marshall us) Be Gee PHYSICS MA&TTERS GCE ‘0’ Level Textbook rt pian Tce Tog Dr Ho Boon Tiong Low Beng Yew BoE aa)(© 1995 Federal Pubications (Snanpore) Private imted {© 2001 Times Medte Pate Liitod © 20€8, 2007, 2018 Meshal Cavencish Intemational (Singapore) Privat limited © 2014, 2023 Masshall Covendish Education Pte Ltd Publiched by Mershall Cavendish Education Times Cente, 1 New Industral Road. Sngopore S36%% ‘customer Service Hetine: (65) ¢213 9688 E-mek: csameaducatoncom \Weoste:waumceducatoncom Fist pubished 1995 (as Physics: A Course for O' Level) Second edtion 206s Physics: Course for O' Level) Fouth editon 2013 Fifth ection 2025, Alrightsresenved, Not of this publcatlan moy be reproduced, sired inc fetal syste oF ‘wansmitted in any form or by any mecns, electronic, mechonical, photocopyir, seoddlng of ethentlee, without the por paimieionaf the copyright owner Jn equesis for Se mission shoukl be aauressed to the Publishes Marshall Cavercish co registered trademark of Times Publishing Limited Is8 978-981-4987-97-4 ‘Acquistons: Rurve Jamsio Design: Joe $y Ong {dora Toarr 90 Xin Vi Sah VisiLing, Chotlore Chen Project Nanagement:Sepria Yong, Kenny Yong Permislone: Jacana Lim, Chong LI Pina Digtat: Racha! Tan, Carre Yoong, Tay Wan Jing, Chao Chow, Foong Siew Kuon, eng Cree Lc, wu Li Hang, Feng fin, Leng Ming Chiang Derek Kor, CChin Yara Wel, LerHen Sheng [ores snarePHYSICS MATTERS GCE ‘O’ Level Dr Charles Chew Dr Ho Boon Tiong + Low Beng Yew [4 Yeow Kok HanAbout the Physics Matters Author Team Dr Charles Chew Dr Charles Chew was a Public Service Commission Teaching Scholar ‘iho Joined the Singapore education service in 1986. n his 36 years of education service, he has had a wide range of experiences where be served as a junior college teacher, a head of department and the Vice-Principal of secondary school, a Teaching Fellow at the National Institute of Education (NIE) and a Principal Master Teacher at the ‘Academy of Singapore Teachers. Beyond Singapore, Charles has served as the Singapore Governing Board Member for the SEAMEO QITEP Sclence from 2009 to 2011 and ‘Singapore representative for the SEAMEO INNOTECH Regional Forum in Manila in 2019. ‘Charles has also co-authored an instructional package for IGCSE Physics. Besides being an established author of physics textbooks, he has also published journal aticlas and book chapters in the areas ‘of physics education, inquiry-based learning and pedagogical content) knowledge. For his valuable contributions rendered to the field of| ‘education, Charles was conferred the Public Administration Medal. Dr Ho Boon Tiong Dr Ho Boon Tiong is the Principal Consultant Educationist of an ‘educational training and consulting firm for the past 16years. He ‘was an Assistant Professor with the Natural Sciences and Science Education academic group of the National Institute of Education (NIE). He obtained his Diploma-in-Fducation (with credit) in 1986 and holds a Master of Education degree, specialising in effective schools’ research and management. He Isalso a Doctor of Philosophy In the field of Science teacher education, particularly in the domain of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). Or Ho has also co-authored an Instructional package for IGCSE Physics. Low Beng Yew Beng Yew has bean teaching in Temasek Polytechnic since 2012. His approach to teaching is to seek out the misconceptions that students, have and understand their learning difficulties. Beng Yew has authored two conference papers and a textbook, and was arecipient of the Temasek Polytechnic School of Engineering Teaching Award. Prior to teaching, Beng Yew worked in the corporate world forabout, ~ 20 years, and his experience ranged from semiconductors to financial software to polymers.®se6°60 Yeow Kok Han ‘Kok Han received a Public Service Commission scholarship to study ‘physics at the University of Oxford. After his training at the National Institute of Education, he was posted to Tampines Junior College asa pphysics teacher. In the next 15 years, he learnt how toteach physics better from both students and colleagues. He left the teaching service as Physics Level Head in 2012. After some years of exploring other projects and adjunct teaching, he resumed teaching physics full time at SiM International Academy. Currently, he is doing flexi-adjunct teaching. Joan Fong ‘Joan Fong taucht physics at Raffles Junior College for 15 years and at ‘St Josephs Institution for 10 years. During her tenure as distinguished physics teacher, she mentored hundreds of students to excel in their A-level and s-paper physics. Joan also mentored and coached specially selected students who participated in the Intemational Physics Olympiad. The individual members of the Physics Olympiad ‘Team won the gold, silver and bronze awards. A life-long learner and [passionate educator, Joan has written physics textbooks since 1980, including the Exploring Science and Lower Secondary Science Series. Dr Randall Cha Dr Cha has a Doctorate in Electrical and Computer Engineering from the National University of Singapore. Dr Cha has authored more than 20 international journals and conference papers, and published several assessment books on physics. A STEM expert and an avid inventor with numerous worldwide patents under his name, he has also served as a technical advisor to various high-tech companies. He has also worked with MOE as a physics teacher. Dr Cha was conferred the Crescendas Medal and Prize for Outstanding Physics Lecturer (Polytechnics) in December 2015. Tan Kay Yew ‘Kay Yew was awarded a teaching scholarship from the Public Service ‘Commission Singapore to study physics at the National University ‘of Singapore. He has 20 years of teaching experience in different learning institutes, and his passion for education focuses on the academic excellence and holistic development of students. Over the years, he has learned and used diverse techniques and strategies to teach young adults to acquire knowledge, skills, and attitudes in a ‘changing learning landscape. He was conferred the Crescendas Medal and Prize for Outstanding Engineering Fhysics Lecturer (Polytechnics) in December 2016.About This Book ‘The Physics Matters for GCE ‘0’ Level Textbook (5th Edition) is aligned with the, latest GCE ‘0’ Level syilabus by the Ministry of Education. Designed for effective concept development and reinforcement, the Textbook includes tasks and activities at appropriate junctures for students to apply their critical and creative thinking skills, Real-life contexts, Infographics and integrated videos and simulations are used to enhance leaming and make Physics come alive. a . Cheater Derer 04 Dynamics II: ) enowoia ealife contents Forces _Sedttogeruesine ‘What You Will Learn Whattow [provides an overview of ee the sections to be covered in the chapter in the form ‘ofinquiry questions. Physice Connect allows students to scan the QR codes te access complimentary digital resources® such as videos and simulations that are interesting and informative, making science truly come alive. The ciatal resources used in Physics Connect have ‘not been reviewed or endorsed bythe Singapore Minsty of Education Learning Outcomes list thelearning objectives at thestartof each section to f __Reen students focused. Concept Cartoon challenges students! ideas, ‘tigers discussions and aids in clearing misconceptions.About This Book : Lets investigate reinforces concepts tcc investigative procedures or fands-on actives. Word Alert provides language support by (supplying bret deiitions of words that students may find challenging. Link allows for seamless learning and reinforcement of concepts across the Teetbook, “ Theory Workbook and Practical Workbook. Disei Ideas highlight the overarching ideas of Physics that can be applied to explain real-life problems ‘or phenomena. The Disciplinary Ideas are: + Matter and energy make up the Universe, + Matter interacts ‘through forces and. fields. + Forces help us understand motion. + Waves can transfer ‘energy without transferring matter. + Conservation laws constrain the changes insystems, J + Microscopic models can Infographics and stepwise ‘explain macroscopic Helpful Note highiahts presentations help students visualise thenomena. misconceptions tips and Abstract concepts and break down | Bitona information to Giffcuit concepts into bite-sized ‘spp sent ming information that iveary to understandWorked Example guides Link ‘students on how to interpret allows students to appreciate the ‘question and work out the interconnectecness of concepts ‘solution. between the various science subjects. Let's Practise Prompts immediate checks on ‘understanding at the ‘endof the section and facilitates the concepts. Link shows ‘connections across chapters by linking back to students’ prior leaming and linking forward to prepare them for related chapters they willearn later. Tech Connact showcases cutting-edge technology used for the benefit of fe, society and the environment. Critical thinking questions are included to encourage independent research and discussion.About This Book Problem-based Learning Activity hones problem-solving skills by encouraging students to develop solutions to arealife problem. Cool Career showcases a career related tothe ‘topic to inspire students and show them the relevance of science in ‘the workplace. Let's Map it summarises the relationships between key concepts in the chapter through visual concept map. ‘The following are alsoincluded at the end of the book: [Answer Key lists the answers to Let's Practise and Let’ Review (only ancwers to ‘multiple-choice questions and rumesical answers are included). ‘Quick Revision Guide consolidates key definitions and formulae at the back ofthe ‘book for easy revision. Index provides alist of key words with page references for easy searching.Contents Measurements Chapter 1 u 2 13 14 2s, Units and Measurements Physical Quantiti ‘What Is Physics? What Are Physical Quantities? How Do We Measure Physical Quantities? What Are Scalars and Vectors? Newtonlan Mechanics Chapter 2 a Chapter 7 nm 72 73 Kinomatice ‘What Are Speed, Velocity and Acceleration? How Do We Analyze Mation Graphically? ‘What ls Acceleration of Free Fal? jamics[: Mass and Weight ‘Are the Types of Forces? [Mass the Some as Weight? namics Il: Forces 3 Are Newton's Lawes of Motion? What Are Fiee-body and Vector Diagrams? ‘What Ate Some Effects of Resistive Forces on Motion? Pressure What's Pressure? How Is Pressure Transmitted Through an Enclosed Liquid? How Is the Height of a Column of Liquid Used to ‘Measure Pressure? What Bre Eneray Stores and Transfers? ‘What Are Work Done and Power? How Can We Obtain Enercy? ‘Thermal Phystes Chapter 8 a a2 “Chapter 9 oa 92 93 Chapter 10, 101 12 03 Waves Chapter ma 12 Kinetic Particle Model of Matter How Does the Kinetic Particle Model Relate to the States of Matter? How Does the Kinetic Particle Mode! Relate to Temperature ‘and Pressure? ‘Thermal Processes ‘What Is Thermal Equilibrium? How Is Energy Transferred by Heating? What Are Some Applications of Thesmal Processes? ‘Thermal Properties of Matter How Is Internal Energy Related to Heat Capacity? ‘What Are the Processes that involve a Change of State? ‘What Is Latent Heat? gowns 92 93 7 100 Mm m 1B 19 137 138“Chapter 12 wa 2 3s ‘Chapter 13, 131 132 Chapter 14 wa 42 M43 ua Goneral Wave Properties I: Sound What ls Sound? How Do We Relate Loucness to Amplitude and Pitch tw Frequency? How ls Sound Useful? Electromagnetic Waves ‘What Are Electromagnetic Waves? ‘What Are the Uses and Dangers of Electromagnetic Waves? Light How Does Light Enable Us to See? How Is Light Refracted? ‘What IsTotal internal Reflection? How Does a Converaing Lens Work? Electricity and Magnetism Chapter 15. 151 152 153 Chapter 15 161 162 Chapter 17, va v2 ws va Chapter 13, 181 182 Chapter 19, 11 192 Static Electricity ‘What Are Electric Charges and Fields? How Are Objects Flectrostatically Charged? ‘What Are Some Examples of Flectrostatic Charging? Current of Electricity How Do We Describe the Energy Transfer by an Electric Carrent in an Electric Creuit? ‘Why Does the Electrical Resistance of Metals Increase with Temperature? D.C. Circuits How Are Current, Potential Difference and Resistance Related ina Series Circuit How Are Current, Potential Difference and Resistance elated in a Parallel Circuit ‘What Ave Potential Divid Its fete Henin ang How slecticty Consumption Measured? How Do We Usetiecreal Component ste! Magneti ‘What Are the Interactions Between Magnets and Between Magnets and Magnetic Materials? How Do We Show the Magnetic Field Around a Magnet? Electromagnetism What Are the Maanetic Effects of a Current? ‘When Willa Curcent in Wire Cause the Wire to Move? Electromagnetic Induction How Are Electric Currents and Magnetic elds Related and How Do They Interact? ‘When Will Movement Cauce a Current to be Produced? ‘Why le Cartent Alwaye Generated in Altemating Form? What Is the Composition of an Atorn? Ra 222 Whats Radionctivity? 223 What Are Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion? 224 What Are the Uses ard Hazards of Radioactivity? ‘Answer Key Quick Revision Guide Index Acknowledgements ‘Chapters with Problem-based Learning Activities 205 206 209 210 29 as 309 35 318 360 364 397 401 410 43 an 432 435BLANK0 1 Physical Quantities, Units and Measurements What You TT Tay Baa Beet ae quantities? Sd physical quantities? ee vectors? Measurements play an important role in our daily life. During pandemics such as SARS and COVID-19, b we measure our body temperature to ensure that we are notrunning a fever before being allowed to enter the premises. This helps to contain the spread of the disease as people who are ill will not be interacting with others. Do you know what our normal body temperature is? Using a measuring instrument such as a thermometer enables scientists to gather information about a physical quantity such as temperature. Besides temperature, there are other physical quantities. An example of a physical quantity is mass. What are other examples of physical quantities?Chapter? © Measurements 1.1 What Is Physics? Physics isthe study of our natural world — from the very large (eg the solar system) to the very small (eg. the atom), The study of Physics can be divided into major topics suchas the ‘ones shown in Figure 1.1. These topics are related to two main ideas — matter and energy. ‘The Disciplinary ideas of Fhysics highlight the overarching Ideas of Physics that can be applied ‘to explain real-life problems or phenomena. The Disciplinary Ideas are: ‘Matter and energy make up the Universe. ‘Matter interacts through forces and fields. Forces help us understand motion. Waves can transfer energy without transferring matter. Conservation laws constrain the changes in systems. ‘Microscopic models can explain macroscopic phenomena. ‘We will revisit the Disciplinary Ideas at relevant junctures of the book. Disciplinary Idea Energy a ees Co Een Radioactivity ier) core ‘The knowledge we have gained in Physics is the result of the collaborative work of many scientists over a long period of time. These scientists conducted many experiments to verify thelr ideas on matter and energy. When they carry out experiments, they need to make accurate measurements to obtain reliable results. At the same time, scientists use models to ‘explain scientific observations and theartes.Physical Quantities Units and Measurements # Chapter 1.2 What Are Physical Quantities? Learning Outcomes + Show an understanding that physical quantities typically consist of a numerical magnitude and a unit. + Recall the following base quantities and their units: mass (kg) length (m), time (9), current (A), temperature (K), amount of substance (mol). + Use the following prefixes and their symbols to Indicate decimal sub-multiples and multiples of the SI units: nano (n), micro (a), mil rn, ‘centi (0, dect(c, kilo (k), mega (M),giga (G) tera (T). ‘When travelling around singapore, you may have noticed that overhead bridges have a sign with “45 m* printed on them. In Physics, height isa physical quantity — "4.5" is the numerical magnitude and mis the unit (Figure 1.2). Aphysical quantity is a quantity that can be measured. It consists of a ‘numerical magnitude and a unit. ‘Altogether, there are seven basic physical quantities, or base quantities. We use a system of standardised units called $1 units or the International ‘system of Units (abbreviated SI from French: Systeme International dtUnités) Why do we need SI units? In the past, people used parts of their bodies and things around them for taking measurements. However, it created confusion because such measurements varied from individual to individual sinca the lengths of the parts of the bodies are different. The adoption of 3 universal set of units such as the SI units ensures that we follow a common standard when taking measurements. ‘Table 1.1 shows some base quantities and their corresponding SI units. ‘Table 11 Base quantities and their SI units a a length metre n mass kitogram 9 time. second 5 lect current ampere A thermodynamic temperature kelvin K amauint of substance mole mal aryldea Mater and energy make the Universe In making physical ‘measurements, common system of units (eg. St lls is weeded. For ‘example, the St unit for ‘mas isthe lalogram (ig), and the Si unit for energy isthe joule 0). (+e) Link Chemis Tn Chanit welewn ttatthe mo whe wt ofthe amount of subsance One mole Contains 6.02» 10° particles. These particles Inaybe eoctons atoms, jens or molecules The alae 02-10" led Ue Avalos constant 1 3Chapter? © Measurements Helpful Note ‘A common unit of Disciplinary Idea Mater andenergy make pte Unnene. ‘The measurement of ‘various physical quantities ie eight. force an locity helped ‘aperiment end theorc, Evenly, we could ‘between physical ‘quantities and how these relationships lead to ‘concepts of inertia and energy Word Alert Prefixes: letters placed in front of words to make new words ‘Other common physical quantities such as area, volume and speed are derived fiom these base quantities through an equation. For example, speeds defined as distance travelled per unt time (Speed = ance traveled) Prefixes for SI Units Using decimal notation, the distance between air molecules can be expressed as 1.00 000 001 m. i weneed to mention this quantity often, it would not be efficient to use this type of notation, Instead of using decimal notation, It is more convenient to use prefixes to represent the ‘quantity. For example, when measuring short distances such as. ofa metre, we simply ‘express itasonemicrometre. Fonhaeg ofA mette 1000001 m = 1x10-6m [umn (micrometre), where p represents the submultiple 10 ‘When measuring long distances such as 1.000 000 000 000 metres, we simply express it as ‘one terametre, 1.000 000 000 000 metres 102m, = 1Tm, where T represents the multiple 10 ‘The prefixes listed in Table 1.2 are useful for expressing physical quantities that are either very big or very small “Table 1.2 Some common prefixes and their symbols =! tera w sige G 108 mega- u 10 kilo- k 10" deck a 0 conti « ie) il m ws micro- " 10? rano- nPhysical Quantities, Units and Measurements # Chapter 1 Standard Form ‘Another convenient and acceptable way of expressing physical quantities Isto use the standard form. A standard form Is a way of writing numbers, ‘inwhich a number between | to 10is multiplied by an appropriate power (of 10. For example, the following numbers ara expressad in standard form asshown, 0.00 567=5.67 x 10% 16800 =1.68 x 10" In the case of 0.01 pm, itcan also be expressed as 1 x 10% m, Some other ‘common quantities expressed in standard form: + One kilometre (km) + One milliampere (mA) Is1x 10m, is tx 103A. = Three megajoules (MJ) + Six microcoulombs (iC) Is3x 10°), Is6x 0c. + Eight nanoseconds (ns) Isax 1076 Worked Example 1A “The world's smallest playable guttar Is 13 pm long. Express the uitars length in standard form. Answer 13 uM =0.000 013 m= 13x 10 m= 13x 105m Expressed in standard form, the guitar's length is 1.3 x 10m. (- Worked Example 1B Usain Bolt of Jamaica broke the 100 m sprint world record at the 2009 World Athletic Championships, with a time of 9.58 5. With this, record, he became the worlds fastest man. In contrast, a dog runs at ‘a speed of 30 kmyh. Ifa dog chases Usain Bolt, will t be able to catch up with him? ‘answer Note: Fist, we need to calculate the average speed of Usain Bott. ‘Average speed = diate = 190M — 104 m/s Note: To make meaningful comparison, the units ofthe values, compared must be the same. 1 bm Average speed = 353 Since 376 km/h is greater than 30 km/h, Usain Bolt will outrun the ‘dog over adistance of 100m. (~ Let's Practise 1.1 and 1.2 1 Give three examples of base quantities and their St units. 2 Express the Avogadros number, 602 290 000 000 000 000 000 000, in standard form. Round off your answer to two decimal places. Link Theory Workbook 1AChapter? © Measurements 1.3 How Do We Measure Physical Quantities? Figur 1.2 Measuring the diameter ofa tree trunk ‘measure a wide range oflengths as the objects aroundus range from the verybig to the very zrall. Learning Outcomes + Show an understanding of the orders of magnitude of the sizes of common objects. + Select and explain the use of appropriate measuring instruments to measure or determine physical quantities. Measurement of Length We should use the appropriate instruments and methods to measure different types of length (Figure 1.2). The SI untt for length Is the metre (m). There is a wide range of lengthsin this world igure 14). ‘adusofa hydiogennucleus sizeof atypical stomPhysical Quantities, Units and Measurements # Chapter 1 Metre Rule and Measuring Tape The metre rule and measuring tape are instruments that are commonly ‘used to measure length (Figure 15). matre rule can measure lengths ‘of up to one metre. A steel measuring tape is suitable for measuring straight distances longer than a metre. A cloth measuring tape is suitable for measuring the length along a curved surface, such asa [person's waist or the diameter of a tree trunk. Digital Calipers The digital calipers are used to measure the internal and external Figure 15 Ametreruie diameters of an object accurately (Figure 1.0). The object is gripped gently using the jaws of the digital calipers and the diameter of the anda retractable steel Sets on he ges ey aces apd neurlet sco wate soe at ome ee, west ian mee Inside jams — used to ‘measure tha intemal Gismeterofanobject Suede teed torezet the Showtherw. — eplajediongts mmericvale Fact tozero ‘uti jaws — used ‘ema ta satarnat ‘Ganeter or wicth of ‘anabject Figure 1.6 Pats of the digital calipers and their usesChapter? © Measurements Helpful Note ‘The digtal displays of ‘using the instruments, vweean record the ‘measurement on the digital calipers to 0.1 mm and the measurement on link 1m Chemisty, we learn that there ae various pieces of apparatus for ‘measuring volumes of liquids. The measuring cylinder measures tothe ‘ncaret (5 cm? while the Dburette measures to the ‘nearest 405 cn. The pipette measures out fixed volumes of liquids. igital Micrometer Screw Gauge ‘The digital micrometer screw gauge is used to measure objects that are too small to be measured using the digital calipers (Figure 1.7). The object is placed between the anvil and spindle of the digital micrometer screw gauge. The ratchet is turned until the spindle isin ‘contact with the object. We need to ensure that the object is held tightly between the anvil ‘and spindle. Do not tighten the ratchet too much. used to messurethe damater ofan cbject na a - —— a, Figure 1.7 Parts ofthe digital micrometer screw gauge and their uses Precision of an Instrument ‘The smallest unit an instrument can measure is known as its preciston. What is the smallest unit on a metre rule? itis 0.1cm or ‘mm. Therefore, the precision of a metre rule is 1 mm. \ ‘The thickness of a plece of paper is less than the precision of a Figure 1.8 To estimate metre rule (ie. 1 mm), Therefore, we cannot directly measure the the thichness ofa sheet paper's thickness using a metre rule. We will have to estimate its of paper, we could ‘thickness (Figure 18). measure the thickness ofa stack of paper Table 123 shows the measuring range, smallest division aswell asthe and then dvidethe ‘common usage of the measuring instruments. thickness by thenumber of sheets in that stack. Table 1.3 Common measuring instruments with their range, smallest division and usage Instrument | Measuring Range | Smallest Division | Example of Usage measuringtape —zerotoseveral —O.1cmar Imm —_apdyon’s waist mettes metrerule —zerotoonemetre O.lemor Imm —heightof atable digital calipers zero to 15 001 mor —_diameterof atest centimetres Oo1mm tube digital micrometer __-zeroto25 0.0001cm or diameter of a wire ‘screw gauge centimetres 0.001 mm ‘When recording the measurements, we can record the measurements shown on the digital display of; + the digital calipers to.0.1 mm; and + the digital micrometer screw gauge to 0.01 mm.Physical Quantities, Units and Measurements # Chapter 1 Avoiding Errors of Measurement When we use a metre rule, our eyes should be positioned such that ‘our lina of sight is perpendicular to (directly above) the rule (Figure 1.9(9)). Measurement errors introduced when this is not done are called parallax errors (Figure 1.9(b). macarate engtn of opect=3.0-09=21¢m a aT ‘ (b) Inaccurate measurement Helpful Note Fiaue 1344 ate le ay havels Zo matt tthe very endo the ue ‘Threat psa etc ntiding Wear and tear of the metre ule may make this mark unsuitable sbseratonal errs parallax errors for measuring purposes. This worn end may introduce errors to - ‘nn, the readings: Hence, iticbettarto measure from another point seat and subtract it from the final reading (Figure 1.92). Taking several Random errr vais readings and calculating the average also minimises errors. predators ne rmessrement o another Measurement of Time SSnstat and mot rardam Imagine that you are stranded on an island, You do not havea watch hs thesamevlue for coramotile phone. How would you be able to tellthe time? every measurement ‘We can tell time by observing events that repeat at regular intervals ‘Random errors are br periods. Examples of such events are sescone phases afthe moon, avilable, ut duster ‘sunsets and the positions of the Sun. around the true value. Systematic err can oten ‘hestunitfor ume the second i}: the yea; month day nour andre rang ‘minute are other units for measuring time. cement patie Thecbsenation of rauralevertsis not accurate enough orscentne enema afm work. For example, the time interval between a sunrise and a sunset Is different in winter and summer. The time intervals for scientific work ‘must be fixed; they cannot change. Can you think of recurrent motions that can be used to measure time for scientific work? se Pendulum ‘Asimple pendulum can be used to measure time. It consists of a heavy object called a bob (e.g. a metal ball, that Is attacheatto one end of a sting, The other end of the string Is fixed. When a pendulum ‘swings freely, Itwill move back and forth at regular intervals (Figure 1.10) > Each complete to-and fro motion is one oscillation.Chapter 1 = Measurements @ RE ee ‘The period of a pendulum depends on its length. Pendulum clocks can be calibrated to Word Alert measure time accurately by adjusting the length of the pendulum. Calibratedadiusted with reference toaknown value For scientific work, time intervals must be precisely measured. The period of the oscillations must not change. Mast modern timepieces are calibrated using precise timekeeping devices ‘alled atomic clocks. Figure 1.11 This atomic clock measures time to an accuracy of one ‘second in two million years. Pendulum Clock All timepieces use periodic motion to measure time. Pendulum clocks keep time using a pendulumis periodic swing. ‘Clocks and Stopwatches ‘The oscillations of springs and the natural vibrations of crystals are other periodic motions ‘that can be usad to kaep time. Most clocks and watches today use quartz crystals. Quartz crystals are small, accurate and require very little electrical power. Past toPresent Depending on the accuracy and precision needed, the instruments used will vary. For tn Hao Lynsad yp, we would not ute an analogs wath to messi the time faken for a runner orn As teamat the Navonal 2100 m race, but we will use a digital stopwatch instead. {ow known a National InsituteofStandarisand Human Reaction Time Technology) vented the ‘Most stopwatches can measure time to a precision of 0.01 s. Digital stopwatches usually show omic Cock The nt readings up to two decimal places. However, we usually take readings to the nearest one woe eee decimal place. This is because, unlike the alectronic sensors used in data loggers, stopwatches ‘exiting quartz clocks, need to be started and stopped by hand. This manual operation introduces a random error Harold Lyons and his eam Called humman reaction time. Human reaction time fs about 0.3-0.5 s for most people. improved on their design and created the caesium -~ Let's Investigate 1A, slomic doce (Figure 111) rotor ‘Airy —aaeore ‘The alomic lock was ‘To calibrate a simple pendulum to measure tnvented out of need for tume in seconds 2 umngstancard tat wwouldallow radio ators procedure to stay on their assigned 4 Tie the pendulum to the clamp, and measure f frequen is ued as thelength? of the string in metres (Figure 1.12, mart sandand 2 Measure the time taken f, for the pendulum to ‘make 20 oscillations. Repeat to find t, 23 Vary the length / ofthe string between 50 and 90cm and repeat step 2. pendulum gal 10 FigurePhysical Quantities, Units and Measurements # Chapter 1 “4Find the average time fygag f0F 20 oscillations period Tand Pas shown in Table 14. Table 14 Helpful Note Calculation “Thepericd of the pendulum Tisfound by EVID ge 20. Tha s '5 Plot a graph of period T/s against length J / m (Figure 1.134), and find 1a the length of the pendulum with a period of one second, Also plot 3 ‘Note A common mistake graph of P/3? against length? /m (Figure 1.13(b), ‘made durin practical work isto akethe average Results and Discussion time for 20 escllaons PerodT/s ep (orgy = 8) athe period Fo 7 pendulum. Precaution Wie need to take the time for 20 oscillations ‘The ror decreases asthe tengen? 1m Leng 7a ramber of esilations Figure 1.13(2)Graph of Tys? Figure 1.13(6) Graph of Fs! noes ‘The lenath of the pendulum with a period of one second can be read off the graph. Ay using a pendulum with this langth, we can measure time bby counting the number of oscillations (e.g. one oscillation takes one second then 60 oscltlons take 60 seconds or one minute). Figure 1.13(a)shows that the period increases with length, but not - linearly. Link Figure 1.13(b) shows that the square of the period Is directly proportional “Theperied of «pendulum to the length. This gives rise to a straight-line graph when we plot 7? a re against 1, By extending the straight-line graph, we can easily predict the ae period of the pendulum for lengths that are not included in the graph Teva more shout tia we have plotied. Chopur 3, (- Let's Practise 1.3 —————}s— +1 What are some advantages of using digital calipers over a metre rule to measure the external diameter ofa beaker 2 Figure 1.14shows an oscillating pendulum. f the time taken for the pendulum to swing from Ato Cto Bis 3.0 s what is the period of the pendulum? Figure 1.140scilating pendulumChapter? © Measurements Helpful Note Foc any objec moving in 2 straight Ine oe near ‘maton, we ean asiga thedrecien from a reference point as postive or negative For example, in Figire ssa we esi the direction tthe ight af Aas postive the displacement ofthe roving objectis+5km. 2 1.4 What Are Scalars and Vectors? Learning Outcomes + State what is meant by scalar and vector quantities and give common examples of each. - Add two vectors to determine a resultant bya graphical method. > scalar quantities are physical quantities that have only magnitude. > Vector quantities are physical quantites that have both magnitude and direction. ‘Some scalar and vector quantities are shown in Table 1.5. ‘Table 1.5 Common scalar and vector quantities distance displacement speed velocity mass ‘acceleration energy force time. weight Distance and Displacement Figure 1.15 shows the motion of an object between two points, A and B, via the green and bblue paths. We will use it to illustrate the meanings of distance and displacement. @bistance @isplacoment +The total ength covered by amoving +The dstancemmeasured ina stralght ne object regardless of netecton of inaspecied arection mation + vector quantty Le. asboth + Ascalar quantity (Le. has magnitude ‘Magnitude and direction) ny) «Slant: te + Stunt: metre(m) + the deplacoment of the object from Ato + The dstance traveled by themoving BB Skm ue esstofA, regardless othe objec fom & 08s eter 7 em (ee actual pat takes path) or 10km (green path) Figure 1.15 Distance and displacement between A and 8 ‘What ifthe object moves back to A along the same path (Le APB —PA)? + The distance it travels is either 14 km (blue path) or 20 km (green path). = Its displacement is zero, because it returns to A.Physical Quantities, Units and Measurements # Chapter 1 Speed and Velocity Let us look at the derived quantities of speed and velocity as common examples of scalar and vector quantities. D Speed is the distance moved per unit time. Speed isa scalar quantity. Its SI unit is the metre per second (mm/s)- > Velocity isthe rate of change of displacement. ‘Velocity is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is also the metre per second. (m/s). | dlstance = displacement > speed—ilstance > Velocity ~ isplacomen When we talk about the velocity of an object, we have to state the speed of the object and the direction in which itistravelling. ‘This is because velocity is a vector quantity. It is speed in a spetified direction. Worked Example 1C Ifthe athlete in Figure 1.16 takes 25 sto complete 2.200 m sprint event, find his speed and velocity. fe ius 7 (=)Speed — hedaten 1 = 200m 255 - 80m/s (b) Taking the direction due south of the athlete as positive, Figure 1.16 Velocity = -dspacsrent = om = 3s = 20m/s Adding Two Vectors by the Graphical Disciplinary Idea Microscopic models can Method i ‘exphin macrocopic We can use a vector diagram to add up two vectors. na vector Phenomena. diagram, a vector quantity is represented by an arrow. Weuse mocelsto + The length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of thoveeon ‘understand the world, + The direction of the arrow inicates the direction ofthe vector. and these models ince (ee represeting physical Unlike scalars, vector quantities (or vectors) have magnitude and ‘quanties a scalars and direction. When we add two or more vectors, we cannot add theit ‘ecto. that help usin our ‘magnitudes only. We need to finda single vector that produces ‘thinking and reasoning. the same effect as the vectors combined. The single vector, called — the resultant vector, must be equivalent to the individual vectors ‘combined in terms of magnitude and direction- 13Chapter? © Measurements Disciplinary idea Mater intrads through forces and feds. ‘The net force ona body can be determined using ‘vector addition of forces. Gravitation, electic and ‘magnetic fles canbe Kk ‘The resultant force when three forces act on a static point mass can aso be found bythe graphical method. Find out more bout this ia Chapter 4. 4 Adding Two Parallel Vectors Ifa girl walks 100 m due east and then 40m due west, what is her displacement? We can find her displacement by adding the vectors graphically (Figure 1.17). step ‘Choose an appropmate scale ‘to represent the vector. scat: 1m :20m 100m —— Ly —— step. com om Draw the starting pont. step Draw the arrows to indicate the direction and magattude of the vector. Figure 1.17 Adding two parallel vectors graphically Figure 1.17 shows that the displacement of the girl is 60m due east. Adding Two Non-Parallel Vectors ‘Consider the two forces acting on a block (Figure 1.18). The forces act at an angle to each ‘other (Le. they ate not parallel) Figure 1.19 shows how we can obtain the resultant force by the head to tail method. a Figure 1.18 Forces acting atan angle to each other Step 3: Join O (the tll of the 6 N force) ‘to B(the head ofthe AN force). ‘This forms the triangle OAB. ‘Theresultant force is represented by neartow OB. Toobtainits: + magnitude, measure the length ‘of 08; and + direction, measure the angle of (08 and tle norizontal baseline. ‘Step 2: From A. draw an arrow AB to represent the AN ore. The head of ye the arrow O8 ts Joined 4 10 the fall of arow AB. ‘Choose an appropriate scale. Draw an arrow to represent one ‘ofthe forces. Here, we draw OA to represent the 6 NfoIce ist. Figure 1.19 Adding twonon-paralel vectors graphically Figure 1.19 shows that the resultant force has a magnitude of 721 N and acts at an angle 337° to the horizontal.Physical Quantities, Units and Measurements # Chapter 1 Let's Practise 1.4 11 What are the similarities and differences between scalar and vector quantities? 2 Acar travels at 90 km/h due east for an hour and then travels Link at 60 km/h due west for another hour. Determine the resultant “Theory Workbook velocity graphically. Worksheet 1C 3 Amanwalks 1 km due cast and then walks 1 km due north, Lai Assess Determine the resultant displacement graphically. ‘Las Reflect ees ‘+ Mass (Sl.unit: kg) + Temperature (SI unit: K) + Electric current (SI unit: A) + Amount of substance (S| unit: mol) Feriodic motions called oscillations vectors togive the resultant vector 2, ee, ee nine tm Et | | =Chapter 1 | Measurements Section A: Multiple-choice Questions 1 Inan experiment, you are required to measure the distance between two points that are between 0.7 mand (0.8 m apart, Which of the following instruments should you use in order to obtain a reading that has a precision of (0.001 mz JA half-metre rule JB metre rule JC metre rule and digital calipers )p_ten-metre measuring tape ‘The digital micrometer screw gauge can bbe used to maasure the: JA circumference of a coin JB depth of atest tube JC thickness ofa coin )D_ thickness of 1000 pieces of A4 paper 3, An object has a width of about 1.5 cm. ‘The reading shown on the digital micrometer screw gauge when it is used tomeasure the width of the object is a 15mm 8 15.1mm, Jc 501mm Qo 15.001mm Section B: Structured Questions 1 (a) List three examples of base quantities and thelr corresponding Slunits. (b) The mass of a caris 1 300 000g. Express the mass of the carin S| unit and standard form, 2. Fillin the blanks with the correct prefixes. The fist has been done for you. (a) 1kg=10'9 (b) 3. (a) What isa scalar quantity? (b) Give two examples of scalar ‘quantities. (c) Ma cartravels 19 km from point A to point 8 and then another 12 km to point C, what isthe total distance travelled by the car? 4 Compiete Table 1.6. @ O) © (@) oo1an (e) between (0.001 cm and. ‘0.01 cm 5 (a) What isa vector quantity? (b) Give two examples of vector quantities. (@) Acar travels 10km due north and then another 12 km due ‘west. Determine the resultant displacement of the car graphically. Section C: Free-response Questions } Astudent conducted an experiment to measure the acceleration due to gravity g ‘of a simple pendulum, The data obtained ‘were tabulated in Table 17. Table 1.7 035 065 1.00 145 195 21 324 401 475 563 Given that the relation batween the period 7; the length ? of the pendulum andthe )seleraton due to gray gs T=2n] © find the value of g using the graphicd approach. 2. Define precision of an instrument. State a suitable instrument to measure ‘the diameter of a ten-cent coin. Explain ‘your answer in terms of the precision of ‘the instrument.2 Kinematics What You TT Tay Seca) Reese) reeset Bre motion graphically? In the August 2016 Rio Olympics, the winner of the men’s 100-metre final, Usain Bolt, clocked an amazing es time of 9.81 seconds as he crossed the finishing line! With this win, he became the first person in history to IS win the 100-metre race three times in three consecutive Olympics. His 100-metre timings for the August 2012 London Olympics and the August 2008 Beijing Olympics are 9.63 seconds and 9.69 seconds respectively. His best ever is 9.58 seconds during the 2009 World Athletics Championship in Berlin. What an amazing record! How can we analyse his speeds in the different races? Was he always ahead of his competitors throughout the race? 7Chapter 2 © Newtonian Mechanics 2.1 What Are Speed, Velocity and Disciplinary Idea Matter and energy make ap the universe. Kinematics (study of motion) provides us with a ‘vocabulary for describing the motion of matter in the universe suchas the 100-m sprint on land or thesesccnal migration of| -humpback whales in the ‘oceans in search of feeding ‘and breeding grounds. Helpful Note Aunit of ime canbea. ‘second, minute a ‘hour. different objects or animals 18 Tes Learning Outcomes + State what Is meant by speed and velocity. + Calculate average speed using distance traveled /time taken. + State what is meant by uniform acceleration and calculate the value of acceleration using ‘change in velocity /time taken. + Interpret given examples of non-uniform acceleration. Speed |FUsain Bolt ware to race againsta cheetah ina 10¢-metre sprint, who would bethe winner (Figure 217) Figure 2.1 Whois the real king of speed? ‘To find out, we will need to compare their speeds. Spaed refers to how fast something moves. Speed 's the distance travelled per unit time. its SI unit s metre per second (m/s). = sistance traveled speed ~ sistance Based on Usain Eolt’s 100-metre fastest record time of 9.58 5, = sistance traveled - Speed ~ sistance 120m. — 10.4 m/s ‘Compare this with the cheetat's average running speed shown in Figure 2.2. snall lorsKinematics © Chapter 2 Average Speed ‘Table 2.1 shows the results for mens running events at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics. “Table 2.1 Results for mer's unning events atthe 2020 Tokyo Olympics 7 Jacobs Lamont Marcell Italy 100 Andre de Grasse Canada 200 102 Steven Gardiner Bahamas 400 912 Emmanuel KipkuruiKorir Kenya 800 781 ‘The speeds shown in Table 2.1 are average speeds. Average speed assumes that each athlete ran at the same speed throughout the entire distance. > Average speed - total distancetravelled total time taken Inreality, the athletes did not run at the same speed throughout their races. The speed at one instant may be different from the speed at another ‘Alert instant. The speed of an object ata particular instant is known as its Word: . instar us speed. Instant: point in time Worked Example 2A ‘Acar travels 6 kmin 5 minutes. (q) Calculate its average speed in mis. (b) the average speed of a car higher than the cheetal’s speed shown in Figure 22? Answer total detanco travelled (a) Average speed = atime taken 2109" 20m (b) No. The cars average spead of 90 mvs is ower than the cheetah’. average speed of 30 m/s. cone Ea SS oa 19Chapter 2 © Newtonian Mechanics Link Recall from Chapter |: ‘Thereare twotypes of physical quanitios — scalars and vectors. Helpful Note Fer any object moving ina draght Ine, we can seigna direction froma reference point spaitve er example in| Fire 24, we an sig thedirecton to the right of Aas posive “The displacement of he roving object t Bis om, 20 Uniform Speed ‘When the change in the distance travelled by an object for every unit of time isthe ‘same, the object undergoes constant or uniform speed (Table 2.2) “able 2.2 Object moving with uniform speed (10 m/s) From Table 2.2, when the speed of the object is constant at 10 m/s, the distance travelled in each one-second interval is always 10 m (Figure 2.3). Figure 2.3 For an object witha uniform speed of 10 m/s theincrease inthe distance travelled in ‘each one-second intervals a constant value of 10m. Differences Between Distance and Displacement ‘We have learnt about the differences between distance and displacement. Can you reall them? Figure 2.4 shows the motion of an object from point A to point Band then to point C. We shall use It to illustrate the similarity and differences between distance ‘and displacement. Distance Displacement + The toial engin coverea bya + The alstance measured in a straight tne trom ‘moving object regardless ofthe a fixed reference point direction of motion Has both magnitude and direction Hasmagnitude only ‘SLunit: metre (rm) ‘STuntt: metre (m) Displacement ofthe object travelling from Distance travelled by teobject ‘A108, and tien C= 10m -2m=8m fom A to B, and then to. (trom Ato) =10m+2m=12m Refers to the shortest dstance and direction ‘fan object from the starting potnt Figure 2.4 Similarities and differences between distance and displacementKinematics © Chapter 2 ~ Worked Example 2B Figure 2.5 shows a car that travels 5.0 km due east fiom point O and makes a U-turn to travel another 3.0 kim to reach the ending point E. Calculate: — 0mm. t ce eance covered and 4 ontagpcitt Oe itpmenca rad ‘Siarting point JJH————5.0 pnower (a) Distance covered = 5.0 km + 3.0 km=80 km Figure 2.5 (b) Taking the direction due east of point 0 as positive: Displacement = 5.0 km - 3.0km = 2.0km ‘The displacement of the caris 2.0 km due east of the starting point 0. Velocity We have leat in Chapter 1 that when determining the velocity of an object. we need to know the speed of the object and the direction in which itis travelling, When calculating velocity, we use displacement instead of distance, Helpful Note Velocity is the rate of change in displacement. Its Si unit is metre per_ ‘The “triangle” method second (mis). camp you to real {he relalionship between = Aisplacement_ velocity »; displacement d Velocity = tire taken andiime ‘To calculate the average velocity, we use the following formula: Average velocty =talaenacenent Worked Example 2¢ Figure 2. showss a car that travels 5.0 km due east and makes U-turn to travel another 7.0km. + 70kn ending point E startngpant ¢ Figure 26 Ifthe time taken forthe whole journey is 020 h, calculate the: (a) average speed; and (b) average velocity of the car. anne total dstonce travel _ (504.70) en (a) Average speed =e itimetiken 20h OV {Taking the direction due east of point 0 as posttve: {stsldgaiceneat fo" Po kn Average velocity = staleiplacetent — 60-208 — 10 km/h ‘The caris moving at an average velocity of 10 km/h westwards.Chapter 2 © Newtonian Mechanics Figure 27 Three scenarios in which ‘eceleration occurs Acceleration [An object accelerates when its velocity changes. Figure 27 shows that an object undergoes, ‘acceleration when: ++ Its speed or direction changes; or + when both its speed and direction change. Disciplinary Idea ovces hep sto andetand mation ‘Characterising ‘motion with position, ‘displacement, velocity and ‘cceleration provides the basis for formulating and “apprectating Newtoas laws, ‘of motion that provide the Link to forces. (©) Changeindirection Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. > Acceleration =-changeotvelocty. ‘time taken, Accelortion isa vector quantity Its SI unit is metre per second per second (m/s? Uniform Acceleration ‘When the change (increase or decrease) in the velocity of an object for every unit of time is the same, the object undergoes constant or uniform acceleration (Table 23). Table 2.3 Object moving with uniform acceleration Ses 2 wen > oe wee ‘ oe arn we 2 From Table 2.3, when the velocity of the object is increasing by 20 m/s every second, the ‘acceleration is 20 m/s? Figure 28).The increase inthe distance travelled in each one second intervalis of a different magnitude. When the velocity of the object is decreasing by 20 m/s ‘every second, the acceleration is -20 m/s‘ or the deceleration is 20 m/s. The decrease in the distance travelled in each one-second interval sof a different magnitude. Figure 2.8 For an object withan acceleration of 20 m/s, the increase in the distance travelled in each ‘one-cecond interval is nota constant value.Kinematics © Chapter 2 > Uniform acceleration isa constant ate of change of velocity. ‘The following equation can be used to determine the uniform acceleration a ofan object: Helpful Note “Theddtasymbol. is > =a here Ay = change in velocty (m/s) Thedaiasymbl s ‘At ~time interval botween f, and ¢, (9) or ference inal velocity (rw) bor te nial velocity (m/s) ramp th ime at which an object is atfinal velocity v(s) Staton for ealelating Ime atwhich nbjectis atin aot yi) Herman (- Worked Example 2D, Acar at rest starts to travel in asstraight path. Itreaches a velocity of 12 m/sin 4s (Figure 29). Whatisits acceleration, assuming that itaccelerates uniformly? Figure 29 rn Je Sgn we crecton tthe nght as poste. Given: initial velocity y =0 m/s (since the car starts from rest) Satucoety 12m Metate eeas since seston suid tobe unorm, a= tt = BBM = h0ms She cdoatoh naomi (- Worked Example 2E ‘The velocity of a goif ball rolling in a straight line changes from 8 mvsto 2 mis in 10 (Figure 2.10). What isits deceleration, assuming that it is decelerating uniformly? ‘Thought Process When an object is slowing down, itis decelerating. Its final speed (7's lower than Figure 2.10 its initial speed (4). Hence, the acceleration of the object (a~ ¥=H) isa negative value. The deceleration of an object that is slowing déWwn is the positive value ofits acceleration, Answer \We assign the direction tothe right as postive. Given: initial velocity u=8 m/s final velocity: m/s, time taken Be ~ 10 Since its acceleration is assumed to be uniform, a= tgh= 28.015 9.60 me “The negative calculated value indicates that the balls slowing down (12. decelerating). The deceleration ofthe balls the positive value of ts acceleration when the ball is slowing down. The deceleration is 0.60 m/s*. 23Chapter 2 4 Newtonian Mechanics Non-uniform Acceleration ‘An object undergoes non-uniform acceleration if the change in its velocity for every unit of ‘time is not the same (Table 24). ‘able 2.4 Object moving with norruniform acceleration Cees ° ° o 1 0 awn gases Note that the change in velocity is not the same for every second. The moving object Is undergoing non-uniform acceleration (Figure 2.11) + 24 Som Figure 211 For an object with anon-uriferm acceleration theincrease in the distance travelled in each ‘one-zecond interval increares ina varying manner. Let's Practise 2.1 1 At the start of a journey, the odometer (Le. a meter that tracks the total distance a car has travelled) showed an initial reading ‘of 50 780 km. At the end of the joumey, the odometer reading ‘was 50 924 km. The journey took two hours. What was the average speed of the journey i (a) km/h;and (ome? 2 "Velocity is speed in a specific direction” Is this statement true or false? Explain your ansviet. 3 (a) What s acceleration? (b) Given that the velocity of an object moving in a straight line changes uniformly from u to v in time t, write an expiession for the acceleration of the object.Kinematics © Chapter 2 2.2 How Do We Analyse SCT ey olal Cel yeg Learning Outcomes + Plot and interpret a displacement-time graph and a velocity-time graph. = Deduce the motion of a body from the shape of a displacement-time graph. + Deduce the motion of a body from the shape of a velocity-time graph. + Calculate the area under a veloctty-time graph to determine the displacement, for motion with uniform velocity or uniform acceleration. Displacement-Time Graphs ‘The displacement-time graph of an object gives us some information about the motion of the object. “paint” point Let uslook at the motion of a car asan example. In Figure 2.12, the car is travelling away from the Figure 2.12Motion ofa car starting point 0. It travels along astraight line in onedirection, ‘The displacement of the car is measured at every second. The displacement. and time are recorded, and a graph is plotted using the data. There are four ‘possible scenarios for the motion of the car. Figures 2.13 and 2.14 show the displacement-time graphs of the car at rest and travelling at a uniform velocity. ‘The gradient of a displacement-time graph of an object gives the velocity ofthe object. Carat rest Car travelling at a uniform velocity of 10 m/s Time/s o 102 3 4 5 ro o 1 2 3 4 5 Pee 2 2 20 20 20 200 Ey 0 10 20 30 4050 Dapacement/m + The graph has zero + The graph hasa gradient. constant gradient. + The displacement of + The displacement the cer isa constant ofthe car for every second. increases 10m every second. 2.13 Displacement-time graph ofa carat rest Figure 2.14 Displacement-time graph of 2 car taveling at uniform velocity of 10 m/s, 25Chapter 2 © Newtonian Mechanics Figures 2.15and 2.16 show the displacement-time graphs of the car travelling at non-uniform. velocity. Car travelling with increasing velocity Car travelling with decreasing velocity (non-uniform velocity) {non-uniform velocity) PP tS PP aS Pomeeney 0 520 45 8) 150 045 80105120125 + The graph has an Increasing gradient. + The velocity of the ‘car increases. ‘The instantaneous velocity ofthe car at any time tis given by ‘the gradient of the tangent at the point. Tinels Figure 2.15 Displacement-time araph of acartravellina with i increasing velocity (non-uniform velocity) decreasing velocity (non-uniform velocity) Velocity-Time Graphs \elocity-time graphs can be used to show uniform and non-uniform acceleration of a car that is traveling along a straight line n one direction. Figures 2.17 and 2.18 show the velocity-time graphs of the car at rest and travelling at a uniform velocity. > The gradient of a velocity-time graph of an object gives the acceleration of the object. Carat rest Cartravelling ata uniform velocity of 10 m/s o 1 2 3 4 5 o 1 2 3 4 5 o 0 0 0 0 o 10 10 10 10 1 10 elec Fs = The velocity of the = The velocity of ‘arremains at 0 m/s the car remains so the carhas zero *) at 10 m/s s0 acceleration. q ‘the car has z2r0 accaleration. t ines Time/s Figure 217 Velocity-time graph ofa carat rest Velodty-time graph of a car traveling at a uniform 10s 26Kinematics © Chapter 2 Figures 2.19 and 2.20 show the velocity-time graphs of the car travelling with uniform acceleration and deceleration. Car travelling with uniform acceleration + The velocity of the car increases by 10 m/s every second. + The graph has a positive and constant gradient, and the acceleration is constant. Figure 2.19 Velocity-time graph of a car traveling with uniform ccelaration Car travelling with uniform deceleration o 1 2 a 4 5 4 0 2% 10 0 + The velocity of the cardecreases by 10 m/s every second. + The graph has anegative and constant oradient, and the deceleration isconstant. Figure 2.20 Velcity-time graph of acar travelling with uniform deceleration Figures 2.21 and 2.22 show the velocity-time graphs of the car travelling with non-uniform acceleration. Car travelling with increasing acceleration (non-uniform acceleration) o 1 2 3 4 5 028 18 32 50 + The increase in velocity of the caris increasing with time. + The graph has a positive and Increasing gradient, and the acceleration Increases. Figure 2.21 Velocity-time graph ofa car travelling with increasing acceleration (non-aniform acceleration) Car travelling with decreasing acceleration (non-uniform acceleration) We 32 42 «4850 + The increase in velocity of the car is ol ob decreasing with time. 3 + The graph has a apositive and 2 1 so pet Hs decreasing gradient, and theacceleration decreases. Figure 2.22 Velecity-time graph of acar traveling with ‘deceasing acceleration (non-uniform acceleration) 27Chapter 2 © Newtonian Mechanics Comparisons Between Displacement-Time and Velocity-Time Graphs Displacement-time graphs and velocity-time graphs look very similar, but they give different Information, We can differentiate the graphs by looking at the labels on the y-axes. Assume that a car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly in one direction to a constant ‘velocity. The car then slows down and comes to a stop at a red light. Figure 2.23 shows the isplacement-time and velocity-time graphs of the car and how they are related. Figure 223 Figure 223 Worked Example 2F and velocity-time Diaceent/ Figure 2.24 shows the displacement-time ‘raphs {graph of a car. Assume that the direction of the car moving away from origin ‘Ols postive, Describe the motion of the ‘carat each stage: (a) As (b) (9G (qd) DtoE; (@) EtoF.Kinematics © Chapter 2 Answer =m fame ‘A+ Displacement is 40 m from 0. + Velocity is zero. B+ Displacement is 66 m from 0. + Velocity is uniform. (eC = Displacement is 90 m from 0. + Velocity is zero. DIE + Car tavels in the opposite direction back towards 0. + Displacement decreases ata decreasing rate. + Velocity is iom-uniform and decreasing. {e) EOF + Displacement remains at 28 m from 0. + Velocity is zera. “The velocity-time graph of a car is shown in Figure 2.25. Describe the motion of the cat. Velocity /m/s 5S a as 30 as ag FCT’ Figure 225 0-53 - Velocity increases uniformly from 0 m/sto 15 m/s. + Acceleration isuniform at a =—02-2. = 30 mis? 5-105 + Velocity incteases from 15 m/s to 20 m/s ata decreasing rate. + Acceleration is non-uniform and decreasing. 10-155 + Velocity is uniform and is at amaximum. + Acceleration is zero, 15-205 + Velocity decreases uniformly from 20 m/s to 0 m/s. . sym 2 + Receleration is uniform at o = 0-205 4.0 m/s 20-25 + Both velocity and acceleration are zero. 1205 4 Which of the following vEbcrry-time raphs represents the motion of an object slowing down at a non-uniform deceleration? OB selcaty @ oe 5 Which of the following velocity-time graphs represents the motion of an ‘objectialling to the ground in the absence of alr resistance? Oi praity © perrity Tie? Time ‘Section B: Structured Questions 1 (a) Define average speed. (b) Figure 2.40 shows a cyclists route. He started from point A at 6 am and went past three other points 8, C and D, before returning to point A atopm. spmsan ® km t0km > 2pm 8 Sam seme 8m, Figure 2.40 Calculate the average speed of the cyclist: (0) ftom AtoB; {) ftom B to Cand for the whole journey.Kinematics © Chapter 2 2 Figure 2.41 shows the velocity-time graphs for four particles A, B, Cand D. Velocity J m/s Time/s Figure 2.41 Describe the motion of these four particles. 3. Atiain travels along a straight track from ‘one station to another. Figure 2.42 shows how the velocity of the train varies with ‘time over the whole journey. Yatocty /ms Figure 2.42 {a)_ State the time interval in which the train is decelerating. {b) Determine theacceleration of the ‘rain during the first two seconds of the journey. (©) Determine the: (0) displacement between the two stations; and (it) average speed of the train. 4. Figure 2.43 shows how the valocity of a ‘moving body varies with time Velocity /s 0 2a 2a 10] ow » 2» a "mes Figure 2.43, (a) Determine the acceleration of the body during the first 105. (b) Between t=30 sand t= 45s the body decelerates uniformly to rest. ()) Complete the graph for tis time interval. (u)_From the graph drawn in (60, obtain the velocity of the body when t=375s. Tine’s}y. ()_ Determine the displacement ofthe body between t= 30s and t= 455. a