUNDERSTORMS TS
• Starts at first thunderclap & ends 10 min after last thunderclap.
• TS is the consequence of big earth radiation &/or a strong vertical clouds with high vertical motion ->
friction -> ionization -> electricity -> lightning.
• Associated weather: gust, heavy rain, decreasing visibility, hail. St Elmo’s fire: permanent electrical
discharge.
• Avoid clouds by 10 NM minimum.
• Conditions: unstable + high moisture content.
a) TYPES OF TS:
1. AIR MASS TS: summer late afternoon/early evening, with flat pattern pressure system.
Stationary.
2. OROGRAPHIC TS: over mountain slope, by day and night, probability ↑ with temperature.
Stationary,
3. FRONTAL TS: on cold front but sometimes on warm front if really unstable, most difficult
to avoid. Moving.
4. TROUGH TS: on altitude, horizontal convergence, which is at its maximum on trough axis.
5. SUPERCELL STORM: the strongest TS, associated with microburst (50-100kt) or tornados.
Causes lot of damage. Trajectory according to 700HPa isobar = FL 100.
NB: Microburst -> a downdraft which causes a sudden expulsion of devastating horizontal winds on the
surface of the ground over a horizontal scope between 0.4 and 4 km, lasts less than 5 min.

193
 Macroburst, when damage corridor is more than 4 km wide, lasts between 5 and 30 min.
b) 3 STAGES OF A TS:
1. FORMATION STAGE: upward movement, TCU, 5 to 6 km, 10-15 min duration.
2. MATURITY STAGE: begins when rain falls, upward/downward movements. 6-13km for
temperate region, 18-20km for tropical region. Rotors. 15 – 20 min duration. Microburst
3. DISSIPATING STAGE: stage reached when the anvil can be seen. Downward movement, no
water remaining. 30 min, up to 3h.
c) LIGHTNING: on a/c with composite -> crew may be blinded, lose hearing. Risk of perforation,
electronic damage…
07 HAZARDS IN MOUNTAINOUS AREAS
Lenticular clouds CAP clouds: harmless, downdraughts at 500ft/min
on the leeward side.

Rotor: low level phenomenon, most turbulent

Rotor, condition.
roll cloud

08 VISIBILITY REDUCING PHENOMENA

Blowing Snow High intensity Snow Drizzle High intensity Rain Low intensity Snow Low intensity Rain
BLSN +SN DZ +RA -SN -RA
(1-50m) (50-200m) (500-3000m) (< 1000m) (1000m) (3000-5000m)

• Cloud, fog, spray, precipitation, pollution, dust, sand, and Volcanic Ashes (VA) reduce visibility.
• A tropical downpour reduces visibility by tens of meters.
09 INVERSIONS
• Inside an inversion (temperatures rises with altitude), a/c performances decrease (higher temperature,
less dense), visibility decreases.
XVI/ METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION
01 OBSERVATION
a) WIND:
➔ From METAR, average wind of the last 10min, according to geographic North (because written
way)
➔ From CONTROL TOWER, average wind of the last 2 min, according to magnetic North (because
oral way).
➔ GUST: transmitted if it is equal to or exceeds 10 kt above the average wind speed (EX:
24015G25). Gust < 1min.

194
 ➔ SQUALL > 1 min, Δ(wind speed) > 16 kt.
➔ 1m/s = 2kt.
b) RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE RVR:
➔ Horizontal visibility measured in the landing or take-off direction of the runway in use.
➔ Reported if < 1500m, measured by transmissometer (2.5m above ground, 300m downstream
the runway, 120m from runway centre line).
c) METEOROLOGICAL VISIBILITY:
➔ The prevailing visibility value reached or exceeded in at least half the horizon circle or at least
half the area of the airport. By Human with marks/lights or machine.
d) VERTICAL VISIBILITY VV:
➔ Max vertical distance from which an ascending balloon is lost from view. VV// : VV not
measurable.
e) TEMPERATURE:
➔ By mercury or alcohol thermometer, 2m AGL.
➔ With a weather hut, we can get dry, wet, min, and max temperature.
f) HUMIDITY:
➔ By hygrometer or psychrometer or wet and dry thermometer, by comparing dry bulb & lowest
temperature to which the air is cooled by evaportation.
g) CLOUDS:
➔ The quantity is defined by the number of Okta which corresponds to one-eight of the surface
of the sky.
➔ FEW, 1 to 2 Oktas, “few” SCT, 3 to 4 Oktas, “scattered”
➔ BKN, 5 to 7 Oktas, “broken” OVC, 8 Oktas, “overcast”

h) SATELLITE OBSERVATION:
➔ Geostationary: 36 000km, give visible & infrared images, water vapour area. Cover vast
portion of the globe but not the poles.
➔ SUNSYNCHRONOUS = POLAR ORBITING: 800 – 900km, Visible & infrared high-resolution
images. Cover entire Earth in 24h, poles included. BUT each region is flown over twice a day.
NB: Visible image: sky on space is black, by day only.
IR image: background of sky is white, day and night, cold part is white, (St clouds are grey, Ci clouds are
white).

195
 i) WEATHER-RADAR OBSERVATIONS:
1. GROUND RADAR:
➔ Ice particles are less well detected than liquid, based on echo principle -> Clouds, fog, drizzle,
-RA, are not detected but embedded CB are well detected on weather chart.
2. ON-BOARD RADAR:
➔ Locates precipitation zones, detects SHRA, SHSN, SH hail, but heavy rain can hamper
information.
➔ “TILT” function is used to detect vertical extension of a cloud.
➔ “MAPPING” function is used to navigate with ground echoes.

The « U » shape, hook, finger… show

the location of TS, hail…

3. REPORTING:
➔ AIREP “Air Report”: data sent to meteo centre, routine.
➔ PIREP = Special AIREP: obligation by crew to report moderate turbulence, TS
(moderate/severe turbulence + icing), orographic waves, DS, VA, severe icing.
02 INFORMATION FOR FLIGHT PLANNING
a) METEOROLOGICAL AIRPORT REPORT METAR:
➔ Validate at time of observation, observation each 30 or 60 min, trend forecast of 2 hours.
➔ Information only, the QNH is rounded down. Direction given according to True North. “CNL”
means cancel.
DZ Drizzle PL Ice pellets BC Patches
RA Rain GR Hail BL Blowing
SN Snow GS Small hail TS Thunderstorm
SG Snow grains FG Fog PR Partial
BR Mist SA Sand MI Shallow
DU Widespread dust HZ Haze DR Drifting
FU Smoke VA Volcanic ashes SH Shower
PO Dust SQ Squall FZ Freezing
FC Funnel cloud SS Sandstrom DS Dust storm
VC Vicinity - Light + Heavy

196
 BCMG Becoming NOSIG No significant TEMPO Temporary
change for the
next 2 hours
NSW No significant
weather

b) TERMINAL AERODROME FORECAST TAF:

➔ Forecast message for a validity of 6 h to 30 h.
c) SPECI:
➔ Aviation special weather report.
➔ Significant wind, visibility, ceiling, cloud, phenomena, changes.
d) SIGNIFICANT METEOROLOGICAL MESSAGES SIGMET:
➔ Report to all a/c a phenomenon considered to be dangerous.
e) AIRMAN METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION AIRMET:
➔ Modification of a GAMET
f) GENERAL AVIATION AREA FORECAST GAMET:
➔ Essential meteo info from surface to FL 100/150.
g) METEO REPORT/SPECIAL:
➔ Observation, ATIS.
h) VOLMET:
➔ VHF(regional)-HF(international) broadcast, gives METAR/SPECI/TREND/TAF/SIGMET.
Weather information for 10 airports.
i) AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION INFORMATION SERVICE ATIS:
➔ Broadcast on a VHF frequency, give information likeable to a METAR.

197
061 GENERAL
NAVIGATION

198
I/ THE EARTH
01 SHAPE OF THE EARTH
• Considered as being a sphere, flattened at its poles.
• For navigation purpose, mathematically represented by ellipsoid WGS 84 model (World Geodic System 84).
• Rotation: 360°/day, compression ratio = 0.3%, circumference = 40 000 km
• Earth’s axis is 23°6’ tilted.
02 GREAT CIRCLE = ORTHODROMIC LINE
• Shortest distance between 2 points on the surface of the sphere. It cuts the earth in 2 equals parts
• The great circle vertex is the point with the greatest latitude.
• Meridian, equator, other:

03 SMALL CIRCLE
• All the other types of circles
04 GEOCENTRIC & GEOGRAPHIC/GEODETIC LATITUDE
•Difference max at LAT= 45°

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05 TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES
WIND, given in oral way (ATIS, ATC…) -> magnetic direction.
given in written way (METAR, chart…) -> True direction.

• Speed factor SF = 60 / TAS • Drift max = SF x Wind.

II/ TIME & TIME CONVERSIONS

01 SOLAR SYSTEM
• Celestial body, Star (sun) + 8 planets.
02 KEPLER’s LAWS
1st law: a planet travels around the Sun in an elliptical plane orbit with the Sun’s centre of mass being one
focus.
2nd law: equal areas are swept out in equal time by the radius vector.
03 EARTH VS SUN CENTRE PARADIGM

04 SUN COORDINATES

200
05 REAL SUN – MEAN SUN

REAL/APPARENT SUN MEAN SUN

DEF •Transit of a distant star •Fictitious sun coinciding each
•Travelling at a speed of 15°/h year with the apparent sun at
around the Earth on the ecliptic sprint equinox & travelling along
plane the celestial equator at uniform
speed
•Travelling at a speed of 15°/h
around the Earth on the
equatorial plane
DURATION 23h56min, NON-CONSTANT 24h CONSTANT
because of speed of rotation
varying
EQUATION OF TIME It is the difference between APPARENT & MEAN sun

06 LOCAL MEAN TIME LMT

If EAST longitude

LMT = UTC + / - LONGITUDE (converted to time).

If WEST longitude

07 COORDINATED UNIVERSAL TIME UTC

• As in aviation we fly over different time zone, it is better to speak about only one reference: the meridian
of Greenwich.
• Local mean time along Greenwich meridian is called Greenwich Meridian Time (GMT).
08 ARC TO TIME CONVERSIONS
The Earth completed a 360°- revolution around the axis of the poles in 24h -> 15°/h
09 ZONE TIME ZT

-2 +2
0
0
UTC = ZT + n, n = zone number.

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10 STANDARD TIME ST = LEGAL TIME
• ST = UTC + x (hours), x according to specific tables.
• It is the time enforced by the legal authority to be used in a country or area.
11 SUMMERTIME VERSUS WINTERTIME
• T Summer = TWinter + 1 hour
12 DATE LINE

DAY D DAY D+1

DAY D DAY D

13 HORIZON – SUNRISE – SUNSET - TWILIGHT

Sensible horizon
32’

• Because of the inclination of the Earth axis, Sunset and Sunrise do not occur at the same time. To know
the time, we used Air Almanac, with LMT.
• The civil twilight is the period which the centre of the sun is not more than 6° below the sensible horizon,
and yet the upper lip is not visible either (on the visual horizon).
• The Nautical twilight is the period during which the centre of the Sun is more than 6° and less than 12°
below the sensible horizon.
• The Nautical twilight is the period during which the centre of the Sun is more than 12° and less than 18°
below the sensible horizon.

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III/ MAGNETISM
01 GENERALITIES
• Magnetic poles are different from Geographic poles, due to magnetic variation. North Magnetic pole is
called Blue pole, South Magnetic pole is called Red pole.
• Compass is sensitive to the horizontal component of the magnetic field.
• Isogonic line = isogonal = line of equal magnetic variation.
• Aclinic line = magnetic equator = line where dip is equal to zero.
• Magnetic parallels = line of equal magnetic field horizontal strength
• the Magnetic field is the strongest at the magnetic poles, but the horizontal component reaches zero.

Horizontal component of the field or

Magnetic North direction
Angle of
Dip Vertical
component of
the field
Direction of the Earth
Magnetic field NB: we can add a counterweight to cancel the angle of dip

02 COMPASS ERRORS
a) ACCELERATION ERRORS: Refer to 022 INSTRUMENTATION courses for more explanations.

➔ For EAST/WEST HDG: in the Northern Hemisphere ANDS “Accelerate North, Decelerate
South”. It means: if you are accelerating the compass will turn to the NORTH…
➔ For EAST/WEST HDG: in the Southern Hemisphere SAND “South Accelerate, North
Decelerate”. It means: if you are accelerating the compass will turn to the SOUTH…

b) TURNING ERRORS:

NORTHERN A/c turns Compass turns Stop the a/c turn

Hemisphere
HDG N Earlier

HDG N Earlier

HDG S Later

HDG S Later

UNOS = “Undershoot North, Overshoot South”

In the Southern Hemisphere, the reasoning is opposite.

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03 DEVIATION & SWING PROCEDURE
• Deviation is the angle between the Magnetic north and the Compass north. (CF 022 INSTRUMENTATION).
• Deviation can be compensated by a compass swing operation: we measure, engines running (to create the
same atmosphere than in flight) magnetic headings, each 30°.
• A swing procedure should be performed when:
1. The a/c has been subjected to hammering.
2. The a/c has been hit by a lightning.
3. A period of 1 year has passed during which the a/c remained stationary on the GND.
04 OTHERS
• If the ADF is turned ON, there is no deviation change on a Direct compass.
• Compass calibration is performed on any heading.
• Standby compass accuracy: +/- 10°.
• Reminder:

IV/ DISTANCES
01 RHUMB LINES
a) DEFINITION: a trajectory that intersects every meridian at the same angle. It is also called
loxodrome. It is line of constant True Track.
b) FORMULAS:

• DMN = 60 x Δ(longitude) x cos (mean latitude) = Departure = loxodrome distance on E/W route.
• RL True Track = Arctan ( Δ(longitude) x cos (mean latitude) / Δ(Latitude) ).
c) TRAJECTORY: they are concave to the nearest pole, or convex to the equator. Its shape:

𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝐷
A LAT L1 =
B cos(𝐿1) cos (L2)
C
D

LAT L2

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02 GREAT CIRCLES
a) DEFINITION: a circle on the surface of the Earth with the particularity that its centre and radius
are the same as those of the Earth. It is also called Orthodromy. It represents the shortest distance
between two points. A great circle true track is not constant, and always changing.
1’ of an arc on a great circle = 1 NM

b) CHANGE IN DIRECTION:

c) CONVERGENCY: Convergency

B
L2

L1

• Convergency = Δ(Longitude) x sin (Mean Latitude), Mean Latitude = (L1+L2)/2.

• Convergency = True Track Final – True Track Initial.

d) DISTANCES:

NP
145E
Calculate the distance between (67°00’N ; 035°00’W)
and (83°00’N ; 145°00’E):
NP 67°N 83°N
• 1’= 1 NM -> 1°=60 NM.

035W Distance travelled is 23° + 7° = 30 ° = 30 x 60 = 1800 NM.

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 e) CONVERSION ANGLE CA:

• It is the difference between a great circle track and a rhumb line track. It is half the value of convergency.
• CA = convergency / 2 = ( Δ(Longitude) x sin (Mean Latitude) ) /2.
In the Northern Hemisphere:
Calculate great circle initial track from A (20°00’N ;
032°30’W) to (20°00’N ; 004°00’W):
• Mean Latitude = (20 + 20) /2 = 20°.

• CA = (032°30’ – 004°)/2 x sin (20°) = 4.87°

Rhumb line True track A = 90°

➔ Great circle initial track = 90° - 4°52’ = 85°08’

In the Southern Hemisphere:

Calculate rhumb line track and great circle initial track
from A (20°00’S ; 130°00’W) to (45°00’S ; 175°30’E):
A
• Mean Latitude = (20 + 45) /2 = 32°30’.

➔ RL True track = Arctan ( 60 x 54.5 x cos (32.5) / 25 )=

61°27’

B • CA = (54.5)/2 x sin (32.5°) = 14°38’

➔ Rhumb line True track A = 61°27’ + 180 ° = 241°27’

➔ Great circle initial track = 241°27’ – 14°38’ = 226°49’

V/ CHARTS
01 DEFINITIONS
a) CONFORMALITY: it is the conservation of angles through the projection on the chart.
➔ “Angle on charts = Angle on Earth”.

b) EQUIDISTANCE: on chart that covers a small area on earth. Conformality & Equidistance cannot
be obtained on the same chart.
➔ “2 equal distances on Earth = 2 equal lengths on the chart”.

c) PROJECTION:

Cylindrical Conical Plane TYPE

206
Equator a parallel PARALLEL OF TANGENCY
 d) SCALE S:
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑡
S = 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ
• S small -> Large area, less detail
• S large -> Small area, many detail
• Conformal chart -> scale is constant along a parallel of latitude.
e) ORTHODROMIC CHART: a straight line (=Map line) on a chart represents a Great circle on the
Earth.
f) LOXODROMIC CHART: a straight line (=Map line) on a chart represents a rhumb line on the Earth.
g) GRATICULE: the nettings of parallels and meridians on a chart.

Cylindrical
Conical
02 TYPES OF CHARTS

TYPE DIRECT MERCATOR LAMBERT POLAR

chart CONFORMAL chart STEREOGRAPHIC
chart
Projection Cylindrical + math • Conical + math for Plane
conformality
• 1 or 2 standard
parallels L1 & L2
(“cut the Earth”)
• Parallel of origin
L0 = (L1 + L2)/2
Scale S ↑ with Latitude • S ↑ outside L1 / S min at the pole,
𝑆 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
SL = cos (𝐿) L2, S ↓ within L1/L2 S↑ with
• SL1/SL2 differ by decreasing
less than 1% from latitude
SL0 (nominal Scale)
Convergency = Δ longitude x = Δ longitude x = Δ longitude
sin(Mean Lat) = 0 sin(L0) = constant of
the cone
Proprieties
GC
RL

GC concave to GC concave to L0, GC concave to the

equator almost straight line pole of tangency
RL straight line sometimes RL concave to the
RL concave to the pole of tangency
pole
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 a) GRIDDED CHART:
• While flying over the North (or South) Pole, any true direction is “South” because it consists in following a
meridian track down to destination. So, any direction taken from the north pole toward any point can lead
to a wrong destination. The solution to this problem is called GRID.

GRID NORTH GN

Northern Hemis “-“ if GC is “W” & GC = “W” if long is E

“+“ if GC is “E” & GC = “E” if long is W

NP
+
GRID = TRUE GRID CONVERGENCY
−

Southern Hemis “-“ if GC is “W” & GC = “W” if long is E

TRUE NORTH TN
“+“ if GC is “E” & GC = “E” if long is W
40E GRID

• GRIVATION GRIV = GC + Var

TN
GN

GRIV GRIV > 0 if MN east of GN

GC GRIV < 0 if MN west of GN
MN
Var

VI/ DEAD RECKONING & IN-FLIGHT NAVIGATION

01 NAVIGATION IN CLIMB & DESCENT
• Wind & TAS for climb problem : altitude -> 2/3 of (cruising altitude – TOC altitude).
• Wind & TAS for descent problem : altitude -> 1/2 of (cruising altitude – TOC altitude).
• For calculation of gradient, use GS.
02 VISUAL OBSVERVATIONS
• Transferring positions lines: lines are transferred along the track line.
• Whiteout: terrain is covered with snow & the horizon blend the sky.
•Freezing conditions + snowfall -> power line is a good ref.

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062 RADIO NAVIGATION

209
I/ SIGNALS
01 GENERALITIES
• Radio waves travel at the speed of light = 300 000 000 m/s
• Cycle = complete series of values of the periodical process.

FREQUENCY BAND FREQUENCIES USES

Very Low VL 3 KHz – 30 KHz Very long range nav
Low L 30 KHz – 300 KHz NDB/ADF
Loop antenna
Medium M 300 KHz – 3 MHz NDB/ADF
High H 3 MHz – 30 MHz HF radiotelephony, Volmet
Very High VH 30 MHz – 300 MHz VDF, VOR, ILS LOC, Marker beacon
Ultra-High UH 300 MHz – 3 GHz DME,ILS GS, SSR, GNS
Super High SH 3GHz – 30 GHz Surveillance radar, WX radar, radio altimeter,
airport sfc movement radar
Extremely High EM 30 GHz – 300 GHz Airport SFC MVT radar

02 MODULATION
• It is a periodic variation of the sinusoidal carrier signal by the modulating signal to be transmitted.
• RADIO REGULATION:

Nature of the signal modulating the main carrier

A1A
Type of modulation of the main carrier (A, F, P…) Nature of information transmitted (aural…)

a) AMPLITUDE MODULATION AM: the information is impressed onto the carrier wave by altering
the amplitude of the carrier. It is used in ADF, ILS.

210
b) FREQUENCY MODULATION FM: : the information is impressed onto the carrier wave by altering
the frequency of the carrier. It is used in the radio-altimeter.

c) PHASE MODULATION PM: a modulation form used by GPS where the phase P of the carrier is
reversed.

d) PULSE MODULATION: a modulation form used in radar by transmitting short pulses followed by
larger impulsions.

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II/ ELECTRONIC WAVES
01 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD EMF
• EMF is a combination of 2 alternating fields E (electric) and H (magnetic), perpendicular to each other, and
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. E is parallel to the wire, and H is perpendicular to it.
• EMF travels at the speed of the light.
02 DOPPLER EFFECT
• It is the variation of frequency ΔF of a wave when the distance between the transmitter T and receiver R
varies. ΔF is measured at the receiver.
• If T moves toward R -> f ↑.
𝛥𝑓 𝑉𝑠
• 𝑓
= 𝑐
, c = speed of light, Vs = speed of T.
• This effect is used in VOR, GPS, MTS, AWR.
03 POLARISATION
• The direction of polarisation is that of E.
04 PHENOMENA RELATED TO PROPAGATION
a) ATTENUATION: Power is proportional to Range²
b) INTERFERENCE: when to waves are mixed (Sky & ground waves):
➔ If they are in phase, they are added: constructive interference.
➔ If they are in opposite phase, the result is null; this is fading, from evening twilight to morning
civil twilight.
c) REFRACTION/REFLECTION: It occurs at the boundary between to media with different dielectric
constants

d) DIFFRACTION: It occurs when waves meet an obstacle, when the wavelength is greater/equal
than the obstacle size.

e) ABSORPTION: The energy is absorbed by water, oxygen, dust, ground… f ↑ -> absorption ↑.
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05 REAL PROPAGATION
a) IONOSPHERE & WAVES: the ionosphere is divided into 3 layers (D, E, F) and their depth varies
with time. Is extends from 60km to 400km above ground.

b) SKY WAVES:

• f < 30 MHz (VLF to HF) -> SFC/GND & sky waves

( f should be ↓ at night)

• f > 30 MHz (VHF to EHF) -> Space wave, no

reflection by ionosphere.

III/ ANTENNAS
a) DIRECTIONAL ANTENNAS:
• Loop antenna (used in ADF) • Helical (used in GPS) antenna
• Parabolic antenna • Slot antenna (eliminates lateral lobes, more energy)
➔ They are used on primary radar system: one directional for transmitting & receiving.
➔ Flate plate generates less side lobes than parabolic.
b) DIPOLE: simplest type of antenna.

IV / DIRECTION FINDING
01 GROUND DIRECTION FINDER DF
• Requires VHF (civilian) for VHF direction Finding VDF or UHF (military) for UHF direction finding UDF
onboard radio. VDF range D depends on elevation of the antenna & altitude of the a/c. It gives QDM

𝐷 = 1,23 (√𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 + √𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)

213
 • QDM : Magn bearing To station

• QDR : Magn bearing From station

• QUJ : True bearing To station

• QTE: True bearing From station

• RB: Relative bearing

• QDM (MB) = MH + RB

• Avoid banking during transmission, VDF can be used for homing.

• If using 121.5 MHz -> possibility to determine position.
• For NDB calculation, use magnetic variation at the a/c position.
• For VOR calculation, use magnetic variation at the beacon position.

Class Accuracy
A + / - 2°
B + / - 5°
C + / - 10 °
D > + / - 10 °

02 AUTOMATIC DIRECTION FINDER ADF

• It is an airborne system which receives information from ground-based beacons NDB or Locator and
transmits it to the pilot. It continually measures the relative bearing RB of the MF transmission of the beacon.
• To identify the Morse signal, Beat Frequency Oscillator BFO has to be activated.
• BFO circuit imposes a tone onto the carrier wave to make the NDB’s ident available.
• BFO “on” -> amplitude & frequency remain the same.
• There is no failure warning on ADF.
a) NON-DIRECTIONAL BEACON NDB:
• LF / MF band, 190 – 1750 MHz. • Range: several hundred of nautical miles.
b) LOCATORS:
• LF / MF band, 190 – 1750 MHz , A2A modulation. • Range 10-25NM for final approach.

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c) INDICATORS:
FIXED CARD RBI •Needle pointing at
the RB of GND
station

MOVING CARD • HDG control to set

(ROTABLE present heading on
CARD) RBI top of the rose
• The pilot reads a
QDM at the front
end of the needle

RADIO • Compass card

MAGNETIC indicating a/c
INDICATOR RMI compass heading
•Needle indicates
QDM

d) ERRORS:
1. QUADRANTAL ERROR: due to a/c metallic surfaces. Max error = 5°
Error

RB

90° 180°

2. NIGHT EFFECT:
• Due to reflection in the ionosphere, sky wave distortion, because layer D disappears.
• Loss of signal -> fading. Range ↑ but accuracy ↓
• Max at down & dusk.
3. WEATHER:
• TS, CB -> greatest inaccuracy, static interferences.

215
 4. COASTAL ERRORS:
• Speed over water > over land due to less absorption.
• Negligible at 90° to the coast or when NDB is on the coastline.

5. TERRAIN/MOUNTAIN EFFECT:
• Reflection.
e) HOMING/TRACKING:

1. HOMING: keep RB of NDB = 000°.

2. TRAKING: consider the wind. Straight track

V/ VHF OMNI RANGE VOR

01 GENERALITIES
• It is a VHF radio aid on ground.
• From 108 to 117,975 MHz. 108 -112 MHz : first decimal is EVEN, 112 – 117,975 EVEN & ODD tenths.
02 GROUND STATION

• The VOR radiates 2 independently low-frequency signals at 30 Hz : one REF signal & one VAR signal whose
phase-shift with respect to the REF signal equals the azimuth of transmission direction. Both signals are in
phase to magnetic north.
• We can use the VOR up to 40° elevation, above, it is the cone of confusion.
• if there is a change of measured bearing greater than 1°, the VOR will be switch OFF.
03 TYPE OF VOR
a) CONVENTIONAL VOR CVOR: 1 rotating antenna, 30 VAR is AM signal.

b) DOPPLER VOR DVOR: combination of fixed antennas (> CVOR -> less error), 30 VAR is FM signal.

c) EN ROUTE VOR: for IFR, upper airspace.

d) TERMINAL VOR: low-powered VOR, shorter range (25NM), for approach. Max 5° deviation.

e) TEST VOR: emits signals to test VOR indicators in the a/c.

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04 DISPLAY
a) COURSE DEVIATION INDICATOR CDI: indicates the angular deviation with respect to QDM/QDR,
the course is selected by OBS or CRS. Full deviation is 10°.

b) HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR HIS: it is a rose compass + VOR CDI, easier visualisation. Full
deviation is 10°.

c) FOR ATPL QUESTION:

➔ Draw VOR + radial

➔ “FROM” + “TO”
➔ Consider the deviation ! FROM, TO orientation!
05 PRACTICAL USE
a) TRACKING: it is following a VOR radial inbound or outbound. The Track is a great circle.

b) INTERCEPTION
c) PROCEDURAL TURNS & HOLDING PATTERNS
06 ACCURACY / ERRORS

• Range D = 1,23 (√𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 + √𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)

• CVOR accuracy = + / - 5° day/night. • DVOR: + / - 1°

• Radials can be bent or lead to wrong fluctuated information: oscillatory deviation, scalloping.
VI/ DISTANCE MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT DME
01 PRINCIPLES
• The distance is calculated from the time taken by a signal between transmission (from a/c) and the answer
of the DME transponder (to the a/c) + 50 µs delay.
• It measures a slant range and limited to the 100 strongest signals of a/c (because 2700 pps max).
• UHF signals: 960 MHz to 1215 MHz, spaced by 1 MHz, 63Mhz between the interrogation and the reply
frequency.
• Self-triggering is impossible because a/c & ground station use different frequencies.

217
02 PRACTICAL USE
• when approaching the station, error due to height ↑, error of GS ↑.
• DME “N” error: 0,25 + 1,25% of measure distance NM.
• DME “P” error: 0,2 NM.
03 ASSOCIATION / CHART

a) VOR-DME:

• call sign transmitted every 40s: 1 DME call sign + 3 VOR call sign.
• a/c position in azimuth + distance.

b) TACAN:

• Range & bearing for military.

• Only range for civilian.
c) ILS/DME:

• Only localiser frequency is set (DME frequency is paired with it).

VII/ INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM ILS
01 GENERALITIES

• Fan-Markers transmit a single VHF frequency of 75 MHz (carrier frequency).

02 LOCALIZER LLZ
• VHF : 108,1 – 111,95 MHz, ODD

• Measurement is based on the Difference in Depth of Modulation (DDM) between 90/150 Hz signals, which
is proportional to the angular deviations.
• The back course is used for non-precision approach.

218
• Display: Localizer Full deviation is 2,5°

• Errors: scalloping (rapid changes from side to side of the path), multipath interference (FM-immune filter
to counter it), side lobes (false beams).
03 GLIDEPATH
• UHF: 329-335 MHz.

• Same principle as LLZ.

• Display: full deflection 0,7°, is deviation > 0,35° -> Go around.
• Errors: false glide path du to lobes of radiation, only above correct glide path.
04 PERFORMANCES
• Critical area: no vehicle is permitted during all ILS operation within this area.
• Sensitive area: vehicle movement and parking are controlled.

AVERAGE AMPLITUDE MAXIMUM

OFFSET AT THE OF THE BENDS GUIDANCE
THRESHOLD LIMIT
CAT I +/- 10,5 m 0,3° - 0,6 ° 200 ft
CAT II +/- 7,5 m 0,1° - 0,6 ° 50 ft
CAT III +/- 3m 0,1 - 0,6 ° NIL

DECISION HEIGHT (ft) DH RVR

CAT I DH > 200 ft RVR > 550 m
CAT II 100 < DH < 200 RVR > 300 m
CAT III A DH < 100 ft or NO DH RVR > 200 m
CAT III B DH < 50 ft or NO DH 75 m < RVR < 200 m
CAT III C NO LIMITATION

219
VIII/ MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM MLS
01 GENERAL
• For the replacement of the ILS due to its limitations.
• The on-abord equipment provides vertical & horizontal guidance during the approach + DME distance.

• Equipment :
Separate azimuth
Elevation transmitters
DME-P (for 3D position), if no, MLS~ILS
• SHF Band (3-30 GHz, 300 KHz separation) +
200 channels.
• Principle:
Timing passage of 2 scanning beams
from transmitters co-located with DME.
Distance from RWY threshold given by
DME.
A/C receives 3 elevation info + 1 azimuth
info.
• Advantages :
Used where ILS encounters difficulties because of building, music station.
Many different approach to the same RWY.
Transmission can be interrupted to avoid reflection by objects.
Insensitive to geographical site.
IX/ GROUND RADAR
01 RADAR PRINCIPLE
• Based on time measurement by Pulse Technique & echo.
• Directional aerial for transmission & reception.
• Gives slant range by calculating time to make return travel.
• Pulse length : duration of the pulse.
• Pulse repetition period interval (PRI) : time between 2 pulses.
• Pulse repetition frequency : Nb of pulses/s.
• Gives azimuth, positions in polar coordinates.
• Necessity to harmonise rotation speed of the antenna, frequency, pulse length, PRF
• Advantage : no a/c system required. Drawback: Depends on weather, No altitude.
220
• 45° cone of confusion.
• Resolution : Depends on pulse length & beam width -> short pulse length & narrow beam.
• Min theoretical Range : Defined by pulse length, range ↑ if pulse length ↑.
• Max theoretical unambiguous range: depends on PRF, range ↑ if PRF↓, pulse length ↑.
𝑐
• Range = 2 .𝑃𝑅𝐹

02 DETECTION PROBLEM
• Fixed echoes : caused by units on ground. To counter this, we use moving target indicator (MTI) which
echoes erases all stationary targets.
03 PRIMARY RADAR UNITS
a) LONG RANGE RADAR SURVEILLANCE: 600 MHz, pulse length ↑, PRF ↓, range= 200-300NM.
b) TERMINAL AREA SURVEILLANCE: 1200 MHz, PRF ↑, range= 80NM.
c) AERODROME SFC MOUVEMENT RADAR: SHF, antenna 60 rpm, accuracy , gets indication of the
shape/type of a/c.
d) SURVEILLANCE RADAR: Guidance for dep/app, NO height.
e) PRECISION APPROACH RADAR: for military airport.

221
MOYEN BAND FREQUENCY PRINCIPLE ERROR PRECISION OTHER
VDF VHF civil 118 – 136 MHz • omnidirectional station • do not bank • A +/- 2 ° • gives QDM
UHF military Metric • receptor inside the a/c • simultaneous com • B +/- 5 ° • by ATC
• C +/- 10°
•D > 10°
ADF LF/MF 190 – 1750 KHz • measurement of the • quadrantal (metal) • +/- 5 °(day) • gives RB if fixed card
Kilo-hecto modulation rate of signal • weather (++) • no failure flag • gives QDM if moving
• loop + sense antenna • costal card or RMI
• night (fading) • BFO ON if A1A
• BFO OFF if A2A
VOR VHF 108 – 112 MHz (even •phase-shift • propagation error 1° •CDI, HSI, RMI
tenths) 30REF(AM)/30VAR(FM) • Classic 5°
112- 117,95 MHz • Doppler < 1°
Metric
DME UHF 960 – 1215 MHz, •interrogation: a/c, • approaching station: • « N » : 0,25 + 1,25% • gives slant distance
spaced by 1 MHz responder: station + 50µs error ↑ NM • 100 strongest signals
Deci delay. • « P » : 0,2 NM (2700 pps max)
➔ SSR
ILS – LOC VHF 108,1 – 111,95 MHz, •difference in DDM • scalloping (rapid • 2,5° max deflection
odd 90/150 Hz change)
Metric • multipath
interference
• side lobes
ILS – GS UHF 329 – 335 MHz • false path due to • 0,7 ° max deflection, if
Deci lobes of radiation, > 0,35° -> Go around
only above glide path
MLS SHF 3 -30 GHz + 300KHz •timing passage of 2 •Distance from RWY
separation scanning beams threshold by DME
Centi • 3 elevation + 1 azimuth

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X/ AIRBORNE WEATHER RADAR
01 GENERAL
• SHF, 9000 MHz, wavelength = 3cm

• Wavelength of 3cm to detect large water droplets only. It cannot detect fog, DZ, CAT, Dry hail, SN.
• Stabilization axis: roll & pitch. Slotted antennas to eliminate lateral lobes & concentrate more energy in
the main beam.
02 PERFORMANCES - USE
• Max range of 200 – 300 NM.
a) ON/OFF: antenna locked to pitch/roll axis.
b) TILT: lower when climbing, auto tilt depends on altitude, position, selected range.
c) ISO-ECHO: contour function, black/white, detects area of severe turbulence in cloud.
d) WX: 3-5° pencil beam (Range > 50-60 NM, Range < 50-60NM for cosecant beam/fan shaped),
displays intensity of precipitation (black (--) to magenta (++)).

e) WX +T: weather + turbulence.

f) GAIN: controls sensibility of reception.
g) MAPPING: GND/Terrain is displayed, signal is independent of the distance, use on polar areas ->
mistaking edge of coastal ice off store for the real coastline.
h) PREDICTIVE WINDSHEAR PWS: on app, ldg, but NOT for T/O.
i) SECURITY: take care of radiation for humans on the ground.

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XI/ SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR
01 PRINCIPLE
• Does not use echo principle
• Gives azimuth, elevation, identification, FL, GS depending on the mode.

P2 CONTROL PULSE: if P2 amplitude is higher than P1 & P3 , the signal is suppressed.

REPLY:
Mode A: 4096 codes (0 to 7).
Mode C: 4096 codes available, 2048 used, accuracy of the height displayed is +/- 50 ft.
• “IDENT” knob: “flash” on ATC screen. • “STAND BY”: between 2 selection of codes
• “ALT”: altitude with A-C-S mode can be transmitted.
02 MODE S
• 24 bits, 16 million codes, better tracking (25 ft), eliminates gambling issues.
• Interrogations:
a) ALL-CALL: to locate transponders in azimuth & distance, general addressing, for A and S modes.
b) ROLL-CALL: to S mode transponders previously located by the radar, individual addressing.
c) INTER MODE: depends on P4 length -> short P4 : A/C only all-call, -> long P4 : A/C/S all call.
• Answers:
a) ENHANCED SURVEILLANCE: selected alt, TAS, IAS, MH, True track angle, GS, M, roll angle, Vz.
b) S-BROADCAST: transmits info to all mode S.
03 OPERATING PROBLEM
a) FALSE REPLY OF UNSYNCHRONISED INTERRROGATIONS FRUIT:
➔ Interferences between 2 stations for 1 a/c.
➔ “de-fruiting”: removal of random responses from the display.
b) GARBLING: on ground, due to superposition of 2 replies from different transponders within 1,7
NM, same direction from interrogator.
04 OTHER
• Accuracy of primary radar > secondary radar.
• Required power from ground is less than primary radar.
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XII/ AREA NAVIGATION RNAV
01 DEFINITION
• RNAV is a method of navigation allowing a/c operations on any desired track using station-referenced
navigation signal or a self-contained navigation system: VOR, DME, ILS, MLS, GNSS, INS/IRS ADC clock (self-
contained).
• RNAV equipment is one of the mandatory elements to receive approval to operate in a “Required
Navigation Performance” RNP environment.
• RNAV routes are waypoints defined by WGS 84 system.
• RNAV has some advantages: shorter flight distance, fuel ↓, time ↓, nb of gnd facilities ↓.
02 TYPES OF RNAV
a) 2D RNAV: guidance in horizontal plane.
b) 3D RNAV: guidance in horizontal & vertical plane.
c) 4D RNAV: guidance in horizontal & vertical plane + time dimension.
d) BASIC B RNAV: RNP 5 is required (route +/- 5NM lateral/longitudinal at 95 % of time).
e) PRECISION P RNAV: RNP 1 is required.
03 2D RNAV
a) EQUIPMENT: VOR/DME with associated navigation computer.
b) INPUT: waypoint (phantom station -> gives ground distance), VOR/DME, desired course.
c) CALCULATION: simple cos/sin, triangular problem.
d) CROSSTRACK ERROR: displayed on CDI/HSI automatically. Erratic indication: low altitude close to
the limit of reception.
e) INDICATIONS: RNAV-mode-5-dot HSI/CDI :
➔ En route : full scale deflection = 5 NM

➔ Approach : full scale deflection = 1,25 NM

RNAV-mode-2-dot HSI/CDI :
➔ En route : full scale deflection= 4NM
➔ Approach : full scale deflection =1 NM
04 4D RNAV

• Displayed on CDU/ND.

225
• Functions: display position, cross track error, selected/reviewed flight plan, modify navigation data.
• Cross track distance: distance between actual & great circle track between active waypoints, on CDU.
XII/ FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FMS
01 GENERAL
• It provides lateral/vertical navigation & guidance + performance management + 4D a/c trajectory.
• It is composed of CDU, FCC, FMC, Kalman filter.

FCU FMS 1
EFIS
Radio Nav, GPS, Nav DB, perf DB
IRS, DME, ADC, AP/FD/ATHR
FMC
FADEC, CDU Controls engine
Software

FMS 2

02 DATABASE DB
• Updated every 28 days (for Nav DB), possibility to add.
a) NAVIGATION DB: airports, navaids, airways, runways, waypoints, SID/STAR, company routes,
magnetic var…
b) PERFORMANCE DB: V1, VR,V2, drag, thrust, flight envelop, fuel flow, cruising speed…
03 NAVIGATION DISPLAY
• Full Nav, Full VOR/ILS, Expanded Nav, Expanded VOR/ILS, Map, Centre Map, Plan (True North oriented)
WX radar available.

• 3st pages: IDENT – POS INIT – RTE.

• If VOR is lost -> removal of bar/pointer.
• COLOR CODE:
Precipitation -> green to magenta.
Turbulence, selected heading, active route/flight plan -> magenta
Engaged mode, selected data/value -> green
Armed mode, current data/value, a/c symbol -> white
Sky -> blue/cyan
Caution/abnormal sources -> amber/yellow
Warning, flight envelope, system limits -> red

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XIV/ GLOBAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM
01 INTRODUCTION OF GPS
• Dev by US Department of Defense, 2 services:
1. Precision Positioning Service (PPS) for military users
2. PPS for civilian users: ≤ 13m 95%, horizontal & ≤ 22m 95% vertical.
• Possibility to degrade accuracy with Selective Availability SA by dithering satellite clock/ manipulating
satellite signal.
• Uses principle of trilateration: 4 sat for 3D (for clock bias), 3 sat for 2D.
• 3 segments : SPACE, CONTROL, USERS.
02 SPACE SEGMENT OF NAVSTAR/GPS

NB 24 • 4 atomic clocks.
Orbits 6
Nb/Orbit 4 • Transit signals which can be used by receivers to determine time,
Altitude 20 200 km position & velocity.
Period 12h
Inclination 55°
Coordinate WGS 84
system
Frequencies 1575 MHz
& 1227MHz

03 GPS PRINCIPLE
• timing period from satellites to aircraft. • Datum for MDA-> barometric altitude.
a) ERROR/DELAY:
➔ Ionospheric error/path delay: α 1/f², greatest error, more important at low elevation,
determined from SAT NAV msg, reduced by using model.
➔ Dilution of Precision DoP: interception of signal lines due to relative position of visible
satellites (120° between each satellites is privileged), DoP ↓ -> accuracy ↑.
➔ Clock error: caused by gravitational effects (sun, moon, planets…), corrected by 4th satellites.

➔ Pseudo-range: we know there is an error, corrected range for transmission error.

b) SIGNAL: UHF

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• The carrier signal is modulated by:
➔ Pseudo-random noise PRN: to identify satellites & measure time.
➔ Navigation Data msg:
1. GPS ephemeris: for predicting the position of the satellite being considered. Contains
data used to correct the orbital data of the satellites due to small disturbances.
2. GPS almanac: course orbital parameters for all satellites, based on Kepler law, not fully
accurate. It takes 12min 30 for a GNSS receiver to download those data.
04 CONTROL SEGMENT

• Detects malfunctioning of
Satellites.
• Master control Station,
Monitor Stations, GND
antennas are the main
components.
• Responsible of the SA

05 USER SEGMENT
• Selects Satellites automatically, tracks signal, measures time taken from Sat to a/c.
• Multichannel.
• Satellites are considered to be “in view” if they are more than 7,5° above the horizon (mask angle).
06 AIRBORNE BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEM ABAS
• Does not improve precision, improve integrity of GPS.
• Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring RAIM to detect & identify fault of one satellite. It is located
within the GPS receiver. The number of satellites needed for the receiver to perform the RAIM may be
reduced by one.
07 GROUND BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEM GBAS
• It is a local augmentation system of GPS & GLONASS based on local differential: 2 receivers located fairly
close together take the same measurements that have the same errors. A ground or differential receiver,
whose exact position is known, helps provide correctives terms for an embedded GPS receiver nearby.
• Via VHF band ILS-VOR (108-118 MHz) -> VDB VHF Data Broadcast. The VDB signal provided are error
correction data, integrity data and approach data for more than one runway.
• GBAS ground subsystems provide precision approach service (horizontal guidance & trajectory deviation
for final app segment) & a positioning service (horizontal position information to support RNAV operations).
• Multipath effects are not improved, and signals are subjected to ionospheric & topographic delays.
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08 SATELLITE BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEM SBAS
• for GPS & GLONASS, 3 Sub-sections: GND Station of GPS/GLONASS, one or more geostationary SBAS
satellites, SBAS augmented receivers.
• Same frequencies as GNSS.
• WAAS for USA, EGNOS in Europe, MSAS in Japan, GAGNAN in India.
• provides approach & landing operations with vertical guidance (APV) & precision approach service.
09 COMPARISON

NAVSTAR GPS GLONASS GALILEO

SATELLITES 24 24 30
ORBIT 6 3 3
NB/ORBIT 20 200 km 19 100 km 23 222 km
ALTITUDE 4 8 9+1 spare
PERIOD 12 h 11 h 15 min 14 h
INCLINATION 55° 64,8° 56°
FREQUENCIES 1575 & 1227 MHz 1,6 & 1,2 GHz 1164-1215-1260-1300-
1559-1591 MHz
COORDINATE SYSTEM WGS 84 PZ 90 Each Sat has 3 sections:
• timing (1 rubidium + 1
Compatible hydrogen clocks)
• signal generation
• transmit

XV/ PERFORMANCE BASED NAVIGATION PBN

01 PBN CONCEPT
• It is based on a number of “navigation specification” (RNAV + RNP) associated with each phase of flight
based on the concept of surface navigation.
• Performance-based navigation.
• Area navigation based on performance requirements for a/c operating along ATS route, on an instrument
approach procedure or in a designated airspace.
• Based on RNAV & RNP requirements: accuracy, integrity, continuity, and surface navigation which uses
computed data (no raw data which comes from VOR/DME…)
• It is not sensor-specific.
02 PBN COMPONENTS
APPLICATION

INFRASTRUCTURE PBN SPECIFICATION

(navaid on the
gnd, but no NDB)
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03 PNB SCOPE
a) OCEANIC/REMOTE SPACES TERMINAL PHASES: PBN limited to ops with linear lateral performance
requirements and time constraints.
b) APPROACH PHASES: PBN allows linear & angular lateral guidance operations.

Linear lateral guidance Angular lateral guidance

04 NAVIGATION SPECIFICATIONS
• RNP: requires on board performance monitoring and warning system, RNAV does not.

DEPARTURE EN-ROUTE OCEANIC/REMOTE ARRIVAL APPROACH

RNP 0,3 (helico) X X
RNP AR APCH With
authorisation
RNP APCH X
RNAV 1 & RNP1 X X
RNAV 2 X X X
RNP 2 X X
RNAV 5 X X
RNAV 10 & RNP4 X
2 LRNs & INS/IRS/FMS or GNSS
05 USE OF PBN
• Path terminator: specific type of termination of the previous flight path.

IF: Initial Fix

Arc centre fix

TF: Track to Fix

CF: Course to Fix

DF: Direct to Fix Unspecified position

FA: Fix to Altitude Begins at a point and ends when the aircraft reaches an assigned altitude.
CA: Course to Altitude Portion of trajectory that ends at an altitude without specific position.
FLY BY TURN Turn without overfly the waypoints, with anticipation.
FLY OVER TURN Forces the a/c to fly over the path terminator before turning to connect to the
next flight segment.
Holding pattern
Offset flight path
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06 PBN OPERATION
a) PATH DEFINITION ERROR PDE: the difference between the desired theoretical route and that
defined by the navigation system.
b) FLIGHT TECHNICAL ERROR FTE: Execution of flight along the defined path, assessed by the
manufacturer.
c) NAVIGATION SYSTEM ERROR NSE: the value of the error made by the navigation avionics in
determining the position, relative to the actual position of the a/c.
d) TOTAL SYSTEM ERROR TSE: in NM, must be less than the accuracy required for 95% of the flight
time. 𝑇𝑆𝐸 = √𝑃𝐷𝐸 2 + 𝐹𝑇𝐸 2 + 𝑁𝑆𝐸².

e) ABNORMAL SITUATIONS: the flight crew shall notify the ATC of any problems with the navigation
system which results in the loss of approach capability.

231
070 OPERATIONAL
PROCEDURES

232
I/ ANNEX 6 : OPERATIONS OF AIRCRAFT
01 APPLICABILITY
• Contains Standards & Recommended Practices, into 3 parts:
Part 1: operators conducting international commercial air transport by a/c.
Part 2: requirements for international general aviation operations with a/c.
Part 3: helicopters.
02 DEFINITIONS
a) ALTERNATE AERODROME: an a/d to which an a/c may proceed when it becomes either
impossible or inadvisable to proceed to or to land at the a/d of intended landing where the
necessary services and facilities are available, where a/c performance requirements can be met,
and which is operational at the expected time of use. It includes:
➔ T/O alternate: 1 hour with one engine operative over 2, or 2h with one engine operative
over 3-4, if all engines -> at max continuous thrust.
➔ En-route alternate.
➔ Destination alternate:
1. No destination alternate if time to destination is less than 6h & 2 RWY at
destination. MINIMA: at ETA +1h ceiling > 500 ft + circling height, visibility ≥ 5km.
2. 2 destination alternates: if RVR < Minima for precision app, OR RVR < Minima +
ceiling < MDH for non-precision app OR no weather forecast.
➔ Departure alternate = Enroute + destination diversion.
b) FLIGHT TIME: from block-off time to rest at the end of the flight = “chock-off chock-on”.
03 COMPLIANCE WITH LAWS
• The operator is responsible to make sure that the crews are aware to comply with regulations of the state
where operations are conducted.
• If diversion, PIC chooses, notifies local authorities without delay, if required by state of occurrence, submits
a report (within 10days).
a) SAFETY MANAGEMENT:
➔ Safety hazard identification
➔ Remedial actions
➔ Monitoring of safety performances
➔ Improvement of safety management system
b) MAINTENANCE RELEASE:
➔ Basic details, date
➔ Identity of the approved maintenance organisation & person signing.
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II/ EUROPEAN REGULATION
01 IMPLEMENTING RULES
• It is composed of 8 annexes:

ANNEX I DEF Definitions

ANNEX II ARO Authority Requirements for air Operations
ANNEX III ORO Organisation Requirements for air Operations
ANNEX IV CAT Commercial Air Transport operations
ANNEX V SPA Specific Approvals requirements (LVO, RVSM, PBN…)
ANNEX VI NCC Non-Commercial operations for Complex aircraft
ANNEX VII NCO Non-Commercial operations for non cplx a/c
ANNEX VIII SPO Specialized activities

• A complex motor-powered a/c:

• > 5,7 T, >19 PAX or min 2 pilots, turbo jet engines, > 1 turboprop engine.
02 THE AUTHORITY
• The Air Operator Certificate AOC:
➔ Given by an Authority to an operator (DGAC…)
➔ Guarantee of maintenance, organisation, management, procedures to a certain safety
level
➔ Unlimited duration
03 THE OPERATOR
• Minima must be equal or higher than those established by the State authorities, inaccuracies in the
indications of altimeters used.
a) AEROPLANE CATEGORIES: according to the Velocity at threshold Vat, Vat = 1,3 Vso or = 1,23V1g,
at max certified landing mass.
Categories Vat
A Vat < 91 kt
B 91 ≤ Vat ≤ 120
C 121 ≤ Vat 140
D 141 ≤ Vat ≤ 165
E 166 ≤ Vat ≤ 210

b) T/O OPERATING MINIMA: expressed in RVR (at threshold) or visibility. For multi-engine a/c, which
can with an engine failure during T/O, either stop T/O or continue to 1500 ft height:
Facilities RVR/Visibility
Day: NIL 500 m
Day: RWY edge lighting and/or centreline 400 m
marking
Night: RWY edge and runway end lights or 400 m
runway centreline lights and rwy end lights

234
 c) DIRECT INSTRUMENT APPROACH MINIMA: DH/MDH starts from a/d elevation or threshold
elevation if it is more than 2m below a/d elevation. Without a Low Visibility Approval:
CEILING Lowest DH/MDH (ft) SRA: surveillance radar
approach
NDB 350 2 NM
VOR NDB/DME 300 1NM
VOR/DME, ILS (NO GS) 250 0,5 NM
ILS CAT 1 200
ILS Back-course for NPA NOT approved
ONLY RVR determines if we can continue the approach.

PRECISION APPROACH

Class of lighting facility Full App lighting Intermediate ALS IALS Basic ALS BALS Nil ALS NALS
syst FALS
Min RVR (m) 550 750 1000 1200

OTHER APPROACH

Min RVR Aeroplane category

A B C D
App respecting the 750 m
criteria stated below
App not respecting 1000m 1000m 1200m 1200m
the criteria OR with
DH/MDH > 1200ft
Criteria: App flown using CDFA with 4,5° for (cat A-B) or 3,77° (cat C-D) + final app segment of 3NM with
offset limits.
d) PLANNING MINIMA:
1. For NPA at alternate: NPA minima + (RVR 1000m) + (MDH +200ft)
2. For CAT I at alternate: NPA minima
3. For CAT II-III at alternate: CAT I minima

e) CIRCLING APPROACH:
A/c category
A B C D
MDH (ft) 400 500 600 700
VISI (m) 1500 1600 2400 3600

f) SPECIAL VFR: Ceiling > 600ft, visibility > 1500m

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 g) LOW VISIBILITY OPERATION LVO:
TYPE Minima
Low visi T/O 75 m ≤ RVR ≤ 400m
CAT I 400m ≤ RVR & 200ft ≤ DH
Standard CAT II 300m ≤ RVR & 100 ft ≤ DH ≤ 200ft
Other than std 350m ≤ RVR & 100 ft ≤ DH ≤ 200ft
CAT II
CAT III A 200m ≤ RVR & DH ≤ 100ft
CAT III B DH ≤ 100ft & 150m ≤ RVR With fail passive rollout guidance
system
DH ≤ 50ft & 125m ≤ RVR With fail operational rollout guidance
system
DH ≤ 50ft or NO & 75m ≤ RVR With fail operational hybrid system

• To perform LVO with less than 800m RVR, the AD must be certified.
h) LEASING: Lessee is the airline that will use the a/c, the lessor is the owner of the a/c.
DRY LEASE-IN WET LEASE-IN
A leases an a/c from B A leases an a/c from B
A/C: owned by B A/C: owned by B
AOC/crew/maintenance : A AOC/crew/maintenance : B
DRY LEASE-OUT WET LEASE-OUT
Authority approval ONLY has to be notified to the authority
• Lease-in from a third company:
➔ Max 7 months in 12 consecutive month period.
➔ Operational need cannot be satisfied by leasing an a/c registered in the EU.
04 THE CREW
• Responsible for his duties
• Night duty: 0200 to 0459, acclimatised.
a) PHYSICAL FITNESS: shall not work if:
➔ Influence of any drug, consumed alcohol less than 8 hours prior to flight duty, alcohol level
> 0,2%.
➔ After deep water or blood donation, suffering from fatigue.
b) SINGLE PILOT OPERATION: on certified a/c except for IFR & night flight on turbo propeller with
PAX>9 & turbojet.
VFR flight 50 VFR flight, by Single-pilot IFR flight IFR on multi-
NM away day on engine
from dep a/d performance
B a/c
Mini 500 flight NIL Min 50 flight hours on the 700 Flight hours
hours or holds type/class under IFR, of which 10 of which :
valid IR hours as captain • 400h as pic
• 100h IFR
• 40h ME ops
236
 Min 5 IFR flights including 3
instruments app within the
preceding 90 days on the class/type

c) INFLIGHT RELIEF: the commander can be relieved in flight by:

➔ Commander or above FL200: ATPL holder, performed conversion training and checking
(with type Rating), performed the recurrent trainings and checking + A/D, route
competences.
The co-pilot by:
➔ Co-pilot or above FL 200: CPL & IR holder, performed conversion training & checking
(except T/O), performed the recurrent trainings and checking (except T/O).
d) RECENT EXPERIENCE:
➔ 3 TO & LDG in the previous 90 days
➔ Operate as captain at night
➔ 1 LDG at night in the previous 90 days or must hold valid IR.
e) OPERATION ON DIFFERENT TYPE: if a pilot operates both a/p and helico, he is limited to only one
type of a/p & one of helico.
f) TRAINING:
➔ The commander has to take familiarisation for area, route… at least 1 flight/12 months.
➔ All flight crew member:
1. Complete annual recurrent flight training & ground instruction
2. Operator proficiency check: normal/abnormal/emergency procedures. Valid for 6
months (to 8 for class B). 2/year, > 4 months between.
3. Line check: normal line operations. Valid for 12 months.
4. Familiarisation training: additional knowledge.
5. Emergency & safety equipment training/checking: valid for 12 months
6. Crew Resource Management CRM Training: rejected T/O, OEI T/O, GA OEI, LDG OEI,
3APP OEI, 2 APP…
➔ Between QT and 1st supervised flight: max 21 days.

g) FLIGHT TIME LIMITATION & REST REQUIREMENTS:

➔ Cumulative duty hours: ≤ 60h in 7 cons days

≤ 110h in 14 cons days

≤ 190h in 24 cons days
➔ Total block time: ≤ 1000 h in 12 cons calendar months

≤ 900h in a year
≤ 100h in any 28 cons days
➔ Min rest: at home base 12h, away from home base 10h with 5hoyrs of sleep opportunity.

237
• Flight duty period can be extended by 1h max, 3h for unforeseen circumstances.
• Window of Circadian Low WOCL: between 0200 to 0559:
➔ Within a band of 3 time zones: use home base time
➔ Beyond a band of 3 time zone: use home base time for the 48h after departure, after 48h
use local time.
h) CABIN CREW CC:
• MOSPC: Maximum Operational Passenger Seating Configuration: excludes crew seat.
MOSPC > 19 & 1 Pax -> 1 Cabin crew + 1 cabin crew/ +50 seats
Or (the greatest)
Max seat authorized cc-1 per -50 pax

•Max 3 types of a/c, up to 4 if same procedure between a/c.

05 FLIGHT PREPARATION
a) MASTER MINIMUM EQUIPMENT LIST MMEL:
➔ Established by the manufacturer & accepted by the authority
➔ Found in the OM part B
➔ Submission time = 90 days
b) MINIMUM EQUIPEMENT LIST MEL:
➔ It must be approved by the authority of the country of operator & is more restrictive than
the MMEL
➔ Changed by the operator
➔ Usable prior the flight, until the a/c moves under its own power. After that, any failures
should be dealt with the OM
c) CONFIGURATION DEVIATION LIST CDL:
➔ Identifies any external part of an a/c that may be missing, and the operational
consequences
d) ROUTE PLANNING:
➔ If seat > 30, ditching certification requirements to operate at more than 120min at cruising
speed or 400NM (the lesser) from a land suitable for emergency landing.
e) MAXIMUM DISTANCE FROM ADEQUATE AD FOR TWO-ENGINES A/C:
➔ If the operator is not ETOPS approved:
A/C CAT Maximum Operating Distance from adequate AD: (calculation uses
Passenger Seating speed ≤ VMO, based on TAS that an a/c can
Configuration & MTOW maintain with OEI, specified in the OM)
A ≥ 20 or ≥ 45 360 kg 60 min
≥ 19 and < 45 360 kg 120 min (up to 180min for turbojet)
B&C - 120 n (max 300NM)
238
 f) EXTENDED-RANGE TWIN-ENGINE OPERATION PERFORMANCE STANDARDS ETOPS FLIGHT:
TYPE OF APPROACH PLANNING MINIMA
Precision App DA + 200ft & RVR/VIS + 800m
Non-Precision App MDA + 400 ft & RVR/VIS + 1500m

g) MINIMUM FLIGHT ALTITUDE:

➔ Inaccuracies in the indication of altimeters used must be considered
➔ Approved by the competent authority
h) FUEL PLANNING: see FLIGHT PLANNING module.
06 FLIGHT TECHNIQUE
a) SEAT BELTS:

➔ Crew: during T/O, LDG, when decided by the commander

➔ PAX: during Taxi, T/O, LDG, when decided by the commander
07 WARNING INSTRUMENTS

TURBOPROP TURBINE
ALTITUDE ALERTING For turboprop M > 5,7t or PAX > 9 All except if M ≤ 5,7t with PAX ≥ 9
SYSTEM and certified before 1/04/72

TERRAIN AWARNESS AND M > 5,7t or PAX > 9 M > 5,7t or PAX > 9
ALERTING SYSTEM TAWS B TAWS A TAWS

AIRBORNE COLLISION Aural + visual alarm

AVOIDANCE SYSTEM ACAS Turbine > 5,7t or PAX > 19
AIRBORN WEATHER Mandatory at night or IMC in area with TS for pressurised a/c &
RADAR EQUIPMENT unpressurised a/c with M >5,7t or PAX > 9

08 COMMUNICATION & NAVIGATION EQUIPMENTS

a) RADIOCOMMUNICATION:
➔ 1 radio for VFR navigating by visual landmarks
➔ 2 radios for IFR or VFR not navigating by visual landmarks
b) RADIONAVIGATION:
➔ For IFR or VFR not navigating by visual landmarks: 1 VOR, 1 DME, 1 ILS or MLS marker
beacon + 1 VOR or DME or NDB back up according to the type of navigation flown (VOR,
DME…)
➔ Minimum Navigation Performance Specification MNPS airspace: 1 or 2 Long Range
Navigation Systems LRNS

c) FLIGHT CREW INTERPHONE SYSTEM:

➔ Mandatory if more than 1 flight crew
239
 d) CREW MEMBER INTERPHONE SYSTEM:
➔ If > 15t or PAX > 9
e) PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM PA:
➔ If PAX > 19
09 SAFETY EQUIPMENT
a) SEATS & SAFETY BELTS:
➔ For all PAX ≥ 2yo

b) “FASTEN SEAT BELT” & “NO SMOKING”:

➔ If seats are not visible from the flight deck
➔ For all PAX & Cabin Crew
c) INTERNAL DOORS & CURTAINS:
➔ If PAX ≥ 19: lockable door between flight deck & PAX + “crew only”

10 EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT
a) FIRST-AID KIT: b) EMERGENCY MEDICAL KIT:
NB OF PAX NB OF FIRST- • If PAX > 30 & if any point of planned
SEATS AID KIT
route > 60min from AD with qualified medical
INSTALLED REQUIRED
assistance
0 to 100 1
101 to 200 2 • In the flight deck
201 to 300 3
301 to 400 4
401 to 500 5
501 or more 6

c) HARD FIRE EXTINGUISHER: d) CRASH AXES & CROWBARS :

MAX APPROVED NB OF • If M > 5,7t or PAX >9 -> at least
PAX SEATING EXTINGUISHER IN 1 crash axe or crowbar in the flight deck
CONFIGURATION PAX COMPARTMENT + 1 if PAX > 200 (not visible to PAX).
7 to 30 1
31 to 60 2
61 to 200 3
201 to 300 4
301 to 400 5
401 to 500 6
501 to 600 7
601 or more 8
+1 in the cockpit

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 e) DEVICE TO ASSIST PERSONS TO REACH SAFETY THE GROUND:
➔ If emergency exit thresholds > 1,83m above the ground considering the possible collapse
of one landing gear
f) MARKING OF BREAK-IN POINTS = CUT-IN AREA:

g) MEGAPHONES:
h) EMERGENCY LIGHTING:
SEATS NB
61 to 99 1 • if PAX > 9, the system has to have an
≥ 100 2 independent power supply, at least 10min
i) EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER ELT:
➔ Transmitting on 121,5 MHz & 406 MHz for 48h
PAX NB
≤ 19 1
>19 2 or 1 automatic
ELT

j) CVR & FDR:

< 1998 >1998
CVR 30 min 2h if > 5,7t
FDR 25h

k) LIFE JACKETS, LIFE RATS & SURVIVAL ELTs:

➔ Life jackets if: > 50NM from the shore or enable to glide to ground without engine
➔ 2 ELTs & enough life-rats if: • flying at 120min (cruising speed) or 400NM (the lesser) away
from a land suitable for emergency landing for ME a/c with engine failure.
• flying 30 min or 100NM (the lesser) away from land suitable
for emergency landing for the other a/c.
11 OXYGEN
a) FIRST-AID OXYGEN:
➔ Physiological reasons following a cabin depressurization, for PAX
➔ 8000 ft ≤ ATL CABIN > 15 000 ft for 2% of PAX, shall be calculated with at least an average
flow rate of 3L standards temperature pressure dry (STPD)/min/person.
➔ On pressurized a/c for flight > FL250.
➔ Shall be capable of generating a mass flow to each user of at least 4L/min, STPD.

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 b) SUPPLEMENTAL OXYGEN:
➔ In case of depressurization or at high altitude if the a/c is not pressurized, provides PAX
with oxygen after cabin depressurization.
1. ABOVE FL 250:

• Quick donning mask for flight crew, for 2h

• 110% of seat
2. PRESSURIZED A/C:

SUPPLY FOR DURATION & PRESSURE ALTITUDE PA MIN DURATION

All occupants of flight PA ≥ 13000ft -> flight time Min 30min if a/c
deck seats on flight 10000 ft ≥ PA > 13000ft -> flight time - 30min certified until FL 25000
deck duty Min 2h if a/c certified
above FL 25000
All required cabin crew PA ≥ 13000ft -> flight time Min 30min
members 10000 ft ≥ PA > 13000ft -> flight time - 30min
100% of PAX PA ≥ 15000ft -> flight time Min 10min
30% of PAX 14000ft ≤ PA < 15000ft -> flight time
10% of PAX 1000ft ≤ PA < 14000ft -> flight time – 30 min

3. NON-PRESSURIZED A/C:

SUPPLY FOR DURATION & PA

All occupants of flight deck PA > 10000ft -> flight time
seats on flight deck duty
All required cabin crew PA >13 000ft -> flight time
members 10000 ≤ PA > 13000ft -> flight time – 30min
100% of PAX PA >13 000ft -> flight time
10% of PAX 10000 ≤ PA > 13000ft -> flight time – 30min

4. ABOVE FL 410:

• One crew member must wear an oxygen mask.

12 OTHER EQUIPMENTS
a) FUSES: number of spare fuses:
➔ 10% of the nb of fuses of each rating
➔ Min 3 fuses of each rating
b) WINDSHIELD WIPERS:
➔ Mandatory for each flight crew if M > 5,7t.
c) RADIATION INDICATOR:
➔ Mandatory above FL490.

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13 DOCUMENTS & MANUALS
a) SUBMISSION OF REPORTS:

➔ To the competent authority within 72h.

b) DOCUMENT STORAGE PERIOD:

DURATION
REPORT
Journey log & flight report 3 months
FLIGHT CREW RECORD
Recent experience 15 months
Training/checking/qualification 3 years
Route & AD competences
Dangerous goods training
FLIGHT TIME LIMITATION
Individual records (duty period…) 24 months
OTHER
Flight recorder following accident 60 days
Dangerous good transport doc 3 months
M&B
Record of cosmic/solar radiation 12 months
Quality system 5 years

14 OPERATIONAL MANUAL

PART A Info about incident report

“General” M&B
Unlawful interference
Technical procedure
TCAS/ACAS use of procedure
MEL/CDL
Fuel policy
S&R procedure
Info about dangerous good
Training matter
PART B Performance data
“A/C operating problem” Icing condition flight
Flight planning
Technical procedure
Emergency evacuation procedure
Noise abatement procedures NAP
M&B
Type specific info
PART C AD & route Structures
“road, AD instruction” NAP
PART D Training matter
“training”

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III/ SPECIAL OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES & HAZARDS SOPH
01 BIRD STRIKE
• Info about bird strike on AIP ENR 5.6, also ATIS, NOTAM, report.
• IBIS: ICAO Bird Strike Information System.
• 90 % of bird strikes happens under 1500ft.
• Dispersal methods:
➔ Recorded distress call (++), shell crackers, grass of at least 20cm long.
• Attractive zones:
➔ Food garbage disposal, open refuge tip, coastal area, rubbish tips.
02 ICING CONDITIONS
• Frost: deposit of ice having crystalline appearance, it has the largest holdover time.
• Clean a/c concept: no T/O with icing conditions ( but T/O ok if frost on the fuselage).
• Icing condition: 0/-10°C, rare if T< -18°C.
• Fluid: all glycol-based, TYPE I-II-III-IV, during T/O roll the fluid drains out of the wing.
• Protection time:
➔ For 1 step procedure: begins when de/anti icing is applied.
➔ For 2 step procedure: begins when anti-icing is applied.
• Anti-icing: cold fluid, De-icing: hot fluid.
• If EPR probe is blocked -> Greater ratio than the actual.
03 NOISE ABATEMENT
• Operator is responsible for the NAP
• NAP is specified as being the same for all a/d for the same type of a/c.
• Info about NAP in AIP Part AD 2.
• No restriction on the use of reversers
• NA departure P 1: for closed area to airport:

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• NA departure P 2: for distant area to airport:

a) REDUCED POWER T/O: should not be required when:

➔ On RWY: water, snow, ice

➔ Crosswind > 15kt, tailwind > 15 kt, visi < 1NM & windshear
b) NA APPROACH P & PREFERENTIAL RUNWAYS: should not be required when:

➔ Snow, water, ice, ceiling < 500ft AAL or visi < 1NM, crosswind > 15kt, tailwind > 15 kt &
windshear
04 FUEL JETTISONING
• For MTOM > MLM + 15min flight.
• Must be able to dump enough fuel in 15 min.
• Safety requirements : free of fire hazards, fuel or fumes must not enter a/c, does not affect controllability.
• Procedures: advise immediately the ATC, > 6000ft, clear of cities & TS.
05 EMERGENCY & PRECAUTIONARY LANDING
a) DITCHING:
➔ MAYDAY CALL
➔ Close to coast/ship
➔ Swell direction (if wind < 35kt)
➔ Gear up & lowest speed possible + avoid flare to much
b) PRECAUTIONARY LANDING:
➔ MAYDAY CALL
➔ OFF engine
➔ LDG to the earliest opportunity
•Causes: person incapacitation, weather, low fuel, fatigue, night time…
• High trees: gear down, high flaps • Low trees: gear up, high flaps

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 c) EVACUATION: less than 90sec, during demonstration: 50% of emergency exits are used.
06 FIRE-SMOKE

EXTINGUISHER FIRE CLASS OHTER

A: burning B: burning C: gas fire D: Metal E: Electrical
solids liquid/ solid (propane…)
(wood, to liquid
paper…)
WATER X
WATER + X X
ADDITIVE
FOAM X X
POWDER D X Wheel fire
POWDER BC X X
POWDER ABC X X X
CO2 X X X Cockpit
HALON (BCF, X X X Turbine
BFM) engine fire
cockpit
PAX
compartment
cargo hold
Magnesium fire: SAND extinguisher
Brakes overheat:
•request escort while taxiing
•avoid fuel trucks, a/c
• do not apply brake at parking
• never approach hot tyres from the sides

07 DECOMPRESSION
a) SLOW DECOMPRESSION = GRADUAL DECOMPRESSION:

➔ 6000 ft: first physical effects appear; they will not be immediate.
➔ The crew must wear their masks and ask to descent at least at 10 000 ft or lower
TUC ALTITUDE
30 min 18 000 ft
2-3 min 25 000 ft
30-60 sec 30 000 ft
15.30sec 35 000 ft

b) RAPID & EXPLOSIVE DECOMPRESSION:

➔ Loud bang, noise ++, mist, unsecured object near the hole would be sucked out of the a/c.
➔ WARNING at 10 000ft
➔ At 15 000ft automatic dropping out of mask if the a/c is certified above 30 000ft
➔ Quick donning type mask if a/c above PA of 15 000ft
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 ➔ Max 100 % O2 if > 32 000ft following explosive decompression

➔ The crew must: don their oxygen masks, check oxygen supply, establish communication,
perform check-list
08 WAKE TURBULENCE • Appear as soon as Lift is created
• Persist if: heavy, large, low speed,
clean configuration

CAT MTOW
Light L ≤7t
Medium M 7t <M < 136 t
Heavy H 136t ≤ M
T/O SEPARATION M or L M or L
H 2min if full length of rwy is used 3 min if T/O from intermediate part
M 2min if full length of rwy is used 3 min if T/O from intermediate part
•LANDING SEPARATION
TIME IN MIN H M L
RADAR DIST in NM H M L Following a/c
H - 2 3
H 4 5 6 M - - 3
M 3 3 5 For same rwy or // L - - -
L 3 3 3 separated rwy by
less than 760m

09 WINDSHEAR – MICROBURST
a) HORIZONTAL WINDSHEAR: change of horizontal wind direction/speed with horizontal distance.
IAS first changes.

b) VERTICAL WINDSHEAR: change of horizontal wind direction/speed with altitude. Measured on a

mast in different height.

c) RECOVERY METHOD: max power, increase pitch until stick shaker, keep a/c’s configuration.

d) MICROBURST: bellow clouds, near TS:

➔ Set higher approach speed

Pressure ↑ NO Pressure ↑
Wind

10 CONTAMINATED RUNWAY
a) CONTAMINATION:

1. CONTAMINATED: if more than 25% is covered by:

• More than 3mm of water, slush, or snow
• Compacted snow, ice
2. DAMP: not dry, no shinny appearance.

247
 3. WET: covered with water or equivalent but not contaminated, surface
appears reflective, without significant areas of standing water.
b) HYDROPLANING: occurs when a film of water causes partial or total loss of contact between the
tires and the runway.
1. DYNAMIC HYDROPLANING = AQUAPLANING: starting with a height of
water equal to the depth of the grooves, with the tire’s speed, the water
pressure increases until reaching the tire pressure leading to the lift of the
tire off the ground.
𝑉(𝑘𝑡) = 34 √𝑃(𝑏𝑎𝑟) , 𝑉(𝑘𝑡) 𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑂 = 9√𝑃(𝑝𝑠𝑖) 𝑉(𝑘𝑡) 𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝐷𝐺 = 7,7√𝑃(𝑝𝑠𝑖)

1bar=14,5 psi
2. VISCOUS HYDROPLANING: occurs with a thin film of water, very modest
speed, dusty/dirty runway (deposit of rubber at the touchdown zone for
example)
3. RUBBER REVERTED SKIDDING: melted gum obstructs the treads of the tire
and the gum vapor acts as a lubricant.
c) SNOWTAM: valid for 24h max, different fields:

f) type : 1)snow 6)slush 7)ice 8) compacted snow

g)depth
h)
40 Good 5
36-39 Medium-good 4
30-35 Medium 3
26-29 Medium – poor 2
<25 Poor 1
9 Unreliable 9

11 SECURITY – UNLAWFUL EVENTS

• The operator is responsible for:
➔ Training crew members to take actions
➔ Establishing checklist for: detect suspicious package, sabotage procedures for each type
of a/c
• following an act of unlawful interference, the captain must submit a report without delay
• In-flight procedures:
➔ 7500
➔ Notify ATC if possible, otherwise: refer to Regional Supplementary Procedures, change FL
by 1000ft if FL > 290 or 500ft if below, refer to emergency procedures.

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IV/ ANNEX 18: DANGEROUS GOODS
01 DOCUMENTS
• ICAO; Technical instructions for the safe transport of dangerous goods by Air, DOC 9284, defines what is a
DG & info about transport.
02 SENDER’S & SHIPPER’S RESPONSIBILITY
• They should complete the DG declaration in English, 2 copies
• Make sure the object is not prohibited, marked, labelled, packed.
03 CLASSIFICATION
“ Every Girl Fancy FO That Ryanair Can Master”

Some goods can only be

transported in cargo a/c

• Match-boxes (allumettes): only on a pax

• Fire extinguisher, self-inflating life jacket, portable oxygen, first-aid kit = dangerous goods.
• Infected live animals: authorized under exception.
• Some dangerous goods cannot be close to each other; they need to be separated
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V/ LONG RANGE FLIGHTS
01 MINIMUM NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION MNPS
a) DEFINITION: they are special procedures that reduce the reduction of separation between a/c
flying in the same area:
1. NAT (between Europe and Northern America): from FL 285 to FL 420, from
27°N to 90°N
2. In these areas, IFR should be use if above FL60 or 2000ft (the higher).
b) ORGANIZED TRACK SYSTEM OTS: between Ireland & Canada, applied twice a day:
1. Shanwick ATC: westbound, peak when passing 30°W 1130z-1900z,
published at 0000z.
2. Gander ATC: eastbound, peak when passing 30°W, 0100z-0800z, published
at 1200z.
In the flight plan: NAT + daily code is entered.
c) REDUCED VERTICAL SEPARATION MINIMUM:
➔ MNPS area is a RVSM area
➔ FL +/- 150ft should be maintained
➔ Separation: 60NM lateral + 1000ft vertical
➔ Altimeter accuracy: +/- 75ft
➔ Primary altimeters shall agree within 200ft
➔ When approaching cleared FL - > max 1500ft/min
d) OCEANIC CLEARANCE: request 40min prior oceanic entry point & inform ATC if time differs more
than 3 min. If no clearance, follow flight plan, except Shanwick OCA where you have to stay
outside.
e) ADJACENT ROUTES: NAR between NAT & North American domestic airspace, 30min after entering
MNPS, squawk 2000.
f) MIN EQUIPMENT: at least 2 LRNS (INS, GPS…), for special route 1 LRNS at least
g) RESPECT OF CLEARANCE: is an a/c cannot respect a clearance
➔ 90° turn + 15 NM offset and if:
1. > FL 410: ↓/↑ 1000ft
2. At FL 410: ↑ 1000ft / ↓ 500ft
3. < FL 410 : ↑/↓ 500 ft
➔ If ONE LRNS becomes U/S: ↓/↑ 500ft
h) COMMUNICATION:
➔ report each Δlong 10° south of 70°N, and each Δlong 20° north of 70°N.
➔ For request a FL, must contain a MAX FL.
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02 POLAR NAVIGATION
• When Horizontal B < 6µT -> VOR (referring to TN) are used instead of magnetic compass
• Gyroscopic compass: with respect to True North
➔ Astronomic precession AP = 15° x h x sin(Mean LAT) (“+” if N Hemisphere, “-“ SH)
➔ Transport precession TP = Δlong x sin(mean LAT) (>0 if GC ↑, <0 if GC ↓)
➔ Gyro heading to fly = Rhumb line track – (AP + TP) if N hemisphere
➔ Compass shift = MH – gyro heading

251
081 PRINCIPLE OF FLIGHT

252
 I/ PHYSICAL CONCEPTS
01 FORCE OF GRAVIATION W
• W = m x g , m in Kg, g in m/s², W in Newton (N).

02 NEWTON’S LAWS
a) FIRST LAW: Take a body of mass m at rest. With no external action, it will remain at rest. If it is
moving at a velocity V, with no external action applied to, it will continue to move at the same
speed and in the same direction. This last property is called “inertia”.
b) SECOND LAW: the acceleration a undergone by a body subject to any force F is proportional to
the force applied and inversely proportional to the accelerated mass m: F=m x a.
c) THIRD LAW: If a body A exerts any mechanical action on a body B, then the body B exerts on the
body A an equal and opposite reaction.
03 WORK AND POWER
a) WORK W: it is defined as W = F x d, F is a force, d a distance in m, and W is in Joule J
b) POWER P: it is defined as P = F x V, F is a force, V a velocity, P is in Watt W.

04 ROTATION
a) UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION:

V
r V = r x ա, ա in rad/s and r in m
a
a = ա² x R
ա

b) MOMENT OF A FORCE M: it is defined as M = F x r, r is called lever arm (distance from the origin
(pivot, axis), to the line of action of a force.

F
Pivot r M

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05 ENERGY
a) KINETIC ENERGY Ec : it is the energy a body has by virtue of its motion.
Ec = ½ m x v², Ec in J.
b) GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY Ep: it is the energy due to work of the force of gravity at a
distance h off the ground.
Ep = m x g x h.
c) MECHANICAL ENERGY Em: it is the sum of kinetic and potential energies.
Em = Ec + EP.
II/ GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF AIRCRAFT
01 AIRCRAFT AXES & CONTROL SURFACE
All the following axes cross each other at the aircraft’s centre of Gravity CG.

AXIS CONTROL SURFACE

Longitudinal axis = roll Ailerons controlled by
axis left/right motion of
the control stick.
Control stick to the
left -W > left aileron
Longitudinal axis
(ROLL)
rises, right ailerons is
lowered. The aircraft
rolls to the left

Lateral axis = pitch axis Elevator controlled by

forward/backward
motion of the control
stick.
Backward control
stick, elevator goes
upward, the aircraft
Lateral axis (PITCH) climbs

Normal axis = yaw axis Normal axis Rudder controlled by

(YAW)
left/right rudder
pedals.
Left rudder pedal, the
rudder goes to the
left, the aircraft goes
to the left.

254
02 AIRFOILS AND WINGS DESCRIPTIONS
a) GENERAL

b) ANGLES
1. ANGLE OF ATTACK AoA α
• It is the angle between the airfoil chordline and the direction of the undisturbed air flow.

2. ANGLE OF ICIDENCE
• It is the angle between the airfoil chordline and the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.

c) WING-RELATED DEFINITIONS
1. WING SURFACE or REFERENCE SURFACE S
Area of both wings and parts of fuselage included between these wings, projected on horizontal plane.

255
 2. WING LOADING
It is the ratio between the weight and the wing surface.
3. WINGSPAN B
It is the distance from one wingtip to the other, measured perpendicular to the aircraft’s longitudinal axis.

4. TAPER RATIO e
It is the ratio between the tip chord and the root chord.

e=1 e=0 (delta wing)

5. MEAN GEOMETRIC CHORD lm

It is the chord of the theoretical rectangular wing of the same surface and the same span as the real wing.

lm

6. MEAN AERODYNAMIC CHORD MAC

It is the chord of a theoretical rectangular wing of the same wingspan than the real wing and with the same
pitching moment characteristics, different of lm.

7. ASPECT RATIO OR RELATIVE WINGSPAN 

 = span / (mean geometric chord) = B / lm = B²/S, S=B.lm.

256
 8. SWEEP ANGLE 
It is the angle between the normal to the aircraft plane of symmetry and a reference line of the wing
planform. It can be defined also as the angle between a quarter chord line and the lateral axis.

9. DIHEDRAL ANGLE 
It is the angle between a normal to the aircraft’s plane of symmetry and the half-wing, viewed from the
front. It can be defined also as the angle between a quarter chord line and the lateral axis, viewed from the
front.

 for this plane.

If  the airplane is qualified as anhedral as
 for the airbus A400M.

10. TWIST
• Geometric twist: it’s a variation of the airfoils angle of incidence all along the wingspan. There are 2 types:
➔ Negative twist -> wash out -> decrease of the angle of incidence from root to tip.
➔ Positive twist -> wash in -> increase of the angle of incidence from root to tip.
• Aerodynamic twist: it’s the variation of the shape of the airfoil along the wings. For a constant air flow
direction, the angle of attack AoA is different all along the wing. For this type of wing, we can define a zero
lift angle of attack α0.
CL CL

AoA AoA
α0 α0

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 11. SIDESLIP ANGLE 
It is the angle between the aircraft plane & direction of airflow.   sideslip to the right,  =  for a
symmetrical flight.

Direction of the flow



Aircraft trajectory skid

12. AIRCRAFT ANGLES

III/ FLOW PROPERTIES

01 GOOD TO KNOW

• It is important to know the relationship between the density  the temperature T, the pressure P, and
the humidity U :

If T ↓ If P ↓ If U ↓
↑ ↓ ↑

• Dynamic Pressure Pd = ½  V²,  is the density in kg/m3. Pd is the result of a motion.

• Total Pressure Pt = Pstatic + Pd. Ps is the pressure exerted on a motionless object by a steady fluid.
02 FLOW
a) LAMINAR FLOW
The air particles follow linear paths that are parallel to each other’s.

258
 b) TURBULENT FLOW
The motions is irregular, the paths are not parallel anymore. It leads to vortex creations.

c) TRANSITION FROM LAMINAR TO TURBULENT FLOW

Will be developed in the CHAPTER V VISCOSITY FORCES BOUNDARY LAYER.
03 APPLICABLE LAWS
a) IDEAL GAS EQUATION
The equation is PS =  r T,  is the density, r a constant specific to each gas, T is the temperature, PS is the
static pressure.
b) SPEED OF SOUND aKT

The speed of sound is related to the temperature: aKT = 39 √𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾 .

c) MACH NUMBER M
M = V / a, V is the speed of the aircraft, a is the speed of the sound. V and a must be both in m/s or kt or
km/h.

0.3
Incompressible Compressible
MACH Number

0.4 0.75 1 1.2 5

Subsonic Transonic Supersonic

d) BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
PT = PS + ½  V² = cst -> “ if V ↑ -> PS ↓”
e) SAINT-VENANT EQUATION
-> “ if V ↑ -> T ↓”
f) FLOW CONVERSATION EQUATION
1. IF THE FLUID IS INCOMPRESSIBLE:

SV=cst, S is the section, V the speed. S

-> “if S ↓ -> V ↑”
2. IF THE FLUID IS COMPRESSIBLE:

CASE 1: M<1 subsonic “if S ↓ -> V ↑” and (P,T) ↓ (Saint Venant + Bernoulli)
CASE 2: M>1 supersonic “if S ↓ -> V ↓” and (P,T) ↑ (Saint Venant + Bernoulli)
259
 IV/ FLOW AROUND AN AIRFOIL PRESSURE FORCES
01 DEFINITION

Stagnation point : V= 0

02 FLOW PRESSURE AROUND THE AIRFOIL

Low pressure/upper surface

V0 P0

High pressure/Lower surface Trailing edge

Leading edge
P

Pressure forces generate lift.

03 INLUENCE OF AoA
• If the AoA↑:
➔ The Centre of Pressure CP moves forward,
➔ The stagnation point moves rearward under the lower surface of the wing,
➔ The upper surface low pressure distribution moves forward.

Low AoA, High AoA Pressure distribution

• The CP most forward position always stays below the stalling angle.
• The CP position remains the same for a symmetric airfoil.
• An airfoils always stalls at the same AoA, regardless of flow characteristics (speed, density)
NB: The aerodynamic centre (definition will come in the next chapters): the pitching moment coefficient is
independent of the AoA.
If AoA = 4°, V ↑ and P ↓ over the upper and lower surface.
• FOR SYMMETRICAL AIRFOIL:
If AoA = 0, no lift is generated, but Drag is. Lift is generated as soon as AoA >0. The CP is located at 25% of
the chord (independently of the AoA).
260
04 INFLUENCE OF THE CAMBER
If the camber ↑, the pressure peak located at the highest curve points gets higher:
05 DOWNWASH AND UPWASH

UPWASH

DOWNWASH

V/ VISCOSITY FORCES BOUNDARY LAYER

01 GENERAL
The boundary layer is a thin layer of air around a body where viscosity cannot be ignored. It is very thin near
leading edge, and thicker near the trailing edge (0 cm to 3cm). It can be laminar or turbulent. The fluid speed
reaches 99% of its value at the end of that boundary layer. The greater the distance from the surface, the
lower the temperature.
V
99% of V

Boundary layer

02 LAMINAR OR TUBURLENT
As we saw previously, a boundary layer can be laminar or turbulent.

Laminar Turbulent boundary layer : Speed variation is quicker, long

boundary time for stabilisation, less tendency to separate from surface
layer because of higher energy, more friction drag, less form drag.

03 TRANSITION FROM LAMINAR TO TURBULENT

a) DEFINITION
If the turbulence phase lasts
Laminar Transition area Turbulent for a long time, of increases in
The speed is not intensity, the separation from
perpendicular to V and Drag ↑ the surface of the boundary
the surface. layer occurs.
261
Transition point
 b) ADVERSE PRESSURE GRADIENT
The adverse pressure gradient (↑ with the AoA), can cause boundary layer separation. Indeed, the air goes
naturally from the high pressure to the low pressure, creating a secondary flow leading to the boundary layer
separation: the lift ↓, drag ↑.
The separation point moves forward is the AoA increases. The turbulent boundary layer is less sensitive to
pressure gradient than the laminar one.
Primary flow

P--

Secondary flow
P ++

VI/ AERODYNAMIC FORCES – LIFT AND DRAG

Viscosity and pressure forces cause lift and drag.
01 LIFT L
The lift is the component of the aerodynamic resultant perpendicular to the flight path.

L = ½  S V² CL,  is the density, S wing reference area, V the velocity, and CL the coefficient of lift.

262
 02 DRAG D
The drag is the component of the aerodynamic resultant parallel to the flight path.

D = ½  S V² CD,  is the density, S wing reference area, V the velocity, and CD the coefficient of drag.

TOTAL DRAG

INDUCED DRAG PARASITE DRAG TOTAL DRAG

PROFILE DRAG INTERFERENCE DRAG

(aerodynamic interactions
between airplane parts)

FORM DRAG FRICTION DRAG

(air viscosity, ↑ with age)

OTHER:
When Pdyn increases, Lift and Drag ↑.
The most important problem of ice formation: CL max ↑.
03 POLAR CURVE
CL
Max L/D ratio
A high L/D ratio enables the a/c to glide further away.
= finess
The curve does not depend on speed if M<0.7.

If aspect ratio  ↑, critical AoA ↓.

CD
Optimum AoA

Critical AoA
04 STALL
a) FACTORS
For a given airfoil, it happens at constant AoA.

Vs increases when load factor ↑ Vsn = √𝑛 Vs1g and n = 1/cos(),  bank angle, n = Lift/Weight, when W ↑,
altitude ↑ (constant up to 25 000 ft), forward CG, Landing gear extension, ice,

b) STALL SPEED
√2𝑚𝑔
At stall, CL = CL max, so VS = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦.𝑆.𝐶𝐿𝑀𝐴𝑋

263
 c) STALL DETECTION
Several devices are installed below the leading edge:
1. FLAPPER SWITCH: on light aircraft
2. AoA VANE: free rotating vane related to the fuselage.

3. AoA PROBE: relating to the pressure distribution.

The different sensors are basically based on the change of location of stagnation point.
d) STALL WARNING
Visual and/or aural warning: occurs 5% above Vs.
Stick shaker: depending on configuration at 5kt or 5% (the highest) above V s. The inputs are of the stick
shaker are: AoA, Rate of change of the AoA.
e) STALL RECOVERY
➔ Reduce AoA (ATTENTION, moving the ailerons will change the AoA and can worsen the stall).
f) DEVICES DELAYING FLOW SEPARATION
We can use:
Vortex generators, increases energy of the Stall strip enables to stall uniformly all along the wing.
boundary layer.

Fences : prevent span wise airflow over wings, improve

low speed handling characteristics.

Swept back wing: the wingtip first stalls then the CP moves towards root.
Rectangular wing: CP moves rearward when stalling.
The goal is to give a nose-down attitude to the aircraft to reduce the AoA before the stall.
Forward sweep wing + low tail -> NO prone to deep stall (substantial reduction or loss of elevator authority
making normal stall recovery actions ineffective, leading to a high AoA).
VII/ INDUCED DRAG
01 DESCRIPTION OF THE PHENOMENON

CL varies with the aspect ratio  as following:

CL CL
 = 12  = 8 =4
 = 12 =8 =4

CD 264
AoA
02 INDUCED DRAG DEFINITION

Let us consider the polar curve of a theoretical wing of infinite aspect ratio inf and try to get the same CLmax
with a real wing of aspect ratio  It’s possible by increasing the AoA, but this will create an additional drag:
this is induced drag, characterised by an induced coefficient drag CDi. As shown in the graph, a wing with a
high aspect ratio has less induced drag and a lower critical AoA than low aspect ratio wing.

CL
 inf    

CDi

CD

03 PHYSICAL EXPLANATION
We have seen the lift is due to an unbalance of pressure. At the wingtip, there is a natural tendency of the
air to rise from the lower to the upper surface. This creates a descending flow on the wing leading to a lower
AoA and creating a rearward lift component, at the origin of induced drag. They are wingtip vortices.

P-- P-- P--

P ++
P ++ P ++ P ++

04 FACTORS INFLUENCING INDUCED DRAG

CDI = CL²/(pi. )

The induced drag in proportional to 1/V² and 1/  and the mass (if (,V) ↑ the induced drag ↓).
Induced Drag ↓ with extended flaps, because the magnitude of wingtip vortices.

At low speed, a change of  leads to a high change of induced drag. Also, if load factor n is doubled, the
induced drag is multiplied by 4.
Keep in mind that the induced drag is induced by the Lift.
a) SPANWISE LIFT DISTRIBUTION
1. ELLIPTICAL WING:
Optimised, less induced drag, because the
CL lift is almost null at the wing tip.

265
 2. RECTANGULAR WING:

CL
These parts stall first.

3. TAPERED WING:

CL

05 DRAG COMPARISON
Because less TAS, to get lift, AoA ↑, so CL↑
At Take-off : 60% induced drag 20% Parasite drag
and so CDi ↑.

During Cruise: 25% induced drag 75% parasite drag Because high TAS, so AoA ↓, so CL↓ and
so CDi ↓.

Landing gear down,

D flaps down
Mass ↑
Dparasite

DInduced
DTOTAL

TAS

06 WAKE TURBULENCES
Wake turbulences are created behind an aircraft because of wingtip vortices. They appear as soon as lift, so
induced drag, is created: from rotation to touchdown.
The wake turbulences can last 1-2min for aircraft of 100-150 tons.

Associated danger: a following aircraft can be hit by an important rolling motion and control surfaces may
not be enough to stop it.
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07 GROUND EFFECT
The proximity of the ground keeps the vortices from developing completely, which is all the truer the closer
the wing is to the ground: this is the ground effect, and has a lot of consequences while entering the ground
effect (from ground to 1 wingspan):
➔ Wingtip vortices, downwash, induced AoA, induced Drag, total Drag ↓

➔ Effective AoA, Lift, landing distance ↑

➔ Less power is required, altitude and speed are under estimated.

➔ Nose down moment

➔ We can become airborne before reaching VLOF.

VIII/ HIGH LIFT & LIFT DUMPER DEVICES AIRBRAKING

01 LEADING EDGE DEVICES LED

CL CL

With LED

Clean configuration

AoA CD

It exists different LED:

Ice formation on LED increases the landing distance by 40-50%.

LED

Slats

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02 TRAILING EDGE DEVICES TED

CL CL

With TED

Clean configuration

CD
AoA

Extending the TED gives a nose down motion, reduces the critical AoA, and increases CL MAX, and the CP move
rearward. The downwash also ↑ and the tailplane effective AoA ↓, the negative AoA ↑ and the
effectiveness of the tailplane ↑
It exists different TED:

03 SPOILERS – AIRBRAKES
They are used to reduce the lift and/or slow down the aircraft.
a) SPOILERS

The spoilers reduce the lift, increase the

drag and the Rate of descent.

b) AIRBRAKES

The airbrakes increase the drag without

modifying the lift.
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IX/ AIR SPEED MEASUREMENT
For more information, refer to 022 INSTRUMENTATION.
IAS = CST -> Drag and Pdyn are constant.
If altitude ↑, at a given IAS, the excess of thrust ↓ because the thrust ↓ but drag remains constant.
X/ FLIGHT ENVELOPE
Based on design speed.
Depends on aircraft certification:
CS 25 aircraft: multi engine jet > 5.7T, turboprop > 8.6T
CS 23 : seats ≤ 9 & mass ≤ 5.7T or prop : seat ≤ 19, mass < 8.6T.
01 GENERAL
a) NORMAL LOAD FACTOR
nz = Lift/Weight = Apparent W/W.
Gust speed in EAS
b) TURBULENT ATMOSPHERE
nz
Upward gust nz is proportional to  uVS/m x (ΔCL/Δα)
Gust speed ↑ Gust speed ↓
↓ when sweep angle ↑
↑ when  ↑
1

Downward gust
V

c) STRESSES & STRUCTURAL LOADS

1. LIMIT LOADS: max load that an aircraft can take, no residual distortion after the test.

2. ULTIMATE LOADS: limit load x Safety Factor (=1.5 for ex), without any structural failure after
test.
03 CS 25
Based on EAS, the flight envelope is built according to the manoeuvre envelope and gust flight envelope.

Altitude U (gust)
0 to 6 km 66 ft/s or 20.1 m/s
At 15 250m 38 t/s or 11.6 m/s
a) DESIGN MANOEUVRING SPEED VA: the highest speed at which sudden full elevator up deflection
without exceeding the design limit load factor. At VA, structure must withstand n=2.5.
VA MIN = √2.5x VS1g
b) DESIGN SPEED FOR MAX GUST INTENSITY VB: must withstand vertical gust at VB without stalling.

269
 c) DESIGN CRUISING SPEED VC: VC = VB+ 43 kt, the aircraft must withstand -1 ≤ nZ ≤ 2.5 g in still air.
Altitude U (gust)
0 to 6 km 50 ft/s or 15.25 m/s
At 15 250m 25 ft/s or 7.6 m/s

d) DESIGN DRIVE SPEED VD: an aircraft cruising at VC, diving and accelerating up to VD which is
either: VD ≥ 1.25 VC or the max speed reached during a pull-out manoeuvre made after a dive. At
VD, the a/c shall withstand 0≤ nz ≤ 2.5g.
Altitude U (gust)
0 to 6 km 25ft/s
At 15 250m 12.5 ft/s

e) DESIGN SPEED WITH EXTENDED HIGH LIFT DEVICES VF: Flaps in a given position, the a/c shall
withstand: 0≤ nz ≤ 2.g.
Altitude U (gust)
0 to 6 km 25ft/s
At 15 250m 12.5 ft/s

f) EAS/ IAS
SPEED IN EAS CORRESPONDING IAS
VA Manoeuvring speed at VA, depends on altitude
VB Recommended rough air speed: VRA, VRA > VB
VC Max operating speed and Mach, VMO/MMO
VF VFE, flap movement is prevented if V> VFE & flaps set to down
VMO IAS ≤ VC IAS , MMO < MC (critical Mach)
VMO : do not exceed it in any regime of light unless higher speed is authorized by flight test,
training operation.
04 CS 23
• Commuter aircraft : prop a/c, seat < 19 and m < 8.6T.
• For aircraft with : seat < 9 and m < 5.7T:
➔ Normal aircraft, except aerobatic.
➔ Utility aircraft: a/c with steep turn up to 90° bank angle & spins.
➔ Aerobatic aircraft.
Positive load factor Negative load factor
Normal 3.8 -1.52
Utility 4.4 -1.76
Aerobatic 6.6 -3

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XI/ CONTROL SURFACES
01 TYPES OF CONTROL SURFACES
a) STANDARD HORIZONTAL STABILIZER:

b) V-TAIL OR RUDDER VATOR: controls pitch and yaw, with correct reaction to spin, drag and
weight are reduced, but sensitive to Dutch roll. The FOUGA MAGISTER is a good example.
c) T-TAIL: very efficient at low AoA, but for higher AoA, the tail can be hidden by wing wake
(leading to deep stall)

d) CANARD SURFACE: these surfaces stall before wing because higher AoA, we have a lift balance,
but can disturb the wing flow. As for the PIAGGIO P180, or RAFALE.
02 CONTROL SURFACE BALANCING
The goal is to reduce the forces during manoeuvre and are installed in series with the control surface.
a) AERODYNAMIC BALANCING: By additional surfaces, reduces effort but reduces efficiency for TAB,
and increase efficiency for inset hinge (control horn/balance panel)
1. INSET HINGE: based on set the hinge backward. Increase efficiency

2.CONTROL HORN: ahead of hinge axis, risk of overbalance control surface. Increase efficiency

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 3. BALANCE PANEL = INTERNAL BALANCE = INTERNAL SEAL: increases efficiency

4. TAB: reduces efficiency, has opposite movement of the control surface. (ANTI-TAB increases
the effort). 3 types of TAB:
i) BALANCE TAB
1

ii) SERVO TAB

1

NB: If the speed is strong

2 enough, the control
surface is deflected.

iii) SPRING TAB

The spring tab acts as a balance TAB at low speed (the spring is not compressed) and acts at servo TAB
at high speed (spring is compressed -> the control surface does not move firstly)
NB: manual reversion of fully powered flight control.

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 b) HYDRAULIC/MECHANICAL BALANCING: The pilot does not physically move the control surface,
the force on the stick is null, therefore it is necessary to install an artificial feel simulator “Q feel”.
Q feel inputs are PS, PT, IAS…

03 TRIMMING
The trimming is designed to cancer the forces in stable phases, fixed position (climb, cruise, stable approach).
The devices are installed in parallel to the control surfaces.
a) TRIM TAB: it is an additional surface, operated with trim control wheel. They generate more drag
than Trimmable Horizontal Stabilizer THS, but less control difficulty if runaway.

b) TRIMMABLE HORIZONTAL STABILIZER THS

ADVANTAGES: efficiency + (more than trim TAB), drag ↓, elevator deflection remains the same,
less sensitive to flutter, fuel consumption ↓.
DRAWBACKS: mass ↑, complexity ↑, dangerous if runaway.
The position of the elevator relative to the THS:
➔ On fully hydraulically operated flight control: elevator deflection =0°
➔ On powered assisted aircraft: depends on speed, slat, flaps.

c) COMBINED TRIMMING: the pilot moves the TAB which moves the control surface.
d) ANTI-BALANCED TAB: increases hinge moment -> the force exerted by the pilot ↑. The system is
used when forces on controls are too low. The ANTI-BALANCE TAB moves in the same direction
as the control surface & the efficiency of the control surface is improved.

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04 CONTROL SURFACE DEFFICIENCIES
a) LOSS OF EFFICIENCY: to prevent that:
➔ Increase thickness of the control surface leading edge.
➔ Positioning trailing edge jet deflectors & vortex generators to re-energize the boundary layer.
b) ADVERSE YAW
Right turn is ordered

DRAG

drag

Adverse Yaw

➔ Solution: FRISE AILERONS: increase drag on the upward aileron.

AILERON DIFFERENTIAL SETTING: raised aileron +5°, lowered aileron -2° (less drag).
SPOILER: on the dropping wing to increase drag.
AILERON REVERSAL: the down going aileron increases the semi-span AoA beyond the
critical. The wing twisting and incidence ↓ when ailerons is lowered.
At low speed: high AoA because of ailerons deflection -> stall -> roll in opposite direction
At high speed: shockwave -> separation of boundary layer. Solution: vortex generator.
NB: INBOARD AILERON: Twist ↓ at high speed.
If altitude ↑, rate of roll ↑.
05 AEROELASTICITY
a) BUFFETING: high speed -> shock wave -> boundary layer separation
Low speed -> high AoA -> boundary layer separation
b) FLUTTER: combination of bending and twisting.
Solution: increase rigidity in torsion, CG closer to elastic centre, reduce IAS, wing
mounter engines extended ahead of the wing, locating a mass in front of the torsion axis

274
XII/ PROPELLERS
01 DEFINITION
a) GEOMETRICAL PITCH H: it is the theoretical distance travelled by a point of a blade after one
revolution. It is also called theoretical pitch (into the wood).
b) EFFECTIVE PITCH: it is the actual distance a point on the propeller covers during one revolution.
c) SLIP: It is the difference between the geometric pitch and the effective pitch.

d) PROPELLER SOLIDITY= blade surface area/disc surface area = Sblades/r²

e) BLADE ANGLE  it is the angle between the rotation plane and the propeller chord, taken at
0.75 x Rblade (Rblade is the length of the blade).

Vrotation (RPM)

f) PROPELLER EFFICIENCY :  = (power supplied by propeller)/(power absorbed by propeller)

= usable power/shaft power. max = 0.8-0.9.
02 TYPE OF PROPELLER
a) FIXED PITCH PROPELLER: on light aircraft, it is not optimum in terms of power, very simple and
light. This propeller is optimized for cruise.


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 1. ENGINE CONTROL:
➔ If engine speed increases: Vaircraft ↑ -> AoA ↓ -> engine over speed -> throttle back.

➔ If RPM increase: Vrotation ↑ -> AoA ↑ -> RA↑ -> Thrust + Vaicraft ↑ (but drag increases).

➔ Coarse angle for Take-off

b) VARIABLE PITCH PROPELLER: the blade angle can be modified by the pilot (manually “non-
governing” or automatically “governing”) according to the flight phase, allowing a better overall
efficiency. Another name is constant speed propeller.

 40°
15°

Different efficiency curves for different

blade angle.
V

1. ENGINE CONTROL:
➔ AT Take-Off: FULL RPM (fine pitch) + FULL throttle.
➔ During Cruise: Reduce first throttle, then RPM (coarse pitch).
c) CONTRA ROTATING PROPELLERS: 2 propellers rotating in opposite direction on the same shaft.
d) COUNTER ROTATIVE PROPELLERS: Half of the engine in one direction, other half in the other
direction.
03 OPERATING MODES
a) TRACTIVE MODE: propeller supplies thrust & absorbs power.
b) TRANSPARENT: no thrust & absorbs power. “Engine failure alike”.
c) AERODYNAMIC BRAKE: propeller slows down the a/c & absorbed engine power decreases (AoA
<0).
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 d) WINDMILLING: AoA <<0, propeller supplies power to engine & slows down the a/c, Try & restart
stopped engine position, highest drag.
e) FEATHERING: propeller is stopped & drag is minimum.
f) REVERSE: propeller slow down the a/c & absorbs engine power.
04 PROPELLER ADAPTATION
a) ABSORBED POWER: can be increased by:
➔ Increasing the blade diameter (but blade tip Mach number can be reached)
➔ Increasing solidity by increasing the number of blade but above a certain number, performances ↓
because the blades are too closed to each other.
➔ Increasing solidity by increasing the blade chord = decreasing blade aspect ratio, but propeller
efficiency ↓
➔ Increasing the camber.
b) PROPELLER NOISE, can be reduced by:
➔ Decreasing the diameter
➔ Increasing the number of blade (th best), but mass and cost increase.
➔ Decreasing the engine speed.
05 MOMENT & TORQUE
The torque is caused by forces caused by the airflow on the propeller.
a) TORQUE REACTION: as the propeller is linked to the engine and to the fuselage, if it rotates
clockwise for the pilot, by a counter force, the fuselage will tend to rotate counter clockwise.
b) SPIRAL SLIPSTREAM EFFECT:

YAW TO THE LEFT

c) GYROSCOPIC EFFECT: only during pitch & yaw motions, it is greater at high speed. For clockwise
propeller:

277
 d) ASYMMETRIC THRUST OR P-FACTOR
This phenomenon happens when the aircraft AoA is important, the thrust of the downgoing blade is higher
than the thrust of the up going thrust (because the local AoA is less important). For clockwise rotating
propeller:

YAW TO THE LEFT

With this phenomenon, we can define a critical engine for a twin-engine aircraft. For clockwise rotating
propellers:
b F
F a
We have a.F > b.F, so in case of a left engine
failure, the consequence (Yaw motion) will be
worse than if it was a right engine failure. We
defined the left engine as the critical engine.

e) PROPELLER TWISTING MOMENTS

1. CENTRIFUGAL TWISTING MOMENT CTM: the CTM tends to decrease the blade angle towards
fine pitch.
2. AERODYNAMICAL TWISTING MOMENT ATM: the ATM tends to increase the blade angle
towards coarse pitch.
➔ CTM and ATM act in opposite directions, but CTM is stronger.
XIII/ STABILITY
01 DEFINITION
a) STATIC STABILITY: it is the tendency to restore the former state, when moved away from its
equilibrium position. 3 possibilities:

278
 b) DYNAMIC STABILITY: it is the study of the motion after a disturbance. 3 possibilities:

➔ AN AIRCRAFT SOULD BE STATICALLY AND DYNAMICALLY STABLE

An aircraft is statically stable if CG is located in front of the AC.
c) LONGITUDINAL STABILITY: rotation about the lateral axis (=pitch axis). Based on angle of attack
stability, with the horizontal stabilizer

d) TRANSVERSE STABILITY: the goal is to cancer the sideslip angle 

1. LATERAL STABILITY: rotation about the longitudinal axis (=roll axis). With the dihedral.
2. DIRECTIONAL STABILITY: rotation about the normal axis (=yaw axis). Weather cock effect.
e) CENTRE OF GRAVITY CG: it is the point where the mass forces are applied. When the aircraft pitch
up/down, it moves around this point.
f) CENTRE OF PRESSURE CP: it is the point where the aerodynamic force is applied, it varies with the
AoA.
g) PITCHING MOMENT: As CG and CP are not at the same position, a moment is created: pitch up or
pitch down: this is the pitching moment: in this case the pitching moment is d.FA.

FA
d
CG CP

h) AERODYNAMIC CENTRE AC: it is the point where a change in lift ΔL due to changes of angle of
attack Δα are applied. AC is the aft CG limit.
i) NEUTRAL POINT NP: it is the complete aircraft’s aerodynamic centre. Distance (CG – NP) is the
static margin.

279
02 MOMENTS
a) PITCHING MOMENT Cm
Cm

Cm0

STABLE CG in front of the NP or AC

UNSTABLE
α0 AoA

NEUTRAL

b) ROLLING MOMENT CL

CL Based on dihedral effect

NEUTRAL If  >0 -> CL <0 (left roll).

Down-going wing: AoA ↑ -> CL ↑ -> CDI ↑ -> Drag ↑

-> yaw moment to the down-going wing.
STABLE 
UNSTABLE

DUTCH ROLL (Forbidden)

Lateral stability > Directional stability
Can happen at Mach <critical Mach
To not encounter The Dutch roll -> altitude and Mach number↓.
Periodic.

SPIRAL INSTABILITY (tolerated)

Lateral stability < Directional stability
Aperiodic.

c) YAWING MOMENT CN

CN Based on weather cock effect

If  >0 -> CN >0 (right yaw).

Big fin -> directional stability ↑.

STABLE


280
 03 STATIC STABILITY FROM PILOT’S POINT OF VIEW
Stick position stability : for a stable aircraft, a speed increase (decrease) must be associated with a nose-
down (nose-up) command. Effort : 15N/20 kt or 1lbf/6kt.
On a stable aircraft, one the control is released, the aircraft will naturally go back to the trimmed position.
The higher the trim speed, the smaller the stick force stability.
NB: for an upward/downward trim deflection, the stick position stability remains constant.
04 CONTROLLABILITY
a) DEFINITION
An aircraft is said to be controllable is the angle of attack variation is consistent with the order given.
Controllability and stability are 2 contradictory requirements:
Forward CG -> stability ↑ & controllability ↓ (-> consumption ↑).
The CG position varies between a forward and aft limit:

Zero controllability Zero stability

(forward limit) (aft limit)
Operational CG positions

05 MANOEUVRING STABILITY AND MANOEUVRABILITY

a) DEFINITION
An aircraft will have a positive manoeuvring stability if its centre of gravity CG is located in front of the
manoeuvre point FM.
Manoeuvring stability ↑ if CG moves forward. Manoeuvring stability ↓ if mass ↑.

Surface AoA variation Load factor

Stick effort
deflection variation
Controllability

Manoeuvrability

Deflection per g (stick force per g) tends to ↓ when speed ↑ & when the CG moves rearward & when
altitude ↑.
Stick force per g is around 150N/g. Ex: to make a 2.5g manoeuvre, we need (2.5-1)x 150N = 225N.

281
 b) MONITORING THE STICK FORCE PER g
1. ON AN A/C WITH SERVO-CONTROLS: we use a Q-feel system.
2. ON AN A/C WITH MECHANICAL CONTROLS:

➔ DOWN SPRING: tends to rotate elevator downward; constant pull force,

independent of the airspeed. Static force stability ↑ but not manoeuvring
stability (stick force per g). Same function as
stick force stability
➔ BOBWEIGHT: same force as spring. Nose-up stick force stability ↑, nose-
up stick force per g ↑. In control system: pulls stick forward.
06 MINIMUM SPEED CONTROL
a) MINIMUM CONTROL SPEED ON GROUND VMCG:
➔ It is the minimum speed at which, with OEI, it is possible to maintain straight path on the rwy using
only aerodynamic control, all the other engines at max take-off power. A 30 ft lateral deviation from
the rwy centreline is authorized.
➔ Requirements: rudder only, no nose wheel because it must be applicable on wet/slippery rwy, one
engine inoperative, CG in the aft limit, determined by airport elevation & temperature
b) MINIMUM CONTROL SPEED AIRBORNE VMCA:
➔ It is the minimum speed at which we can maintain control & straight level with no more than 5° bank-
angle.
➔ Requirements: Critical engine inoperative, the other engine at max take-off power, high-lift take-off
configuration, CG at the aft limit.
c) MINIMUM CONTROL SPEED IN LANDING CONFIGURATION VMCL:
➔ Minimum control speed during approach & landing with sufficient lateral control to roll the a/c.
➔ Requirements: OEI, the other engine at max take-off power.
➔ It is limited b the available max roll rate.
d) MINIMUM CONTROL SPEED VMC:
➔ The minimum speed bellow which directional or lateral control of the aircraft can no longer be
maintained.
➔ VMC ↓ when altitude ↑.

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07 FACTORS RELATED TO STABILITY

High wing Median Low wing Swept Horizontal Vertical fin Dihedral
wing wing stabilizer >0
LONG STATIC
STAB
+ +
LAT STATIC NEUTRAL
STAB
+ - + + +
DIR STATIC
STAB
+ +
Engine on Engine on Propellers CZ↑ FWD balance Aft Balance Govern,
wing fuselage trim, flaps
LONG STAT
STAB
- + - - + -
LAT STATIC
STAB
- -
DIR STATIC NEUTRAL
STAB
- + -
Anhedral Ventral fin Dorsal fin fuselage LDG gear Downwash Camber
extended ↑
LONG STAT
STAB
- + -
LAT STATIC
STAB
- - +
DIR STATIC
STAB
+ + -
Can be asked at the exam.

+ positive impact.- negative impact.

• Horizontal tailplane on top of the vertical fin -> improve vertical fin efficiency
• Elevator deflected downward -> positive lift.
• At constant IAS, if Alt ↑: static lat. Stability ↑ & dynamic stat stability ↓.
•At constant Mach, if Alt ↑: static lat. Stability is constant & dynamic stat stability ↓.
• The lowest wing lift is obtained with an AFT CG at highest thrust.
• Max aft location of CG is limited by the stick force per g.
• For a thrust line below the CG: an increase in thrust leads to a nose-up, to get a nose-down attitude, the
elevator must deflect downward.

283
08 HAZARDS
a) SHORT PERIOD OSCILLATION
➔ Motion around the CG, near constant altitude & airspeed, 2-second period.
➔ Strong damping which ↓ with altitude (less viscosity).

➔ Strong variation of the AoA, and the load factor n ↑.

b) PHUGOID
➔ Motion of the CG through the space. Oscillating airspeed & altitude, long period.
➔ Weak damping
➔ Near constant AoA.
XIV/ SUPERSONIC FLOWS
01 DEFINITION
An aircraft flying below M=1, can locally, on several parts (wing…) reaches local M >1.
M = Speed of the flow (V)/speed of sound (a), the Mach number is a measure of compressibility.
02 PROPAGATION OF SOUND WAVES
A sound wave is a disturbance that is propagated without any material movement. It is a compression of the
air.
It’s a line/plan making a discontinuity within the supersonic flow. The first shockwave is located on the upper
side of the wing and the CP moves towards the trailing edge. Its speed is the same of the aircraft ground
speed.
A supersonic airfoil pressure distribution is rectangular, but ailerons deflection affects pressure distribution.
If the mass and the AoA ↑, the intensity of the shockwave ↑.
It exists different types:
a) NORMAL SHOCKWAVES NS: speed direction is constant, irreversible transformation, higher
compression than oblique shockwaves. Least energy lost just above M=1.

PS2>PS1
NS
Supersonic   
subsonic
M1 TS2>TS1
a2>a1
M2<1
Pt2<Pt1 (because kinetic energy changes into heat

b) OBLIQUE SHOCKWAVES OS: speed direction and the intensity vary, irreversible transformation.
Lesser lost in Pt than the normal shockwaves.

PS2>PS1
M>1 Supersonic   
M1 TS2>TS1
a2>a1
M2< M1
Pt2<Pt1 284
 c) LAMBDA SHOCKWAVE: synonym of heavy separation of the boundary layer and a drop in lift.

M2< M1 slower but not necessarily subsonic.

Boundary layer

03 EXPANSION WAVES
Speed intensity and direction vary. Reversible transformation.

Speed1 PS2<PS1
Speed2>Speed1   
TS2<TS1
a2<a1
M2> M1

04 MACH
a) MACH CONE: it represents the pressure disturbance which occurred within it. M=1 is a physical
boundary. It is defined by :

sin()= If M ↑, the shockwave moves towards the

trailing edge.

b) POLAR CURVE WITH MACH NUMBER M: if M ↑ -> lift ↓ and drag ↑

c) DRAG DIVERGENCE MACH NUMBER MD: MD is the value of the free stream M for which total drag
has been increased by 10% compared to a “lower speed” drag. M D ≥ MC.
d) MACH CRITIC MC: the flight Mach at which, locally on the plane, M=1 is reached, it causes a
separation of the boundary layer behind the shockwave causing buffeting -> impending shock
stall. Higher mass -> lower MC due to greater AoA to maintain speed & FL.
e) MACH M EFFECT ON THE AC POSITION

Straight wing
0.5
Swept wing
0.25

M
MC

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 f) ACCELERATION THROUGHT TRANSONIC RANGE: CD ↑ then ↓.
05 FLOW INSIDE A NOZZLE

0.3
incompressible compressible
M
subsonic 1.0 supersonic

“V varies in opposite direction than P (Bernoulli) and T (St-Venant)”

“S and V vary in opposite direction”. “S and V vary in the same direction”.

SUBSONIC SUPERSONIC
CONV
V↑ V↓
PS, T↓ PS, T↑

DIV
V↓ V↑
PS, T↑ PS, T↓

06 CONSEQUENCE OF THE MOVING POSITION OF CP

a) PHENOMENON: MACH TUCK/MACH UNDER:

➔ A nose-down moment is created = tuck under = Mach

Subsonic CP NP
Tuck.
G
lift ➔ The nose down attitude is also caused by a reduction is
the downwash angle. And the effectiveness of the
Mg
CP NP tailplane ↓.
Transonic
G
➔ It happens from M0.89 to M0.98

b) SOLUTIONS
1. TRIMMING:
-> Apply a nose-up trim to counter balance the nose-down moment.
-> Rapid, simple, but create additional drag.
-> The stability ↑ but controllability ↓
2. MACH TRIM:
-> It gives auto nose-up acting on the stabilizer/elevator, it minimizes the effect of change of
CP position.
-> it is transparent for the pilots -> The stick force gradient remains constant, and the stick
force stability ↓ if M> MC, due to loss of lift.
3. FUEL TRANSFER:
-> This solution enables to move to CG in a aft position to reduce the distance between the
CG and the CP.
-> No additional drag, and no modification of stability.
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07 SUPERCRITICAL AIRFOIL
The goal of this airfoil is to delay the shockwaves. It is more efficient at M>MC than a conventional airfoil.
The margin between MC and MD ↑. With this airfoil, the lift is better spread over the wing.

Strong
M>1 Weak M>1
shockwave
shockwave

Weak
M>1
shockwave

MD = 0.79 MD = 0.67

08 AREA RULE / WHITCOMB

It states that if the area of the (wing + fuselage) front section remains more or less constant along the aircraft,
this will limit the drag increase and increase the critical Mach number -> cock bottle fuselage:

XV/ BUFFET ONSET CHART

01 NORMAL LOAD FACTOR nz
nZ= apparent weight / Lift. If nz<0: inverted flight, if nz >0: turn.
02 HIGH SPEED SHOCK STALL
To provide the same lift during acceleration, the aircraft must fly with M².C L = constant, -> if M ↑, so CL ↓.
03 BUFFER ONSET CHART
m z nL
M².CL CL MAX
STALL o
a Aerodynamic ceiling = absolute ceiling
STALL a d
Coffin corner
lt
M range it
u f
m a
a d
e c
s t
s
M o
r
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At a given Mach M, a pilot cannot select any altitude, carry out any manoeuvre, or any mass:
➔ The range of Mach ↓ is (z, m, n) ↑,

➔ For a push over manoeuvre: n ↓ so M range ↑,

➔ For a pull-up manoeuvre: n ↑ so M range ↓.

➔ If speed increase, M range = constant.

On chart, get a M at which low speed and Mach buffet occur at different altitude and mass.
If M > MC -> Mach buffet.
“1.3g margin”: manoeuvre with a n=1.3 will cause buffet onset.
XVI/ SWEPT WING
CL Straight wing

Swept wing With swept wing :

-> CL MAX ↓, stall speed ↑, vertical
gust are better faced.
-> MC and MD ↑.

AoA

The sweep angle delays the appearance of phenomena in transonic condition and decreases their
importance.
With swept wing, the transonic drag rises slower than straight wing, but higher C D at supersonic flight.
01 LEADING EDGE VORTICES ON LIFT

These vortices create a local

overspeed leading to an additional
resultant force, and in particular an
additional lift component (and drag
also).
From root to tip.

a) CONSEQUENCES:
-> Separation of boundary layer at the tip -> efficiency of the ailerons ↓
-> Loss of lift, first at the wing tip, causing a motion of the CP to the leading edge, leading to a
pitch-up moment (can lead the aircraft to stall).
b) SOLUTIONS:
-> vortex generator, boundary layer fences to get a more turbulent boundary layer & delay the
separation (and reduce the wave drag).

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 c) DEEP STALL/SUPER STALL:
-> It is a catastrophic consequence of a uncontrolled pitch-up, on an aircraft with high-set
tailplane. Indeed, the stabilizer can be in the wing wake: the flow on the stabilizer is then
disturbed, and the stabilizer becomes un-efficient.
-> The aircraft with swept wing and a T-tail are very sensitive to this phenomenon.

d) COMPARISON SWEPT/STRAIGHT WINGS

-> Less sensitive to spin than straight wings and capture less ice.
-> The straight wings stall first at the wing root and when the stall begins, the CP moves
rearward.
-> The swept wings stall first at the wing tip and when the stall begins, the CP moves forward.
XVII/ STABILIZED LEVEL FLIGHT / STEADY CLIMB / STEADY DESCENT
For the general principles, required thrust/power, refers to 032 PERFORMANCES.
01 REMARKABLE POINTS ON THE POLAR CURVE FOR A JET ENGINE AIRCRAFT

CL
4 CL MAX
3 Lowest speed (just before stall)
RODMIN
2 VMP
Best glide endurance
Min Drag
VMD
(L/D)MAX
Best glide range
Min glide angle

1 CD
CD MIN

XVIII/ STEADY LEVEL TURN

a) LOAD FACTOR n: n=1/cos(),  is the bank angle.

b) STALL SPEED Vs =√𝑛 VS1g.

c) RADIUS OF TURN R: R=V²/(g.tan()) If the speed V ↑, the radius R ↑.

d) RATE OF TURN : = g.tan()/V.

e) ACCELERATION a: a=V²/R= .V.

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f) NON COORDINATED TURN
1. SKIDING TURN

Actual path
Lift

Risk of spiral dive, dangerous ++ at low speed.

Instable.
nmg
mg

2. SLIPPING TURN Actual path

Lift

Natural tendency to remain in the initial position.

nmg Stable.
mg

g) COORDINATED TURN: The turning motion is made by the centripetal force. The tur indicator and the
slip indicator should be neutral during a coordinated turn, even if there is an engine failure. During a
coordinated turn, the thrust equals the drag.

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