Chemistry for Environmental Engineering and Science, 5th Edition

CHAPTER 11 - PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

11-1 Composite samples are often obtained for evaluating the efficiency of wastewater
treatment systems. Composite samples reduce the number of samples required and thus
entail less costs. They are justified in use where average concentrations over a period
of time, rather than variations in concentration with time are used to determine
regulatory compliance.

11-2 Volumetric analyses depend upon the measurement of liquid standard solution volumes
to complete particular reactions in samples submitted to test. Colorimetric analyses
depend upon the formation of a color in sample following the addition of standard
solutions, the intensity of which is a function of the concentration of a particular
substance of interest in the sample. Gravimetric analyses depend upon the measured
weight of a material of interest in a sample.

11-3 See the 4 listed items under precipitation on page 454.

11-4 Crucibles and dishes used for gravimetric work must be pretreated to eliminate dirt and
moisture. They must be heat treated under exactly the same conditions as those to
which the container will be subjected in the actual determination. After heat
conditioning, they must be cooled and stored in a dessicator to prevent uptake of
moisture. All weighings must be at room temperature.

11-5 Dishes used in gravimetric analysis should be pretreated under exactly the same
conditions and temperature as those to which dish will be subjected in the actual
analytical determination.

11-6 103°C is used to remove all free water from a sample, while minimizing the loss of
other materials. 180° is used to remove water of crystallization from inorganic salts as
well as from water. 550°C is used to destroy all organic matter while minimizing the
loss of inorganic salts.

11-7 (1) To prevent air currents due to heat convection which tends to make warm samples
weigh less and cold samples weigh more than their true value.

(2) To prevent the pickup of moisture while the samples are cooling.

11-8 Equipment to measure the sample accurately, a standard solution of suitable strength, an
indicator to show when the stoichiometric endpoint has been reached, and a carefully
calibrated burette for measuring the volume of standard solution required to reach the
endpoint.

11-1
11-9 That calibrated to contain a definite volume and that calibrated to deliver a prescribed
volume.

11-10 The pipet must be clean, it must be held in a vertical position during sample delivery, it
must be allowed to drain after delivery for about 5 seconds, and the tip of the pipet must
then be touched against the wall of the container into which the delivery is made.

11-11 A standard solution is one whose strength or reacting value per unit volume is known.
An equivalent solution is a standard solution that contains one equivalent weight of a
substance per liter of solution.

11-12 A primary standard is a chemical used for calibration for volumetric analysis which has
a known purity. A solution that has been calibrated against a primary standard may be
used as a secondary standard in calibrations for volumetric analysis.

11-13 (a) H2SO4 F.W. = 2(1) + 32 + 4(16) = 98

(b) HCl F.W. = 1 + 35.5 = 36.5

E.W. = F.W./1 = 36.5
====
(c) Ca(OH)2 F.W. = 40 + 2(16) + 2(1) = 74
E.W. = F.W./2 = 37
==
(d) CH3COOH F.W. = 2(12) + 4(1) + 2(16) = 60
E.W. = F.W./1 = 60
==

11-14 (a) KMnO4 F.W. = 39 + 55 + 4(16) = 158

E.W. = F.W./5 = 31.6
====
(b) Ag2SO4 F.W. = 2(108) + 32 + 4(16) = 312
E.W. = F.W./2 = 156
===
(c) K2Cr2O7 F.W. = 2(39) + 2(52) + 7(16) = 294
E.W. = F.W./6 = 49
==
(d) BaCl2 F.W. = 137.3 + 2(35.5) = 208.3
E.W. = F.W./2 = 104.2
=====

11-15 F.W. -- AgNO3 = 108 + 14 + 3(16) = 170

E.W. = F.W./1 = 170 g
500
Wt. required = 170 ∞ 0.1 ∞ 1000 = 8.5 g

11-2
11-16 F.W. Fe(NH4)2(SO4)2•6H2O = 56 + 2(14) + 8(1) + 64 + 8(16) + 6(18) = 392
E.W. = F.W./1 = 392 g
Wt. required = 0.25 ∞ 392 = 98 g

11-17 Electrometric (pH meter, amperometric), acid-base (Table 11-2, page 463), precipitation
(potassium chromate in chloride analysis), adsorption (starch in iodometric), and
oxidation-reduction (Ferroin in COD analysis).

11-18 Strong acids or bases are used as standard titrating solutions in acid-base titrations since
they completely ionize in solution and thus the nature of their speciation is solution is
well defined.
11-19 (a) A pH meter is the most commonly used potentiometric indicator. (b) Potentiometric
indicator are preferable to color indicators as they are not adversely affected by colored
or turbid samples and are not as subject to investigator's possible limitations in color
recognition.

11-20 Absorption indicators and those that change with oxidation-reduction potential.
11-21 E.W. Ca(OH)2 = F.W./2 = (40 + 34)/2 = 37
10(0.02)(37)(1000)
Ca(OH)2 = 50 = 148 mg/l

11-22 E.W. Cl– = 35.5

10(0.01)(35.5)(1000)
Cl– = 100 = 35.5 mg/l

11-23 (a) Lambert's law relates to the absorption of light as a function of the depth of a
solution, while Beer's law relates to the absorption of light as a function of the
concentration of a solution. (b) To follow Beer's law requires that light be absorbed
exponentially with solution concentration.

11-24 c1 l1 = c2 l2
l2 30
c1 = c2 l = 40 10 = 120 units
1

11-3
11-25 Colorimetric methods are calibrated by making observations of a series of standard
solutions prepared in the same manner as regular tests are to be run, and comparing the
results from sample analysis with that of the standard solutions.

I
11-26 T = 0.7 = Io

Io 1.0
A = log I = log 0.7 = log 1.43 = 0.155

11-27 c1 l1 = c2 l2
l2 40
c1 = c2 l = 1 5.5 = 7.3 mg/l
1

11-28 T = 0.85 = 10-a2c = 10-a2(0.1)

log 0.85 = – 0.1 a2
– log 0.85 0.0703
a2 = 0.1 = 0.1 = 0.703
1
T = 10-0.703(0.2) = 10-0.1406 = 1.382 = 0.725

T = 72.5 percent

11-29 Turbidimetry and nephelometry. Turbidity methods make use of the interference of
particles in solution to the transmission of light, while nephelometric methods measure
the reflection of light off particles measured at 90o to the direction of light transmission
through the solution.

11-4