UNIVERSIDAD AUTONOMA DE NUEVO LEON Nea) a els a er er eatery FORMACION GENERAL UNIVERSITARIA A ae BRITISH CULTURE SOMETHING WORTH DISCOVERINGA.written trip of educational discoveries! We, the authors of British Culture; something worth discovering are happy and proud to present the product of our dedicated research on the origins, history and modern trends of British culture. In this book, you will find the most recent -as well as reliable- information and facts on history, science, politics entertainment and traditions of that fascinating cluster of identities and heritage that conforms the United Kingdom. Fascinating findings on the ancient origins of such great nations (England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales) the preferred streets snacks of Brits, the most famous tourist attractions, the artistic legacy, the monuments and historical sites that have made Great Britain one the most visited destinations every year -among a rich array of varied themes- make this book a must-have when it comes to getting familiar with the Anglo Saxon culture of old and modem days. We hope that our joint efforts meet every expectation, as well as every instructive purpose, the students of the subject Cultura Inglesa may have when surfing through the pages of this book. May you all really enjoy reading it as much as we enjoyed working on it Sincerely, the authors: M.C. Edgar F. Arroyo Reyna MCC. J, Jestis Luna Gutiérrez Dr. Amulfo Trevitio CuberoINDEX Unit 1 1.1. The United Kingdom 2 1.1.1 Why is it called the United Kingdom?, 2 1.1.2. England. 3 1.2 _ Ancient Civilizations in the United Kingdom... 28 1.2.1 The Celts..... oo n:) 4.2.2 The Romans in Britain. 13 1.2.3 The Vikings. 17 1.2.4 The Anglo Saxons. 23 Bibliography Unit 1. Unit 2 2.4 Landmarks in the United Kingdom. ..30 2.1.1 Stonehenge 30 2.1.2 Buckingham Palace. 31 2.1.3 Palace of Westminster. "32 2.1.4 Tower of London. 2.1.5 Windsor Castle. 2.1.6 Hadrian's wall 2.1.7 Saint Paul Cathedral 2.1.8 The Big Ben 2.1.9 London eye. 2.1.10 Westminster Abbey. 2.2 British food. 44 2.3 Holidays in the United Kingdom. 49 2.3.1 New Year. 2.3.2 Mothering Sunday... 2.3.3 Easter Monday 2.3.4 April Fool's day...... 2.3.5 Saint George’s day. 2.3.6 May Day. 2.3.7 Trooping the Colors. 56 2.3.8 Harvest Festival... 2.3.9 Bonfire Night. 2.3.10 Christmas day.......... se . 2.3.11 Saint Patrick's Day, 602.4 Government in the United Kingdom. 61 2.4.1 The Monarch and the Government. 62 2.4.2 Queen Elizabeth II and the Royal Family. we 63 2.4.3 The Crown. . o . i 67 2.4.4 The Parliament: House of Commons and House of Lords. 68 Bibliography Unit 2. Unit 3 3.1 Education in the United Kingdom... . . ae san 3.1.1 Primary Education. 1.75 3.1.2 Secondary Education. 77 3.1.3 Higher Education. 78 3.2 The most important universities in the United Kingdom... 3.2.1 University of Oxford. 3.2.2 University of Cambridge... Bibliography Unit 3. Unit 4 4.1 Some of the greatest British inventions and discoveries. 4.1.1 The telephone......... 4.1.2 Theory of Evolution. 4.1.3 Discovery of the Electron. 4.1.4 Discovery of DNA. 4.1.5 Discovery of Penicillin... 4.2 Great British engineering work through history... 4.2.1 London Bridge (Tower Bridge) 4.2.2 The Channel Tunnel. 4.3 Science Development in the United Kingdom nowadays. Bibliography Unit 4. Unit 5 5.1 Music in the United Kingdom........... ss . . sal 5.2 Movies in the United Kingdom 129 5.3 Famous British movies. 130 5.4 Actors and actresses from the United Kingdom 133 5.5 Television in the United Kingdom... ' 1135 Bibliography Unit 5 .. 140UNIT 1 THE UNITED KINGDOM: GENERAL FACTS AND ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS14 THE UNITED KINGDOM 1.1.1 Why is it called The United Kingdom? When we think about the word “united”, the idea of some parts joint together comes to our mind. When we say “The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northem Ireland” we are referring to the union of some countries. In this case, such countries are: ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, WALES and NORTHERN IRELAND (though most of Ireland is now independent, only Norther Ireland remains part of the UK). The UK is located on north-west Europe, between the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, Itis an island country, and the 9th largest island in the world. The current population of the UK is 66,469,683 estimated in April 2018 by Worldometers.info. It is the 22nd largest Population in the world. It is the 51st most densely populated country in the world. The main land covers an area of 243,610 square km. Roughly the same size as Ecuador, Ghana and Romania, Its the 80th largest country in the world (3D Geography, 2017)In Mexico, we can take as a reference the state of Chihuahua which, according with the INEGI (National Institute of Statistics, Geography and History by its Spanish acronym), it has a land area of 247,087 square kilometers. This fact gives us an idea of the size in territory of this country and makes us realize that Mexico is a much larger country in land territory than the United Kingdom. The following are some facts about The United Kingdom that can help you learn more about this amazing country (Nation Facts, 2018) Taig enone oe ra, esac eee Pee Temenos Tambor, See cms, Sebastes Sects as Sear BB esses BB screen 4.1.2 England It is important to mention that England is the biggest country in the United Kingdom, it occupies most of the southern two thirds of the Great Britain (England, Scotland and Wales). The total area of England is 130,410 square kilometers (3D Geography, 2017).Most of the total population in the United Kingdom is concentrated in England. London, which is its capital city, is considered the political and economic center of the United Kingdom. Being the most important country of the United Kingdom, England is famous around the word because of a wide variety of reasons, these are some of them: = David Beckham (soccer player), Manchester United soccer team, Fish and Chips (most popular dish), the Big Ben (British icon), the red, double-deck buses (shown in the picture), the black cabs, Oasis (music band), Mr. Bean, the Beatles, The Picadilly Circus in London (capital city) and tea drinking (the most important tradition).Also, great educational institutes. England holds some of the most famous universities around the world like Oxford, Cambridge and Londonuniversities. Some of the greatest pop stars and music bands in the world are British, such as the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, David Bowie, Queen, Phil Collins, the Spice Girls and Oasis. Regarding literature, William Shakespeare is one of the most famous authors worldwide, he wrote classics like Hamlet, Othello, and Romeo and Juliet The green hills, fertile lowlands and the rainy weather that brings therefore the green view of its countryside. The pubs. English pubs are a part of everyday life here. They're pretty much a community gathering place. Many people go there to watch a football game, play pool or just have a pint (the equivalent to a beer in American English). The English language, which today is spoken by hundreds of millions of people around the world. English is the official language of the United Kingdom and the first language of most of the population1.1.3 Who are the British? People who are from any country that belongs to the United Kingdom are called British Because they are born in a country with its own nationality, British people can either be English, Scottish, Welsh, or Irish (from Norther Ireland only). So, a citizen that was born in Scotland can be known as Scottish or British. The British are said to be reserved in manners, dress and speech. They are famous for their politeness, self-discipline and especially for their sense of humor. British people have a strong sense of humor which sometimes can be hard for foreigners to understand. Britain is a country of mixed cultures. London has the largest non- white population of any European city. Ifyou walk down a street in Britain, especially in the big cities you will usually see people with different physical appearance (hair, skin and eye colors). They may have white, brown or black skin and blonde, brown, black, or red hair, with blue, black, brown or green eyes. Many of the people you will see will be British people but because the people of Great Britain are a mixed race, they all look different. In contrast to what many people may think, not all British people are Christian or White Early in history they were invaded by Roman, Saxon, Viking and Norman armies. Later, Africans were brought to Britain by force in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries as slaves or servants. Over the years, thousands of people have arrived in Britain as refugees from France, Ireland, Russia, and other countries, escaping from persecution or famine in their own countries, There are British people whose parents first came to Britain in the 1950s 6and 1960s from the Caribbean, India, Pakistan, Hong Kong and other places. Their homes are mainly in the big English cities like London. The British are known to be serious people with very particular manners and a unique sense of humor, but this does not make them unpolite or inappropriate hosts for the many visitors that arrive to the United Kingdom every year. No matter the country you come from, you can be sure that touring around this great country will be one of the best experiences in your life not only for the many places to visit but the great amount of history that is concentrated in it. There is a history that supports the way British people act, think and proceed toward different aspects in their daily life because their roots as a civilization started many years ago. It is known that after the pass of some ancient groups and many wars the United Kingdom developed its legacy. Some groups that established in its territory in ancienttimes were the Romans, The Celts, the Anglo Saxons and the Vikings. The next information will give you an idea about how these civilizations contributed to the building and greatness of a great nation as the British and to know more about the events that marked the development of this culture; a culture that has influenced many others around the world.1.2 Ancient Civilizations in United Kingdom 1.2.1 The Celts caer ‘According to the magazine Celtic Life international (2018), The word Celt comes from the Greek word, Keltoi, which means barbarians and is properly pronounced as “Kelt’. (Shown in picture 1) The Celts were thought to come to Britain around 500 BCE (Before the Common Era, the common era begins in year 1, in the Gregorian calendar). The Celts came originally from central Europe and settled in Britain, France and Spain. The period in Britain immediately before the Roman period is known as the Iron Age. The name ‘Iron Age’ comes from the discovery of a new metal called iron and it was the Celts who were able to find out how to make iron tools and weapons. (shown in picture 2). It is known that before the Iron Age the only metal used in Britain to make tools was bronze, which is an alloy of copper and tin (Norton Taylor, 1974) Julius Caesar, the great roman emperor expressed himself about the Celts with this phrase: "Most of the inland inhabitants of Britain do not sow corn, but live on milk and flesh, and are clad with skins. All the Britons indeed, dye themselves with woad, which occasions a bluish color, and thereby have a more terrible appearance in fight. They wear their hair long and have every part of their body shaved except their head and upper lip” (Barrow, 2013)Roman and Greek writers described Celts as fierce and warlike people. They were originally ruled by kings, but by the time Julius Caesar came to Britain, around 55 BCE, they had broken up into many tribes, each with a different leader. Both men and women could hold positions of power. In the powerful Celtic society, they practiced roles of priest, doctor, and perhaps also lawyers (Norton Taylor, 1974), In the Celtic culture, the Druids were an important part in their society; they were members of the leamed class among the ancient Celts. They seem to have frequented oak forests and acted as priests, teachers, and judges. Julius Caesar accounted that the Druids took charge of public and private sacrifices. They judged all public and private fights or problems and decreed penalties. If anyone disobeyed their decree, the person was barred from sacrifice, which was considered the gravest of punishments. The Druids also offered human sacrifices for those who were gravely sick or in danger of death in battle. Huge wickerwork images were filled with living men and then burned; although the Druids preferred to sacrifice criminals, they would choose innocent victims if necessary (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2018) The Celts lived in huts of arched timber with walls of wicker and roofs of thatch. The huts were generally gathered in loose hamlets. During the time when the Celts occupied Britain, there was a huge growth in the number or ‘hillforts”; these were small ditch and bank combinations encircling defensible hilltops (shown in picture 3). Some of them were small just for an individual family but together made larger forts (Ross, 2018)The Celts were farmers and introduced the iron plough to Britain. The ploughs that were used earlier, were not very sophisticated, basically a stick with a pointed end harnessed behind two oxen, They were suitable only for ploughing the light upland soils. The heavier iron ploughs developed by the Celts constituted an agricultural revolution all by themselves, for they made it possible for the first time to harvest on the rich valley and lowland soils (Ross, 2018). Iron Plough it has been said that they were very fond of drinking alcohol and practiced human sacrifice and to cut off and display the heads or their enemies (Norton Taylor, 1974) 10One of the most important influences of the Celts during their existence and after was on art and design. Jewelry with Celtic designs remains the time and has been admired by the world since then. One of the most distinctive Celtic designs, from the Christian period, is the Celtic cross which is still used for graves and memorials. It has a circle added to the four bars of cross and is often elaborately carved. This cross has been adapted as a representative symbol by some people who are from Ireland, country that belongs to the United Kingdom. ‘Another Celtic symbol was the Nara Not, according to the website Sun Signs (2018), the term Dara comes from the word “doire”, which is Celtic for “oak tree“. Oaks were the most blessed of trees to the Celts, the design of the knot symbol is based on the root system of the oak tree. | seston "1Nowadays, Celtic culture is very much alive; a good example is Celtic music in which traditional instruments such as the bagpipes and arps are used. The concept ‘Celtic’ is often used to describe the people and culture of Scotland, Wales, Ireland and Comwall, even in the regions where Celtic languages are not spoken 121.2.2 The Romans in Britain In 55 B.C. Julius Caesar, who was a general of the Roman armies in Gaul, decided that it would be a good move to invade Britain (Ross, 2018). This was not possible because the inhabitants of Britain were the Celts and they were excellent warriors. As it was said before, when Romans invaded Britannia (the way they called it in Latin) the tribes of Britain had already established a culture. In 43 CE, Claudius became Emperor of Rome and he decided to revive the dream of expanding the Empire to the British Isles, to do so, he needed 40,000 soldiers. Britain became part of the Roman Empire and was systematically conquered for nearly half a century. The province had valuable natural resources to despoil (steal), but the decision to invade was based upon more than its material wealth. Prestige through warfare was paramount in Roman society, and that is just what Claudius sought to achieve when he launched his invasion of the island, Britain became just another component in the colossal machine that was the Roman Empire. (Ross, 2018) For great part of 400 years, the Romans occupied this island in a state of peace and tranquility: and a colony so fertile, and abounding in beautiful situations, must have been inhabited by many Roman adventurers, who migrated hither with their families, and built villas or country seats, where they lived in some degree of opulence and elegance. Even the Britons of rank might have built houses in the Roman taste. Whenever we talk of the Romans in Britain, we think of nothing but rapine and hostility.’ (Warton 1783, in Higley, Richard, 2008) 13It is believed that the Romans brought the skills of reading and writing to Britain. The written word was important for spreading ideas and for establishing power, even though the most remarkable characteristic of Roman Britain was the towns, which were the basis of Roman administration and civilization. Along the conquered territory, there were three different kinds of towns in Roman Britain, two of which were towns established by Roman charter. These were the coloniae, towns pled by Roman settlers, and the municipia, large cities in which the whole population was given Roman citizenship. The third kind, the civitas, included the old Celtic tribal capitals, through which the Romans administered the Celtic population in the countryside. At the beginning, these towns did not have walls but within some years, probably almost every town was given walls; by AD 300 all towns had thick stone walls. (McDowall, 1989) Roman town A very interesting fact is that the Romans left about twenty large towns of about 5,000 inhabitants, and almost one hundred smaller ones (this fact can let us imagine the way they were organized). These towns were built with stone as well as wood, and had planned streets, markets and shops. Some buildings had central heating. They were connected by excellent roads which were so well built that led them survive when later roads broke up. These roads continued to be used long after the Romans abandoned Britannia and became the main roads of modem Britain. (McDowall, 1989) 14Other Roman influences in Britain were the language and the calendar. Talking about the first one, English language was influenced by Latin (the roman language), many words from the English language come from the Latin Language, here some examples are presented: Word in Latin Word in English strata street longa long pictura picture nova new schola schoo! The Calendar used nowadays in almost every part of the world, not only in Roman Britain, was started by Julius Caesar the great Roman emperor. It is based on the movement of the earth around the sun; therefore, it is called the ‘solar calendar.’ This calendar has 365 days a year, and 366 days every leap year, or every fourth year. The names of our months are taken from the names of Roman gods and rulers. The month ‘July,’ in fact, is named after Julius Caesar himself. (Barrow, 2013) During the period of their rule, Romans founded Many towns in Britain and others grew considerably in size. The most important were Colchester (Camulodunum), Lincoln (Lindum), St Albans (Verulanium) and London (Londinium). Colchester which was the original capital of the Roman province was destroyed during Boudicca’s revolt. The warrior Queen Boudicca was the wifethe ruler of the Iceni, a Celtic tribe who lived in eastern England. Boudicca’s army caused vast amounts of damage before being defeated and because of this; London became the main administrative and commercial center. Many people may consider queen Boudicca as a great patriotic leader of the British, perhaps the first national heroine. (Ross, 2018) 15Picture of Queen Boudicca In the fourth century CE, the Roman Empire itself suffered attacks from tribes who came from central and Eastern Europe. Britain started being attacked from the west and north by Scottish and Irish tribes and from the east by Germanic tribes such as the Angles and Saxons. Roman soldiers in Britain needed to go away to defend Rome and eventually, in 410 CE, the Emperor Honorius made a difficult decision, he declared that Britain must defend itself. With the Romans gone, the Germanic tribes could take control of most of England's territory, 161.2.3 The Vikings VIKINGS When we think about a Viking, what comes to our minds? Those strong, tall and bearded people that usually look violent and aggressive; well the term Viking is thought to derive from vikingr, a word for ‘pirate’ in the early Scandinavian languages The Vikings were a group of people coming from Scandinavian countries (Norway, ‘Sweden and Denmark) who attacked and terrorized Northem and Eastern Europe, including Britain and Ireland from the 8" century to 11" century CE. In Britain people knew them as Danes or Norsemen. The Viking age has generally been associated with raids in which they committed all kind of crimes and brutalities to the people they attacked but even though this is said to be true, there is also evidence that they were Scandinavian raiders who came from small well- organized communities of hardworking farmers and fishermen. (Haslock, 1997) Many Vikings traded with Europe, Russia and Asia, exchanging furs, walrus ivory, amber and slaves for silver, gold and luxury goods including wine, fine textiles, pottery and glassware. Restricted by a lack of natural resources and land some Vikings migrated overseas to places such as Britain, Iceland, Greenland and Newfoundland in search of better land to farm. (British museum, 2018) 7Itis wrongly believed that the reason they started traveling by sea and invading territories was because they had their population in Scandinavia increased and because of this, the land was not enough for their inhabitants. Looking for a land to expand their community became just an excuse because most of them were seeking wealth, not land. (Sawyer, 1997) itis reported that the first Viking raids in western Europe took place in the last decade of the eight centuries (790 CE) on monasteries in the British Isles at Lindisfarne, an island monastery off the coast of Northumberland was pilled and then a year later another monastery was also attacked. (Sawyer, 1997) The Vikings were excellent sailors and great warriors, but they were said to be cruel and violent toward their enemies and inhabitants in the conquered regions. On the other hand, they were considered as very skilled in building ships, craftsmen, explorers, traders and, as mentioned before, sailors. 18They traveled in long ships called “Drakkars" which were long narrow warships decorated with dragon heads. Undoubtedly, without ships the Viking expansion in Europe would have not been possible; without a knowledge of navigation their ships would have been of limited use. The Scandinavians were people who lived near and by the sea. Although meaning of Viking was raider or adventurer during this period, it probably has its root in the word vik, meaning inlet; they were the ‘inlet folk’. The boat was their natural companion and ally: with it they could fish, trade, and communicate with their neighbors, and without it they could not survive. (Logan, 1983) Although shipbuilding was a common activity in Viking age around Northern Europe, archeological evidence shows that Viking ships were lighter, slimmer and faster and this undoubtedly helped them to be better sailors than those who used heavier ships, The development of this building ability was influenced by the importance that the ships had in gaining or maintaining power in the sea. “The classic features of the Viking sailing ships can be seen in the Gokstad ship: light in the water, graceful to the eye, speedy at full sail, and easy to beach” (Logan, 1983) 19These ships were 15 meters long, and they had a mast and textile sails. There was a lot of room below deck, with a great capacity for the storage of all selling goods, along with food and drink for several weeks. The water was kept in wooden barrels or sacks of animal skin When there was little or no wind, the ship was rowed with four meters long ores, this was a remarkable characteristic; the ships were not dependent on the wind The Vikings had many gods, according to the Eddas (a collection of Old Norse poems which contain the most expansive source of Norse mythology). 20“The most powerful god was the one-eyed Odin, the Allfather, god of warfare, justice, death, wisdom and poetry. Probably the most popular god, however, was Thor, who was stupid but incredibly strong. With his hammer Miollnir, crafted by the dwarfs, he was the main defender of the gods against the giants. He was also the god of thunder, and he was particularly worshipped by seafarers, Amulets of Thor's hammer were popular throughout the Viking world. The brother and sister Frey and Freyja, the god and goddess of fertility, were also important, and there were many other minor gods and goddesses”. (Williams, 2011) scans com If you wonder how the Vikings could have disappeared if they were so violent and powerful, the reason why their conquering and occupation of many regions finished could have been their conversion to Christianity by absorbing the beliefs of the regions that they conquered. During the Viking age, many Scandinavians who settled in Christian countries were converted to the new religion. They had the opportunity to adopt the features of the new religion when they considered useful and this was the way they gradually converted from Pagans to Christians. Asit was said before, Vikings adopted Christianity from the regions they conquered. They met Christianity through their raids, and when after settling in lands with a Christian population, they adopted Christianity. (Williams, 2011) 2Many pre-existing pagan practices and customs of the Vikings were converted into Christian practices. For example, the Christening of a child; a newly born infant would be placed on the ground and then remained there until he or she was picked up by their father (or next of kin in his absence) and placed in the folds of his cloak. If the child was free of defects and deemed to live, a sacred religious rite called the Ausa Vatni was performed. This ceremony was conducted by either sprinkling or pouring water over the child and then naming the child, The missionaries took this “name-fastening ceremony” and adopted it into their own religious ceremony know today as a christening ceremony named Christian baptism (Kane, 2015) Another example is the pagan holiday of “Yuletide” that became what we know as Christmas. This celebration was used to ensure good harvests in the following seasons. The tradition was receiving a blessing from spirit of the farm that guarded and protected, each Norse farm had its own land spirit or protector called a “Nise”. The Nisse spirit was replaced with the Christian St. Nicholas or Santa Claus. (Kane, 2015) A kind of burial was for the Vikings to sail their dead out to sea. The lore of this practice often involved the burning of the ship before the dead was cast out. It is believed that sometimes this was not always the case, with many believing the body to be cremated before the ship was sailed. Either way it was common for the dead’s goods to travel with them out into the water. This type of burial was not common however, and was likely reserved for sea captains, noble Vikings and the very wealthy. (Legends and Chronicles, 2018) 221.2.4 The Anglo Saxons Rome, the capital of the Roman Empire was invaded by some barbarian tribes who were big in number, so the Roman army left Britain about 410 CE to go and defend their territory. When they had gone, their conquered British territory was vulnerable and there was no strong army to defend Britain, and tribes called the Angle, Saxon, and Jute (the Anglo- Saxons) invaded. They left their homelands in northem Germany, Denmark and northern Holland and rowed across the North Sea in wooden boats looking for new lands to domain. The Anglo-Saxon period lasted for 600 years, from 410 to 1066, soon after the death of Edward the Confessor, who had no heir. (BBC, 2014) Invading Britain was an attractive target for the Anglo Saxons. The first intent of domination occurred in the south and east England in the fourth century AD, but they were beaten back by the Romans. The invasion was successful only after the Romans left Britain in 410 CE. One of the most remarkable aspect about the Anglo-Saxons was their social structure;it consisted of tribal units led by chieftains ("kings," or "lords") who tried to eam their respect from their warriors (thanes). Kings should display the heroic ideal and be known for an extraordinary and courageous feat or for success in war, all preceded by some bragging. 23The king must be a generous "ring-giver", hence, this means that he must dish out the spoils of war to his thanes rather than stock or keep the treasures won in tribal warfare. Although theoretically the thanes freely agreed to join a king, it was nevertheless vital for one's sense of self to be part of a tribe. The thane shouldn't survive the king, and the worst fate for these people was to be exiled or to outlast all one's fellow warriors. The sense of identity came from the warrior community. (Delahoyde, 2018) The Anglo-Saxon groups settled in different areas of the country. They formed several kingdoms, often changing, and constantly at war with one another. These kingdoms acknowledged one of their rulers as a ‘High King’, the Bretwalda. By 650 AD there were seven separate kingdoms The first was Kent, settled by the Jutes; Ethelbert of Kent was the first Anglo-Saxon king to be converted to Christianity, by St Augustine around 595 CE. Angio- Saxon Kingdoms e. 700 The second kingdom was Mercia, whose best-known ruler, Offa, built Offa's Dyke along the border between Wales and England. This large kingdom stretched over the Midlands. The third kingdom was Northumbria, where the monk Bede (670-735) lived and wrote his Ecclesiastical History of Britain. The fourth kingdom was East Anglia, made up of Angles: The North Folk (living in modem Norfolk) and the South Folk (living in Suffolk). The fifth kingdom was Essex (East Saxons). Here the famous Battle of Maldon was fought against the Vikings in 991. The sixth kingdom was Sussex: The South Saxons settled here, and the 24seventh kingdom was Wessex (West Saxons), later the kingdom of King Alfred, the only English king ever to have been called ‘the Great’, and his equally impressive grandson, Athelstan, the first who could truly call himself ‘King of the English’. (Historical Association, 2018) King Alfred was called ‘the Great’ because he defeated the Vikings in the Battle of Edington in 878, then converted their leader Guthrum to Christianity, recaptured London from the Vikings and established a boundary between the Saxons and the Vikings the area ruled by the Vikings was known as the Danelaw, he strengthened his kingdom's defenses by creating a series of fortresses and a decent army; he built ships against Viking sea attacks, so beginning the English navy, he had books translated into English and promoted learning. He also founded monasteries and commissioned the writing of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a historical record of the Anglo-Saxons in Britain. (Historical Association, 2018) By 850 the seven kingdoms had been consolidated into three large Anglo-Saxon kingdoms: Northumbria, Mercia, and Wessex. The Anglo-Saxons had become Christian people, Talking about religion, it is recognized that the Anglo-Saxons were pagans when they came to Britain, but, as time passed, they gradually converted to Christianity. Because of this situation, a lot of the customs that nowadays are popular in England come from pagan festivals. (BBC, 2014) 25Pagans were polytheists; it means that they adored lots of different gods. Each pagan god controlled a part of everyday life: the family, growing crops, love, healing, wisdom, metalworking, the weather, war, day & night and so on. In Anglo Saxons religion it was necessary to ask for help to their gods to ensure success in material things. For example, they might pray to a god for a successful harvest, or for victory in battle Anglo-Saxon Beliefs & Pagan, polytheistie HW Very pessimistic view of Ii present dangers of death by accident or warfare) ® Human life im the hands of fate Gwyrd) & Did net believe im an afterlife & Immoernality only carsed through heroic actions ‘Sharp contrast to the Christian belief in an ircdividual's Sree well Talking about literature, one of the most recognized Anglo-saxon works is the poem called Beowulf; this story is about a hero who defeats a monster called Grendel and has been read in educative institutions in order to introduce the learners to old English literature. 26Days of the Week Certain days of the week are named after early Saxon Gods. 4 monandeg “+ Thefirst day ofthe week was dedicate tothe moon tiwesdeg The Romans dedicated the second day of the week to Mars, the god of war Tva was the Engl god most slr thi. wodnesdeg ‘The next day was dedicated to Mercury in the Roman system, but the English chose to replace him with their chief god, Woden. Sunresdeg Thursdays nae after Tun, famous for is mag hammer, ad for cating tundra ightrig We replaced pte, who had some ofthe same quates, ‘The next day was dedicated to Venus, the goddess of love, inthe Roman. eek. The equivalent goddess forthe English was Fra. a saccernesdeg, Satur was the Roman od who oes death andthe psn of time. There was no equivalent English god, so Saturn was retained. sunnandeg / haligdeg Te ast ay was decatdtote sun. The fist hiss saw Chis as sun some ways s Sunday became the ara che for his holy day. arBibliography Unit 1 3D Geography. (2017), 3dgeography. Retrieved from https:l/www.3dgeography.co.uk/ Barrow, M. (2013). Project Britain. Obtenido de http://projectbritain.com/ BBC. (2014). BBC. Obtenido de BBC: https://www.bbe.com/ British museum. (2018). British museum. Obtenido de British museum: https:/www.britishmuseum.org/ Delahoyde, M. (2018). Washington State University. Obtenido de Washington State University: https://public. wsu.edu/~delahoyd/medieval/anglo-saxon htm! Encyclopedia Britannica. (2018). Encyclopediabritannica. Obtenido de https:/ww_britannica.com/ Enhance My Vocabulary. (2018). Enhance My Vocabulary. Obtenido de Enhance My Vocabulary: http://www.enhancemyvocabulary.com/ Haslock, M. (1997). The Vikings. Oxford: Phaidon Press. Hingley, R. (2008). The Recovery of Roman Britain 1586-1906. A colony so fertile. New York (Oxford University Press Historical Association. (2018). Historical Association. Obtenido de Historical Association: https://www-history.org.uk/ Kane, N, (2015). The Vikings: The Story of a People. United States: Spangenhelm Publishing. Legends and Chronicles. (2018). LEGENDS AND CHRONICLES. Obtenido de LEGENDS AND CHRONICLES: http://www.legendsandchronicles.com Logan, D. (1983), The Vikings in history. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, McDowall, D. (1989). An Illustrated History of Britain. Edinburg: Longman Group. Nation Facts. (2018). Nationfacts. Obtenido de http://nationfacts. nel/united-kingdom-facts/ Norton Taylor, D. (1974). The Celts (The Emergence of man). Amsterdam: Time-Life Books. Ross, D. (2018). Britain Express. Obtenido de hitps:/iwww-britainexpress.com/History/Celtic_Britain-htm Sawyer, P. (1997). The Oxford Ilustrated History of the Vikings. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Williams, G. (2011). BBC. Obtenido de BBC: http:/www.bbe.co.uk/history/ancient/vikings/religion_01 shtml 28UNIT 2 DAILY LIFE IN THE UNITED KINGDOM2.1 Landmarks in the United Kingdom There are many famous landmarks and beautiful places to visit in The United Kingdom. They have a great history and beauty which is easy to admire. Maybe you've seen some of them in photos, in television or in some movies. Here some of them are presented: 2.1.1 Stonehenge kssbetannica.com Undoubtedly this is one of the most attractive places in The United Kingdom and in the world. Stonehenge is a circle of ancient stones with an age estimated at 4000 BCE, it is one of most famous prehistoric monument sites in Britain, and this monument is considered a megalithic monument in where some aspects catch the attention. For example, the construction is made of large stone blocks and it is thought that it was constructed during the late Neolithic and Bronze Age. It is in Salisbury Plain in the country of Wiltshire, in the United Kingdom. ‘Some Mysteries have been related to the stone circle, one of them is the reason why it was built. Scientists have studied this monument for a long time due to the great importance it has. It is said that this monument was used for religious ceremonies. Some other people think that it was designed as a place to worship 30the sun. Others believe it may have been a place of sacrifice. Dozens of burial mounds have been discovered near Stonehenge indicating that hundreds, if not thousands, of people were buried there in ancient times. At least 17 shrines, some. in the shape of a circle, have also been discovered near Stonehenge (Jarus, 2017). 2.1.2 Buckingham Palace Buckingham Palace is the Queen's official residence in London and it is often used to receive and entertain foreign visitors. This Palace has served as the official London residence of the UK's sovereigns since 1837 and today is the administrative headquarters of the Monarch. Many official events and receptions are hold by The Queen in here, but the State Rooms at Buckingham Palace are open to visitors every summer (The Royal Household, 2018). Buckingham Palace has 775 rooms. These include 19 State rooms, 52 Royal and guest bedrooms, 188 staff bedrooms, 92 offices and 78 bathrooms. In measurements, the building is 108 meters long across the front, 120 meters deep (including the central quadrangle) and 24 meters high (theroyalhousehold,2018). 31Being the official house of the monarchy, this place is one of the favorite onesfor visitors from all around the world, if you go to England, this can be considered a priority for visiting. Gardens, nice architecture, elegance, and respect are words related to this palace. Another attractive feature about this place is activity called Changing the Guard which is the iconic ceremony which is seen by lots of tourists at Buckingham Palace. 2.1.3 Palace of Westminster The Palace of Westminster illustrates in colossal form the concept of constitutional monarchy and the principle of the bicameral parliamentary system, as envisaged in the 19th century, constructed through English architectural references to show the national character (UNESCO, 2018). This palace, which is also known as Houses of Parliament, is divided in two sections; the House of Commons and the Houses of Lords, The main purpose of the Parliament is to evaluate the work of the government, approve the new laws and debate about government policy and some other issues The Palace of Westminster is an outstanding building, one of the most well-known British prides and is officially a royal place. Itis in one side of the Thames river in the 32London borough of the City of Westminster. UK citizens and foreigners can attend debates, watch committees, take tours inside the building, but people can only tour Parliament every Saturday and during the summer, when it’s open. There was a fire in 1834, which destroyed much but not all the old palace of Westminster, this provided an opportunity to put into place some of the long existing hopes and plans for a purpose-built Parliament. After a controversial competition, the project was entrusted to the architect Charles Barry (1795-1860), who collaborated with the artist and designer Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin (1812- 52). Their masterpiece, in its external appearance and its internal decoration, was inevitably something of a compromise of styles and aspirations, but it aimed to ‘embody a vision of Britishness. The resulting building is now a much loved national icon (Farrel, 2017) 332.1.4 Tower of London The Tower of London is an official Royal Palace which is considered World Heritage. This tower is in north of Thames River and was constructed in 1066 under supervision of William the Conqueror, following his successful invasion in the same year. During the Tudor age, the Tower became the most important state prison in the country, Anyone thought to be a threat to national security was sent here. This includes three queens of England: Anne Boleyn, Catherine Howard and Jane Grey, all of whom were executed within the Tower along the 16th century. Henry VIII's wives were accused of adultery and treason, Lady Jane Grey was executed for high treason in 1554, aged only 17. (Historical Royal Palaces, 2018) The Tower also controlled the supply of the nation’s money. All coins of the realm were made at the Tower Mint from the reign of Edward | until 1810. Kings and queens also locked away their valuables and jewels at the Tower and even today, the Crown Jewels are protected by a garrison of soldiers. The jewel House, which houses the Crown Jewels, lies within the confines of the Tower of London. (Historical Royal Palaces, 2018)There are stories of ghosts that haunt the Tower. Anne Boleyn is said to be seen at the site of her execution on Tower Green. Arbella Stuart, the cousin of Elizabeth | who starved while under arrest for marrying without royal permission, is said to frequent the Queen's House. Two smaller ghosts are thought to be the ‘princes in the Tower’, and the Yeomen Warders even tell a chilling tale of a huge bear who occasionally appears to frighten visitors. (Historical Royal Palaces, 2018) 2.1.5 Windsor Castle cexpedia co.uk The Windsor Castle is a medieval castle and has been a royal residence for over 900 years. Today it is one of the homes of the Queen in Windsor. Windsor Castle is the oldest and largest occupied castle in the world, Itis open to visitors all year round. Founded by William the Conqueror in the 11th century, it has since been the home of 39 monarchs. Today the Queen spends most of her private weekends at the Castle, The castle occupies 13 acres (5 hectares) of ground above the south bank of the River Thames (Encycloepedia Britannica, 2018). 35The beginning of this palace as a royal residence at Windsor was in Saxon times (8th century) with William | (‘William the Conqueror’). He developed the present site, constructing a mound with a stockade about 1070. Then Henry II replaced this with the stone Round Tower and added outer walls to the north, east, and south. In the 13th century Henry Ill completed the south wall and the western end of the lower ward and built a royal chapel on the site of the present-day Albert Memorial Chapel and then Edward III made this chapel the center of the newly formed Order of the Garter in 1348 and converted the fortress buildings in the upper ward to residential apartments for the monarchs. These apartments were rebuilt by Charles Il and later reconstructed by George IV for use by visitors of state in addition to the monarchs (Encycloepedia Britannica, 2018). Nowadays, this great castle is open to the public; you can get tickets on line for you and your family and do a lot of ludic learning activities related to the story ofthe royal residence. The attraction is not only the castle itself, itis all the things you can learn about it through the tour and the activities performed in this place. 362.1.6 Hadrian's Wall Hadrian's Wall is a stone wall barrier which was built to separate the Romans and the Picts tribes in Scotland 2000 years ago. It allowed Roman soldiers to control the movements of people coming into or leaving Roman Britain. It was so well built that you can still see parts of it today. Hadrian's Wall was the north-west frontier of the Roman empire for nearly 300 years, It was built by the Roman army on the orders of the emperor Hadrian following his visit to Britain in AD 122. At 73 miles (80 Roman miles) long, it crossed northern Britain from Wallsend on the River Tyne in the east to Bowness- on-Solway in the west. The most famous of all the frontiers of the Roman Empire, Hadrian's Walll was made a World Heritage Site in 1987 (Breeze, 2018) This frontier, within the Roman domain in England, was abandoned as a frontier in the early 5th century when Roman rule in Britain collapsed. But its historydoesn't end there, People have been studying Hadrian's Wall for over 400 years. 37Visiting this area is a great idea because reminds us of the past glories of one of the world's greatest powers. You can walk some of the 73 miles of the Wall, through the Cumbrian and Northumbertand countryside, and stop off at forts, museums, towns and temples along the way (Breeze, 2018) 2.1.7 St Paul's Cathedral St Paul's Cathedral is located within the City of London on Ludgate Hill, the City's highest point. It is one of the oldest cathedrals in Europe. The dome of St Paul's Cathedral is the second biggest dome in the world, after St Peter's in Rome, The Cathedral that people see today (the fourth), was built between 1675 and 1711 by Sir Christopher Wren, The foundation stone was laid in 1675 when Wren was 43 years old, and the last stone was put in place by his son 35 years later (Barrow, 2013) The concept of a Cathedral dedicated to Saint Paul has overlooked the City of London since 604 CE. The first cathedral was made from wood and was built for Mellitus, Bishop of the East Saxons but was destroyed by a fire in 675 CE and was 38rebuilt ten years later. The Cathedral was destroyed again by the Vikings in 962 CE and rebuilt in stone by the Normans. Unfortunately, this third building was destroyed in the Great Fire of London of 1666 (Barrow, 2013) The dome reaches a height of 111 meters (366 ft.) and weighs about 66,000 tons. Eight arches support the dome, On top of the dome is a large lantern with a weight of 850 tons (A view on cities, 2018) The church was the site of several important historic events such as the funeral ‘of Admiral Nelson in 1806 and the funeral of Winston Churchill in 1965. Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer married here in 1981. 2.1.8 The Big Ben Each country around the world has an icon; we can mention the Statue of Liberty in The United States of America or the Angel of Independence in Mexico. Each monument has its historical meaning for the nation. In the United Kingdom, in England, specifically, there is one with all the characteristics of a national icon: The Big Ben 39The Big Ben, which is also named tower clock, is famous for its accuracy and for its massive bell. It is important to remember that the name refers to only the great hour bell, which weighs 15.1 tons (13.7 metric tons), but it is commonly associated with the whole clock tower at the northern end of the Houses of Parliament, in the palace of Westminster. The tower itself was formally known as St. Stephen's Tower until 2012, when it was renamed Elizabeth Tower on Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee, celebrating 60 years on the British throne. The hands of the clock are 9 and 14 feet (2.7 and 4.3 meters) long, respectively, and the clock tower rises about 320 feet (97.5 meters) (Betts, 2018) ‘An interesting fact is that in this clock the citizens of England and many other people who travel to England celebrate the New Year with fireworks. It is known that the maintenance is not as easy, the structure of the clock is very old and cracked so the workers have to be careful when servicing up to the clock by the height of this structure, the most complicated task is to put the clock on time, and there are other ‘enemies of the Big Ben such as the air, the doves, the snow, among other things. The maintenance on the clock is very important because many people take this clock as a reference for their watches, so it has to be very accurate on its time. 402.1.9 London Eye Maybe this is the most attractive place in England nowadays. The London Eye was called Millennium Wheel when it was first constructed. It is the tallest Ferris wheel with a 450 feet (135m) high in all Europe (the third one in the entire world) and spins smoothly at a speed of 26 cm per second (two revolutions per hour) this makes no necessary to stop for boarding or disembarkation of passengers, except for those with disabilities. Each rotation takes around 30 minutes in which time you can marvel at the majestic views that spread around (on a clear day) up to 40 km in all directions The London Eye was officially opened by the former British Minister, Tony Blair, on December 31st, 1999, at the dawn of the new millennium; although it was opened to the public until March 9th, 2000 because of technical problems. The London Eye has become a 21st Century symbol for Britain and one of the major landmarks and tourist attraction in London. atThe rime of the Eye is supported by tie roods and resembles a huge spoked bicycle wheel. The lighting for the London Eye was redone with LED lighting from Color Kinetics in December 2006 to allow digital control of the lights as opposed to the manual replacement of gels over fluorescent tubes. From January 2011, its official name was changed to the EDF Energy London Eye, this is the UK’s most popular paid for visitor attraction, visited by over 3.5 million people a year (Lewis, 2018) 2.1.10 Westminster Abbey avetucnaincan) This Abbey is an architectural masterpiece of the 13th to 16th centuries, Westminster Abbey also presents a unique pageant of British history because it is. the place for the shrine of St Edward the Confessor, the tombs of kings and queens, and countless memorials to the famous and the great. It has been the setting for every Coronation since 1066, every monarch since William the Conqueror has been crowned in the Abbey, with the exception of Edward V and Edward VIII (who abdicated) who were never crowned. This abbey has held numerous other royal occasions, including sixteen royal weddings. (Westminster Abbey, 2018) 42Today, itis still a church dedicated to regular worship and to the celebration of great events in the life of the nation. Neither a cathedral nor a parish church, Westminster Abbey (or the Collegiate Church of St Peter, Westminster to give it its correct title) is a "Royal Peculiar’ under the jurisdiction of a Dean and Chapter, subject only to the Sovereign and not to any archbishop or bishop (Westminster Abbey, 2018). Westminster Abbey, a work of architectural genius, a place of daily worship, deploying the resources of high musical expertise, a burial place of kings, statesmen, poets, scientists, warriors and musicians, is the result of a process of development across the centuries, which represents the response of a monastery and later a post- Reformation church to the stimulus and challenge of its environment (Westminster Abbey, 2018). 432.2 British food British food is not considered to be very complex, it does not include fresh dining, salads or reliable raw ingredients, and meal times in Britain have traditionally involved roasting, stewing, or battering ingredients out of necessity. The indigenous and characteristic aspects of British cooking that have earned it a culinary niche in the world’s cuisines date back centuries. As great meat eaters, they perfected the art of roasting The British cuisine is a set of habits and adaptations of foods with the climate of the place and its history. In the times of Shakespeare, people enjoyed breads made from a variety of flours, ate every part of the animal that came their way, and used clever tricks to trap birds, feeding them with aromatic herbs to give flavor to their meat. To talk about typical cuisine in England is to talk about simple food, a lot of vegetables, fish, breads, cheeses, roasted meals, stewed meals, pies and above all, potatoes, either prepared in slices or made in mash. The bread was commonly accompanied with pottage. Now, they have many ingredients imported from other places, like India (Coghlan, 2017). In the next section, you will learn about the most popular British dishes that are eaten nowadays in the United Kingdom and in the world. Some of them simple in their ingredients and cooking, but others are more complex. The British love them and they prepare them at home or get them in restaurants around the country. You may find some of them very familiar or even you have already eaten those delicious dishes. Here the dishes are presented. 44| Fish and chips me Yorkshire pudding This dish is the most popular fast food in all England. It can be compared with the popularity that the hamburger has in the United States of America. Coated with flour and eggs wt served with chips, it is usually added salt and vinegar. The trick is to get fresh fish and not frozen. is deep fried and The Yorkshire pudding is as popular as ‘ever, whether home-cooked, eaten at the thousands of restaurants across the UK serving a traditional Sunday lunch, or bought from the supermarket This British dish is made by baking a thick liquid mixture of flour, milk, and eggs. It is often eaten with roast beef. (Lemm, 2018) 45Roast Beef Bubble and squeak This dish is made of beef roasted several hours in an oven until the meat (pork, veal or lamb) drop juice or its color is brown. It is accompanied by roast potatoes and other vegetables (generally boiled) For many people, cooking and serving Sunday lunch at home is the very heart of British food and cooking. It is the time for families or friends to get together and share great food. (Lemm, 2018) A traditional dish named after the sound it makes while it’s cooking. It’s made from leftover’s vegetables of a roast dinner, mixing them with mash potato and slices of cabbage, carrots, beans, Brussels and other vegetables. It’s served cold. Bubble and squeak dates from the 18th century; the key ingredient is the potatoes, which hold the other various components together. (Rosen, 2018) 46Full English breakfast The full English breakfast constitutes a very old British tradition which dates back to the early 1300's. This tradition has existed for generations in the UK. Today you can usually find an English breakfast in most towns and cities across the country and overseas wherever you find the British. A full breakfast is a meal that typically includes bacon, sausages, eggs and a beverage such as coffee or tea. (Guise, 2018) Black Pudding Black pudding is made out of animal blood, the dark color of black pudding makes it particularly foreboding. To make it, the blood (usually from pigs) is mixed with fat and oatmeal, before being packed into a casing. The sausage is then served boiled, fried or grilled and cut into rounds, or crumbled into smalll pieces. In México, itis known as a “mor (Hardwick, 2018) 47Toad in the Hole Toad in the Hole is a classic British recipe and a meaty variation on a Yorkshire pudding when filled with delicious British sausages. The recipe includes cooking the sausage and batter in a large roasting pan for a large family- sized version, but you can also make an individually sized toad in the hole, This delicious dish is served with onion gravy and fresh vegetables. (Lemm, 2018) Tea Tewas in the mid-17th century when the beverage first appeared in England ‘Afternoon tea is said to have originated with one person; Anna, 7th Duchess of Bedford, She launched the idea of having tea in the late afternoon to bridge the gap between lunch and dinner. fashionable custom soon evolved among the working classes. (Ross, 2018) Cheese cake Tris a dessert made of cheese, some ‘cookies, meringue and sweet sauce. It can also have many other varies such as eggs, cream and some fruits: blueberries, blackberries, lemons and oranges. 482.3 Holidays and traditions in the United Kingdom a a? eee fe ase ae os PS Se aetna a 26 ae a can = The United Kingdom is a nation with a great culture; its traditions are so rich in diversity and have been around for hundreds of years. The Culture of the United Kingdom has been spread around the world because throughout history, they colonized or conquered countries such as United States, Australia, Canada, among other 32 nations, The importance of the British customs and traditions could be seen in all over the world. For example, there are holidays in the United Kingdom that are celebrated around the entire world. There are many holidays that are divided in two categories, Official Days and Public Holidays. Some of the British traditions are lived in other places around the world. The traditions that are celebrated in the United Kingdom are also celebrated by visitors from many parts who want to live the experience and decide to travel to the country to have the chance of living themselves what itis said in books and magazines about the British holidays. 492.3.1 New Year New Year's Day is a bank holiday, which means it is a non-working day in the United Kingdom. As with all bank holidays in the United Kingdom, a substitute holiday is declared if New Year's Day falls on a Saturday or Sunday. Usually, this is ‘on the following Monday. In the city of London thousands of people gather at the banks of the river Thames to see an almost 12-minute firework display over the London Eye. The pyrotechnics begin just after Big Ben chimes midnight and are accompanied by music. Since 2014, this has been a ticketed event. (Time and date, 2018) New Year celebrations made in the United Kingdom are big and famous, which is very evident by the number of tourists visiting the country during New Year. During the New Year in England, rituals like people keeping the back door of their houses open to symbolize for their farewell to the old year and expecting a dark haired and young man to arrive at their place on New Year's Day as a symbol for good luck in the coming year are very common among British people 502.3.2 Mothering Sunday Mothering Sunday is celebrated the fourth Sunday of Lent (in the Christian religion, the 40 days before Easter, a period during which, for religious reasons, some people stop doing things that they enjoy). Although it's often called Mothers’ Day it has no connection with the American festival of that name. Traditionally, it was a day when children, mainly daughters, who had gone to work as domestic servants were given a day off to visit their mother and family. Mother's Day, or Mothering Sunday, is now a day to honor mothers and other mother figures, such as grandmothers, stepmothers and mothers-in-law. Many people make a special effort to visit their mother. An important part of Mothering Sunday is giving cards and gifts. Common Mother's Day gifts are cakes, flowers, chocolates, jewelry, and luxurious clothing. Some people do not give a physical present but choose to treat their mother or grandmother to a special meal, beauty treatment or fun outing. (Time and date, 2018) Today it is a day when children give presents, flowers, and home-made cards to their mothers. This day is celebrated on the fourth Sunday on March. (BBC, 2011) 512.3.3 Easter Monday Easter Monday is observed as a public holiday in many countries and is part of the Easter period. It is a Christian observance and it takes place on the day after Easter Sunday. Itis the time for three holidays (Monday, Thursday and Good Friday) and Easter Sunday, these days are a festival and the time for giving chocolate Easter eggs, but also Easter means much more than just that, Easter is the oldest and one of the most important Christian Festival, the celebration of the death and coming to life of Jesus Christ. (Time and date, 2018) April Fool's Day (April 1st) Although Easter Monday has a religious origin, as part of festivities related to the church but in places like schools, festivals are is celebrated in other countries organized to give the kids the opportunity to live the traditions from another country so they decorate eggs and hide them, and when they find them, they receive a gift. 522.3.4 April fool's day Facl's Day Itis one of the most awaited days of the year. Its main characteristic is that you can prank everyone, and they cannot get mad at you. This holiday is similar to the Mexican December 28". On this day, people make jokes to someone else they want to, the kind of jokes that they made usually involve people persuading other people to do something silly. Ancient cultures, including those of the Romans and Hindus, used to celebrate New Year's Day on or around April 1%. In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII ordered a new calendar (the Gregorian Calendar) to replace the old Julian Calendar. The new calendar called for New Year's Day to be celebrated Jan. 1*, many people either refused to accept the new date, or did not learn about it, and continued to celebrate New Year's Day on April 1, Other people began to make fun of these traditionalists, sending them on "fool's errands" or trying to trick them into believing something false. Eventually, the practice spread throughout Europe. (Ross & Johnson, 2018) 532.3.5 St. George’s Day (April 23rd) Itis a holiday that is celebrated with parades, dancing and other activities. Flags with the image of St George's cross are flown on some buildings, especially pubs, and a few people wear a red rose on their lapel. St George is most widely known for slaying a dragon. According to legend, the only well in the town of Silene was guarded by a dragon. To get water, the inhabitants of the town had to offer a human sacrifice every day to the dragon. A day that St George was visiting, a princess had been selected to be sacrificed. However, he killed the dragon, saved the princess and gave the people of Silene access to water. In gratitude, they converted to Christianity. It is thought that the dragon represents a certain type of pagan belief that included the sacrifice of human beings. (Time and date, 2018)2.3.6 May Day (May 1st) eect Many folklore customs have their roots planted firmly back in the Dark Ages, when the ancient Celts had divided their year by four major festivals. Beltane or ‘the fire of Bef’, had particular significance to the Celts as it represented the first day of summer and was celebrated with bonfires to welcome in the new season. Still celebrated today, we perhaps know Beltane better as May 1st, or May Day (Johnson, 2018) In the United Kingdom, as well as most of Europe, May Day is known as the end of the winter and beginning of the summer, and it is looked forward to the productive months. The first day of the month of May is known as May Day. Itis the time of year when warmer weather begins, and flowers and trees start to blossom. It is said to be. a time of love and romance. It is when people celebrate the coming of summer with lots of different customs that are expressions of joy and hope after a long winter. Traditional English May Day celebrations include Morris dancing, crowning a May Queen and dancing around a Maypole. (Barrow, 2013) 552.3.7 Trooping the Colors This military tradition dates to the 17th century and since 1748, Trooping the Color has a long and rich history. Flags or colors were used as a method of identification for different regiments of the British army, as they made it easy for soldiers to recognize their units even in the chaos of a battlefield. Of course, the soldiers would have to leam which colors belonged to their regiment, so they were regularly marched and displayed, or trooped by a young officer. The tradition has lasted for centuries and though it's purely ceremonial now, it does have the added significance of marking the sovereign’s official birthday. (Dean, 2017) This especial day is celebrated because British people celebrate it as the official birthday of the Queen; this means that the Queen has two birthdays, her actual irthday is 21st April and her official one falls on a Saturday in June, the same day as Trooping the Color. The celebration consists of a military parade and a march. It lasts about an hour and it happens on June 13th. 562.3.8 Harvest Festival sounlegnotnan com Harvest Festival is one of the oldest festivals in the United Kingdom. It began in churches in the year 1843, when Robert Hawker invited local parishioners to a special thanksgiving service at a church in Comwall. This resulted in the custom of decorating churches with home-grown products. There is an ancient ceremony known as the “crying of the neck" which takes place in Comwall. In the old times, the success of crops determined the success or failure of the people. The natives of UK pleased the God of fertility by offering him the first sheaf of corn. This was done to ensure a good harvest in the coming season. (The Holiday Spot, 2018) In England, they have given thanks for successful harvest for hundreds of years, they celebrate this day by singing, praying and decorating their churches. Harvest Festival reminds Christians of all the good things God gives them. This makes them want to share with others who are not so fortunate. In schools and in Churches, people bring food from home to a Harvest Festival Service, This holiday is celebrated in September. 872.3.9 Bonfire Night (November Sth) Ifyou have seen the movie “V for Vendetta” you will probably know that this movie is based on the November 5" celebration. It is an important day in the United Kingdom, especially in England. This day comes since 1605 and it is called the Bonfire night (Guy Fawkes Night). Guy Fawkes Night is annually held on November 5. Itis sometimes known as Bonfire Night and marks the anniversary of the discovery of a plot organized by Catholic conspirators to blow up the Houses of Parliament in London in 1605. Many people light bonfires and set off fireworks. Guy Fawkes was a catholic man who tried to explode the parliament and kill the king because the king had established some laws that the Catholics though were unfair. (Time and date, 2018) 582.3.10 Christmas Day (December 25" or the Monday immediately following if Christmas falls on a weekend) ‘mataleoiourcom When the time for nice celebrations comes it is impossible not to think in Christmas. This celebration is a very old one and it is celebrated around the world Kids wait a whole year to receive gifts form the people who love them. The United Kingdom is not an exemption and this holiday is also popular in the country. Christmas is a truly magical season that brings families and friends together to share the much-loved customs and traditions which have been around for centuries. On this holiday, people stay at home with their family. It’s very similar to the Christmas celebrated in America. If both December 25 and December 26 fall onthe weekend, the following Monday and Tuesday are Bank Holidays. This means that people do not work to observe both celebrations. 592.3.11. St. Patrick’s Day (March 17th) St. Patrick’s Day is held | honor of the patron Saint of Ireland. The work of St Patrick (c.389-c.461) was vital for the spreading of Christianity in Ireland, Born in Britain, he was taken off by pirates and spent the next years being their slave. After escaping, he started training as a missionary. By the time of his death on March 17, 461, he had established monasteries, churches, and schools. London has a great quantity of Irish people, so it’s quite a big celebration. There is a big parade held on the nearest Monday if it falls on a weekend of March. This annual parade usually takes place in Trafalgar Square. (Encycloepedia Britannica, 2018) 602.4 Government in the United Kingdom Government ‘witercom A nation like the United Kingdom is characterized by its Government System. The United Kingdom's government is a parliamentary democracy with a constitutional Monarch. In the British Monarchy, the king or queen is the head of state, (nowadays, the UK has a Queen, the Queen Elizabeth II) and a Prime minister is the head of government. This means that a king or queen reigns with some limits to their power, together with a governing body which is the Parliament. In the UK, the Prime Minister leads the government with the support of the Cabinet and ministers. The Prime Minister is head of the UK government. They are ultimately responsible for all policies and decisions. They oversee the operation of the Civil Service and government agencies, they appoint members of the government and they are the principal government figure in the House of Commons. (Open Govenment Licence, 2018) 61The Cabinet is made up of the senior members of government. Every week during Parliament, members of the Cabinet (Secretaries of State from all departments and some other ministers) meet to discuss the most important issues for the government. (Open Govenment Licence, 2018) Talking about the total number of Ministers who participate in the Government, there is a Prime Minister, 22 Cabinet ministers, 98 other ministers with a total of 121 ministers. Ministers are chosen by the Prime Minister from the members of the House of Commons and House of Lords. They are responsible for the actions, successes and failures of their departments. (Open Govenment Licence, 2018) There is a general election in the United Kingdom which is held after every five years to elect the House of Commons. The Monarch appoints as prime minister the person who commands most of support in the House of Commons 2.4.1 The Monarch and the government The monarchy is the most ancient institution of government in the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom's monarchy is considered the oldest of all modem constitutional monarchies (other countries including Belgium, Norway, the Netherlands, Spain and Monaco) As mentioned before, the prime minister heads the central government of the UK. The monarch, who is currently Queen Elizabeth II, is the head of state, The Queen plays a minor role in governing the country with the Crown remaining the 62source of the executive power exercised by the government. The Crown possesses the Royal Prerogative which can be exercised for several purposes including issuing and withdrawing passports and declaring war against an external enemy. Most of the Royal Prerogative powers are delegated to various ministries who can use them without seeking the consent of parliament. (World Atlas, 2018) The Prime Minister, who is the head of the UK government, has a weekly meeting with the Queen where the queen can express her views on Government matters. The meetings are strictly confidential. The ministers work in hand with 560,000 civil servants across the 24 ministerial departments. An additional 26 non- ministerial departments are also in charge of different responsibilities. The UK government is also composed of three levels of elected local authorities. The local authorities are limited to collecting taxes and are supervised by the central goverment. (World Atlas, 2018) The Queen formally appoints important office holders that include the prime minister and other government ministers, judges, officers in the armed forces, governors, diplomats, bishops and some other senior clergy of the Church of England. She also has the power to grant peerages, knighthoods and other inctive honors. 2.4.2 Queen Elizabeth II and the Royal family Elizabeth Il was born on April 21, 1926. The British queen was crowned on June 2", 1953 in the Westminster Abbey, despite having acceded to the throne on February 6", 1952 when her father died, British law states that the throne is notleft 63‘vacant’ and therefore the new monarch succeeds the old monarch immediately. The official coronation usually takes place months later, as it's considered a happy occasion and not appropriate for the period of mourning. Elizabeth II was crowned on 2 June 1953 in Westminster Abbey, despite having acceded to the throne on 6 February 1952 when her father died. British law states that the throne cannot be left ‘vacant! and therefore the new monarch succeeds the old monarch immediately. The official coronation usually takes place months later, as it's considered a happy occasion and not appropriate for the period of mourning. In 2012 Queen Elizabeth II celebrated her diamond jubilee in the throne because she has been the queen for 60 years (nowadays, it is even longer!). She is the British queen with more years reigning. Her official name as a Queen is Elizabeth Il but her real name is Isabel Alexandra Mary, Elizabeth II was the third in line for getting the throne, Prince David (Edward Ill) and her father Prince Albert were the options for the throne before Elizabeth Il. She became the queen because her uncle Eduardo III abdicated to the crown.The reason for the abdicating was that he got married with Wallis Simpson (an ‘American wealthy widow), who was not a member of the Royalty, (BBC, 2014) Price Albert, Elizabeth's father, did not have male children, when he got married he only had two daughters (Isabel and Margarita). Isabel became a queen after her father died because a thrombosis. The queen is married to Prince Philippe, Duke of Edinburg. They have been married for 65 years. Her husband is not considered the King of the United Kingdom because when there is a Female Monarch, her husband does not receive the position of the monarch. On the other hand, if there is a male monarch, his wife is considered the Queen of the country. During her reigning, Queen Elizabeth II has seen passed thirteen presidents of the United States of America, four Soviet leaders, five Russian presidents, five Chinese leaders and seven popes. Some of Elizabeth II belongings are 2 Bentley cars, 3 Rolls-Royce cars and a spectacular Phantom IV from 1950. She is the only person in the United Kingdom 65who can drive without a driving license or plates. She does not have a passport and she cannot be judged or fined. The Real collection is composed by 100 carriages and in case that it is necessary to travel along the United Kingdom, she has the Royal train for it During her long reigning, Elizabeth II has officially visited many countries. She is the Queen that has traveled the most around the world, She has been to Mexico twice, in 1975 when Luis Echeverria was the President and in 1983 with Miguel de la Madrid. Mexico is the only Latin American country that Her Majesty has visited twice. The royal family plays an important role in supporting and encouraging the public and charity sectors, and around 3,000 organizations list a member of the family as a patron or president. There are various charities and organizations supported by a member of the royal family. British citizens love their queen, Elizabeth Il has the acceptance from the people not only in the United Kingdom but also in the world. Many places around the world hope to receive Her Majesty's visiting because she is a very popular monarch 6624.3 The Crown The title to the crown derives partly from statute and partly from common law rules of descent. Despite interruptions in the direct line of succession, inheritance had always been the way royal power has passed down the generations, with sons of the sovereign coming before daughters in succeeding to the throne until 2011 when the situation changed when a reform was declared during the 22nd Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting. It called the Perth Agreement. The heads of government of the 16 Commonwealth realms agreed to change the rules of succession by replacing male preference primogeniture with absolute primogeniture, in which the first-born child of a monarch would be heir apparent regardless of gender. (The Royal Family, 2018) When a daughter does succeed, she becomes Queen Regnant and has the same powers as a king. The ‘consort’ of a king takes her husband's rank andstyle, becoming Queen. No special rank or privileges are given to the husband of a Queen Regnant. The sovereign succeeds to the throne as soon as his or her predecessor dies. He or she is at once proclaimed at an Accession Council, to which all members of the Privy Council are called. Members of the House of Lords, the Lord Mayor, 67Aldermen and other leading citizens of the City of London are also invited. The coronation follows the accession, The ceremony takes place at Westminster Abbey in London in the presence of representatives of both Houses of Parliament and all the major public organizations in the UK. The prime ministers and leading members of the Commonwealth nations and representatives of other countries also attend 2.4.4 The Parliament: House of Commons and House of Lords The main functions of Parliament are to pass laws, to finance through taxation the work of government, to scrutinize government policy and administration, including proposals for expenditure, and to debate the major issues of the day. House of Commons. The House of Commons consists of 646 elected MPs. Of the 646 seats, 529 represent constituencies in England, 40 in Wales, 59 in Scotland, and 18 in Northern Ireland and they are elected by universal suffrage. The life of a Parliament is five years. (Encycloepedia Britannica, 2018) 68House of Lords The House of Lords is the second chamber or upper house of the UK Parliament. It works with the House of Commons to make laws, scrutinize the actions of the government, and provide a forum of independent expertise. It consists of the Lords Spiritual and the Lords Temporal. The Lords Spiritual: include the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Archbishop of York, the Bishop of London, the Bishop of Durham, and the Bishop of Winchester. Membership of the House of Lords also extends to the longest-serving other bishops of the Church of England. The Lords Temporal are hereditary or life peers (Encycloepedia Britannica, 2018). 69Bibliography Unit 2 A view on cities. (2018). A view on cities . Obtenido de A view on cities: http:lAwmw_aviewoncities.com Barrow, M. (2013). Project Britain, Obtenido de Project Britain: http:/projectbritain.com BBC. (2011). BBC. Obtenido de BBC: http://www. bbc.co.uk BBC. (2014). BBC. Obtenido de BBC: https://www bbe.com/ Betts, J. (2018). Encyclopedia Britannica. Obtenido de Encyclopedia Britannica https:/hwww.britannica,com/topic/Big-Ben-clock-London Breeze, D. (2018). English Heritage. Obtenido de English Heritage: http:/www.english- heritage.org.uk Encycloepedia Britannica. (2018). Encycloepedia Britannica. Obtenido de Encycloepedia Britannica: https:/iwww-britannica.com Farrel, S. (2017). The history of the Parliament. Obtenido de The history of the Parliament http:/Awmw-historyofparliamentonline. org Guise, B. (2018). The English Breakfast Society. Obtenido de The English Breakfast Society: https://www-englishbreakfastsociety.com Hardwick, N. (2018). BBC good food. Obtenido de BBC good food: https://www.bbegoodfood. com/howto/guide/all-you-need-know-about-black-pudding Historical Royal Palaces. (2018). Historical Royal Palaces. Obtenido de Historical Royal Palaces: https://www.hrp.org.uk/ Jarus, O. (2017). LIVESCIENCE. Obtenido de LIVESCIENCE: https:/;www.livescience.com Johnson, B. (2018). Historic UK. Obtenido de Historic UK: https:/Avww.historic- uk.com/CultureUK/May-Day-Celebrations/ Johnson, B. (2018). Historic UK. Obtenido de Historic UK: www historio-uk.com. Lemm, E. (2018). The Spruce. Obtenido de The Spruce: https://www.thespruce.com Lewis, R. (2018). Encyclopaedia Britannica. Obtenido de Encyclopaedia Britannica httpsi/www.britannica.com Open Govenment Licence. (2018). GOV.UK. Obtenido de GOV.UK: https://www.gov.uk Rosen, S. (2018). Encyclopedia britannica. Obtenido de Encyclopedia britannica: https:/ww.britannica.comitopic/bubble-and-squeak 70Ross, & Johnson, (2018). Infoplease. Obtenido de Infoplease: https://www.infoplease.com Ross, D. (2018). Britain Express. Obtenido de Britain Express: httpsi/www.britainexpress.com The Holiday Spot. (2018). United Kingdom Harvest Festivals. Obtenido de United Kingdom Harvest Festivals: https://www.theholidayspot.com The Royal Family, (2018). The Royal Family. Obtenido de The Royal Family: https:/www.royal.uk/royal-family The Royal Household, (2018). theroyalfamily.com. Obtenido de theroyalfamily.com: httpsi/www.royal.uk Time and date. (2018). timeanddate.com. Obtenido de timeanddate.com: www timeanddate.com UNESCO. (2018). World Heritage Convention. Obtenido de World Heritage Convention: https:/iwhe.unesco.org Westminster Abbey, (2018). Westminster Abbey faith of the heart of the nation. Obtenido de Westminster Abbey faith of the heart of the nation: http:/www.westminster- abbey.org World Atlas. (2018). worldatlas. Obtenido de worldatlas: https://www.worldatlas.com nUNIT 3 EDUCATION IN THE UNITED KINGDOM 723.1 Education System in the United Kingdom In first world countries -as in The United Kingdom- education is a very important feature of their culture. The British government has always paid attention to this important aspect. According to the education Act of 1944, all children have a right to free school education and it is compulsory between ages of five and sixteen. This means that going to school is an obligation for all children. As it has been stated, all boys and girls must attend full-time education until the age of 16. Many pupils stay on at school after that age to prepare themselves for university or other careers. ( The Headmasters’ & Headmistresses' Conference, 2018). The goals of the education at a national level are determined by the central education authorities; they promote, manage, and supervise works for improving the development of the curricula and national exams. They also offer the minimum shares of educational provision. The Local Education Authorities (LEA) is the responsible for the local and regional education management. This institution is focused on the educational field and the Counselors that work in this department are publicly elected form the Local Education Authorities. 73STUDY IN | UNITED KINGDOM The National Curriculum is constructed in five Key Stages: Key Stage 1 Foundation year and Years 1 to 2 - for pupils aged between 5 and 7 years old Key Stage 2 Years 3 to 6 - for pupils aged between 8 and 11 years old Key Stage 3 Years 7 to 9 - for pupils aged between 12 and 14 years old Key Stage 4 Years 10 to 11 - for pupils aged between 15 and 16 years old Key Stage 5 Years 12 to 13 - for pupils aged between 17 and 18 years old 743.1.1 Primary Education In the United Kingdom, schools can be state schools, which are funded by government and are free for all pupils, or independent schools, which charge fees to the parents of the pupils. In this country, independent schools have an excellent reputation for high standards of teaching and learning and almost all pupils go onto prestigious universities when they leave. ( The Headmasters’ & Headmistresses' Conference, 2018) Parents can choose to educate their children at state or private schools. All children in the UK between the ages of five and sixteen are entitled to a free place at a state school, in contrast with the private education sector, where tuitions are quite expensive. According to the website Expatica.com (2018), in the UK there are four main types. of state schools: a) The community school, which is run by the local authority and has strong links with the local community, sometimes offering use of their facilities and providing services like childcare and adult learning classes. 75b) Foundation schools, which are run by their own governing body, which employs the staff and sets the admissions criteria, c) Trust schools, which is a type of foundation school which forms a charitable trust with an outside partner. d) Voluntary-aided schools, which are mainly religious or ‘faith’ schools, although anyone can apply for a place. As with foundation schools, the governing body employs the staff and sets the admission criteria. In the United Kingdom, there is a special educational treatment for kids with some type of disability such as deafness, blindness or any other of physical nature, and also for those who are educationally challenged. There are some handicapped children that prefer to go to ordinary schools. Special education schools require an extra year for their students to leave, and they also provide them with some further education and pre-vocational training (The School Run, 2018) Typically, primary education is provided in schools, but parents need to ensure that their children are educated, either by attending school or by alternative means. These days, Homeschooling is a common option in England. In Homeschooling, the parents are not required to follow the National Curriculum, to be qualified teachers or to follow hours and terms either. The down side of this option, however, is that the parents must finance all the needs for their children’s education. About 94% of pupils in England -and the rest of the UK- receive free education from public funds, while 6 per cent attend independent fee-paying schools or homeschooling. The rest 6% attend to public schools which are more expensive. (Home Education in the UK, 2018) 763.1.2 Secondary At the age of eleven, children start their secondary-school education. From the age of eleven to fourteen, students in British state and private schools study a broad range of 10-15 subjects. Among these, we can find English, Math, Science, Design and Technology, Information and Communication Technology (ICT), History, Geography, Modern Foreign Languages, Art and Design, Music, Citizenship, Physical Education. Careers education and guidance, Sex and Relationship Education and Religious education may also be included in the education curriculum. Secondary school graduation covers the period from age fourteen to fifteen. After this two-year period, students take GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education) state examinations. The GCSE is a single-subject examination, set and marked by independent examination boards. Students usually take up to ten (there is no upper or lower limit) GCSE examinations in different subjects, including mathematics and English language. After this examination, students may choose to either leave school or continue with their education. They may continue at vocational or technical colleges or pursue higher education in a university (Expatica Communications, 2018). 73.1.3 Higher education At the age of sixteen, following two years of study, students may take A-Levels (Advanced Level examinations) required for university entrance in the UK. Over these two years following secondary school education, students specialize in three or four subjects that are usually relevant to the degree subject they wish to follow at university (Expatica Communications, 2018). Once a student has been through all the misadventures and hardship of compulsory education, it is time to decide his or her own fate. The first three years of a university education will be in an undergraduate degree program. An undergraduate degree may be a BA (Bachelor of Arts), BEng (Bachelor of Engineering), and BSc (Bachelor of Science) Undergraduate degrees take four years course to complete in Scotland, while in the rest of the states take only three leading to a first degree such as Bachelor of Arts, (BA), Bachelor of Science (BSc). Some degrees such as medicine, dentistry, veterinary science take up to six years. When graduate level is reached, it only takes a year to have a master’s degree, two for a research master’s degree and three for a doctoral degree (Expatica Communications, 2018). 78Higher education is not for free. Students must pay a contribution to the cost of teaching (tuition less) and also have to pay their living costs (maintenance). The government provides loans to help them pay for university education which has to be paid back from earnings once their income reaches a certain level. Universities receive money from the state for each student and they are responsible for employing staff and deciding which course to offer (Expatica Communications, 2018). Studying a degree in the United Kingdom is not simple; universities and colleges are quite expensive and not all people have the chance to pay for that. Another important aspect to take into consideration is the requirements to enter to these institutions. Many people find it difficult to fulfill such requisites, so they decide not to study a degree. Since 1992 the government began to eliminate distinctions between universities and other education centers for higher education. All universities in United Kingdom are autonomous and each one decides diplomas and certificates granted, it also decides the conditions for obtaining them, most include research and courses at pre- and post-graduate levels (Expatica Communications, 2018). 793.2 The most Important Universities in The United Kingdom PSR IVERSITY OF OXFORD Oxford is considered the oldest university in the English-speaking world; this University is a unique and historic institution. There is no clear date of foundation, but teaching existed at Oxford in some form in 1096 and developed rapidly from 1167, when the king Henry Il banned English students from attending the University of Paris (University of Oxford, 2018). There was a time (its early days) when Oxford was a center for lively controversy, with scholars involved in religious and political disputes. For example, in 1530, Henry 80VIll forced the University to accept his divorce from Catherine of Aragon, and during the Reformation in the 16th century, the Anglican churchmen Cranmer, Latimer and Ridley were trialed for heresy and burnt at the stake in Oxford (University of Oxford, 2018). In the 18th century, the politics issues were not as common as before, so Oxford took important part in an era of scientific discovery and religious revival. As an example, Edmund Halley, Professor of Geometry, predicted the return of the comet that bears his name (University of Oxford, 2018). If we compare this university with others in the level of quality, Oxford University is modest in size, with just over 22,000 students at the various colleges (2014). All are now mixed, now including St Hilda's college, which began accepting male students in 2008. Most undergraduates are 18 when they start their course of study, and most courses last for three years (Daily Info, 2018). There are many famous “Oxonians” (graduated students from Oxford University) who have been recognized as gifted people in the world. These are some examples of them (Esacademic, 2017) Famous Exonians ie Ba emia, Foenae Peosiount of ime USA 31‘+ 26 prime Ministers from the United Kingdom (For example, Margaret Thatcher, Tony Blair, David Cameron and Theresa May) * Some international leaders such as Indira Gandhi (India), Bill Clinton (The USA), Crown Prince Naruhito (Japan) and John Kufuor, former President of Ghana + Around 50 Olympic medal winners (For example, Sir Matthew Pinsent) * Some Writers such as Oscar Wilde and J.R.R Tolkien (Lord of the Rings) + Some of the greatest scientists in history; Albert Einstein, Robert Hooke and Robert Boyle + Contemporary scientists such as Stephen Hawking, Richard Dawkins, Anthony James and Tim Berners Lee. + Recognized actors such as Hugh Grant and Kate Beckinsale. The Nobel Prize has been awarded every year since 1901 for achievements in physics, chemistry, medicine, literature and peace. It is an international award administered by the Nobel Foundation in Stockholm, Sweden. Oxford University has Nobel Prize winners in Chemistry, Economics, Literature, Medicine, Peace and Physics. 82* Lester B Pearson, Prime Minister of Canada, 1963-1968, and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize. * Oliver Smithies, winner of the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 2007. * Aung San Suukyi, winner of the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1991 *V.S. Naipaul, winner of the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2001 * Dorothy Hodgkin winner of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1964 ‘* Oliver Smithies winner of the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2007 * Sir Martin Ryle winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1974 * Sir James Mirrlees winner of the Nobel Prize in Economy in 1996 * TS Eliot winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948 Dominus illuminatio mea is the motto of the University of Oxford meaning “The Lord is my light” in English. This has been used at least since the second half of the sixteenth century, and it appears on the University's arms. 83eee ete ese t Pee ee ere] Admission Process in Oxford University According to the official page of the University of Oxford (2018), these are the steps a candidate must follow to complete an admission process in this prestigious University. 1, UCAS application form If someone wants to study at Oxford, you need to apply a year before the start date of your course by completing an online UCAS (The Universities and Colleges ‘Admissions Service which is a UK-based organization whose main role is to operate the application process for British universities). This application form can be found at www.ucas.com. Applications open in early September and there is a strict deadline of 6pm (UK time) on October 15" (Information checked in 2018). Your application must be complete (including the academic reference) and submitted before the deadline. Late applications cannot be accepted. The process to complete this application form is the same that the one followed by other Universities, the only difference is that the one from Oxford has an earlier submission deadline of October 15" Unless the aspirant already has a degree from a university, Oxford University does not require any certificates, transcripts or other documents at this stage. If the candidate is offered a place at the University personnel from Oxford will contact, you to request these from you. 84It is recommended that before starting the admission process the candidate choose which course he would like to study, also to see information on all the courses offered. The aspirant must check the admission requirements for the selected course. Specific grades and subjects required are also shown on each course page It is important to decide whether to express a preference for a college in particular or make an open application. If the candidate makes an open application, he will be assigned to a college which has had relatively fewer applications for the course in the year the candidates applies. The UCAS application will ask for: + Personal details including an email address. Details about your education, and any qualifications you have already achieved. © Apersonal statement where the candidate expresses why he is interested in the chosen course. * A reference. Remember that a teacher or adviser will need some time to complete the candidate's reference, and this must be completed before the deadline. + Afee payment to UCAS is required to complete the process. 2. Admissions tests For most courses at Oxford the applicants are required to take a test as part of their application. Registration for tests is not automatic and is not part of the UCAS process. It is necessary to check the details for the chosen course, including how to register. 853. Written work If the course the candidate is applying for requires written work he must send the work that demonstrates his analytical, reasoning, language and writing skills, as appropriate for the chosen degree course. The written work may well form a springboard for discussion at an interview should the candidate be shortlisted, so he must make sure to keep a copy for his own reference. 4. Interviews ‘A good deal of the teaching at Oxford takes place in small classes or tutorials, and the interviewers, who may be the future tutors, are assessing the ability to study, think and learn in this way. This will depend on how carefully the aspirant listens to questions, and how sensibly he answers them. The interview is designed to assess the aspirant's academic abilities and, most importantly, his academic potential. Tutors are looking for his self-motivation and enthusiasm for his subject. Decisions are not based on his manners, appearance or background, but on his ability to think independently and to engage with new ideas beyond the scope of his school or college syllabus. Shortlisted candidates for 2019 (The year for which this information was consulted) entry will be told whether their application has been successful on 9 January 2019. Decisions will be released via UCAS Track early in the morning. This will be followed by direct communication from the college considering the application 86Tutors will decide based on all aspects of the application: the interview, any admissions tests or written work required for the course, the examination results and predicted grades, the personal statement and the academic reference. Many thousands of applications are received each year, and sadly many excellent candidates will not be offered places. Typically, around 20,000 applications are received for around 3,250 places. 873.2.2 University of Cambridge bie CAMBRIDGE a / UNIVERSITY PRESS The University of Cambridge is a public research university in Cambridge, England. It is the second-oldest university in the UK and one of the oldest in the world, The beginning and growing of this university can be thanked to Oxford University. In 1209 scholars and masters who were escaping from the troubles between the university and citizens from the city in Oxford began arriving in Cambridge. By 1226 the scholars had organized themselves, offered regular courses of study, and named a Chancellor to lead them. The first great boost to the formation of a university came from Henry Ill, who gave the scholars his support as early as 1231. Henry decreed that only those students who were studying under a recognized Professor could be allowed to remain in Cambridge (Ross, 2018). In Cambridge University, first courses of study consisted of grammar, logic, rhetoric, mathematics, music, geometry, and astronomy. An interesting fact was that Examinations were conducted as oral disputations or debates. Most, but not all, of the university Professors were also in holy orders of some sort. Rules and regulations governing behavior and awarding of degrees were not codified until the mid-13th century (Ross, 2018) A royal charter in 1534 gave the university the right to print books, but this right was only exercised until the late 17th century. From the 1690s Cambridge University 88Press enjoyed prominent status as an academic press, encouraged by the monopoly in Bible printing it shared with Oxford, Nowadays, it is still a prestigious academic press which prints a variety of excellent books. The university continued to expand, both physically and in focus of studies. The foundation of the Fitzwilliam Museum and the University Botanical Gardens, to name just two, opened the way for study of art, architecture, and botany at Cambridge (Ross, 2018) Perhaps to balance the scholarly emphasis, the university of Cambridge encouraged student activities, especially in sports. For example, a boat race against Oxford University ("The Boat Race") became an annual event in 1839. Joweones om 89The alumni of the University often become very successful. These are some of the most known graduated students from this prestigious university in its history: Alumni John Harvard John Milton Francis Bacon Sir Isaac Newton J.J. Thomson Emest Rutherford Sir John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton James C. Maxwell Henry Cavendish Charles Darwin Remarkable work Founder of Harvard University Poet (Poem “Paradise lost") Scientific Method Laws of motion Discovered the electron Splitting the atom Nuclear Physics Electromagnetism Discovery of Hydrogen Theory of Evolution by natural selection. 90Another famous graduated student from Cambridge University was Stephen Hawking who became the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in 1979 and continued his pioneering research on singularities and black holes; in 1988 he published the best seller book “A Brief History of Time”. He passed away in 2018 but has been recognized as one of the most brilliants scientists in modern history. Cambridge University has the most graduated students who have received a Nobel Laureate than any other university in the world (61). That is 13 more than the next best which is Harvard University. This is the list of some of the Cambridge's alumni whohave received this prestigious award: Alumni Lord Rayleigh J.J. Thomson Lord Adrian and Charles Sherrington James Chadwick John Hicks Work to win the Nobel Prize Discovered Argon (1904) Electrical conductivity of gases (1906) Functions of neurons (1932) Discovered the neutron (1935) Development of the general equilibrium theory (Economics) (1972) The Cambridge’s motto is Hinclucemetpocula sacra (latin) “From here, light and sacred draugths” (English). In 2009 the University of Cambridge celebrated its 800th anniversary. 1Admission Process in Cambridge Goss COUISE application jubmit by aniline SAC Seta Sp Sty SCae mp oni Written Result of f sppteaion HC erst QSS oa According to the official internet site from Cambridge (University of Cambridge, 2018) if someone wants to apply to this prestigious University, it is necessary to do so through UCAS (The Universities and Colleges Admissions Service which is a UK-based organization whose main role is to operate the application process for British universities). ‘At Cambridge, the process starts earlier to allow time for all application information to be gathered and considered. These are the stages of the application process at this important University. 1, Choose a course The candidate is going to be studying to a very high level for several years, so he must make sure he chooses a degree he is personally interested in and will really enjoy studying! It is also important to check that the candidate meets the admission requirements of the college he wants to study in. 2. Choose a College In the UCAS application, it is necessary to indicate if the candidate has a preference College or if he is making an open application (This means that in case to fulfill the requirements in the selection process, the University will offer the option that they consider is the best for the candidate) 923. Apply The aspirant must submit the UCAS application by 15 October (According to the time this information was consulted) the institution's code is CAM. There's an additional application form if someone is applying for the Graduate Course in Medicine. 4, Supplementary Application Questionnaire (SAQ) Shortly after submitting the UCAS application, the applicant will be asked (via email) to complete the Supplementary Application Questionnaire (SAQ), a few extra questions requesting information not included in the UCAS application, which the authorities at ‘Cambridge find helpful. To make a valid application to the University of Cambridge, the aspirant must submit his SAQ by the deadline set. In most cases this deadline will be at 6.00pm (UK time) on October 22" (According to the year when this information was. consulted). 5. Cambridge Online Preliminary Application (COPA) If the aspirant is living or attending school/college outside the EU and/or applying for an Organ Scholarship, he needs to submit the Cambridge Online Preliminary Application (COPA), and the deadline for submitting this may be earlier than 15 October. (The year when this information was consulted) 6. Transcripts The candidates may be required to submit an academic transcript which will be evaluated by experts appointed by the University. 937. Written assessment Most applicants are required to take a written admission assessment, either pre- interview or at interview (if interviewed). 8. Interview Everyone with a realistic chance of being offered a place is invited to attend an interview. The good news is that this considers up to around 75 percent of applicants each year. 9. Decision The authorities of Cambridge will advise the aspirant of their decision before the end of January of the coming year. 94Bibliography Unit 3 The Headmasters’ & Headmistresses' Conference. (2018). Leading Independent ‘Schools HMC. Recuperado el 2018, de Leading Independent Schools HMC: www.hme.org.uk Daily Info. (2018). Daily Info. Obtenido de Daily Info: https:/www.dailyinfo.co.uk Esacademic. (2017). esacademic.com. Obtenido de esacademic.com: http://www.esacademic.com/ Expatica Communications. (2018). Expatica.com. Recuperado el 2018, de Expatica.com: www.expatica.com Home Education in the UK. (2018). Home Education in the UK, Recuperado el 2018, de Home Education in the UK: http://home-ed info Ross, D. (2018). Britain Express. Obtenido de Britain Express: https:/www.britainexpress.com The School Run. (2018). theschoolrun.com. Recuperado el 2018, de theschoolrun.com: www theschoolrun.com University of Cambridge. (2018). UniversityofCambridge. Obtenido de UniversityofCambridge: https://www.cam.ac.uk/ University of Oxford. (2018). University of Oxford. Obtenido de University of Oxford https://www.ox.ac.uk 95UNIT 4 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE UNITED KINGDOM 96