Prepared by:

Engr. Patrick Martinn

P. Demagante
Instructor, Aeronautical
Engineering
 Module 3
History and

MIDTERM Developments of
Helicopter and Its

PERIOD
Configuration
Module 4
Basic Helicopter
Aerodynamics

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design

 Overview: Helicopters
Discussion on the history
and development of
helicopters
Distinguish different
helicopter configurations
Review of the helicopter
primary flight controls

Master Lecture: Helicopter Flight

Dynamics and Controls w/ Leonardo
Helicopters' Dr. James Wang
AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 56:50 3
 Helicopter Flight Controls
- How To Fly a Helicopter?
17:07

▪ Helicopter is an aircraft that uses ▪ An aircraft that is lifted and propelled

rotating wings to provide lift, by one or more horizontal rotors,
propulsion, and control. each rotor consisting of two or more
rotor blades.
▪ Helicopters are classified as
rotorcraft or rotary‐wing aircraft to ▪ The word “helicopter” is adapted
distinguish them from fixed‐wing from the French hélicoptère, coined
aircraft because the helicopter by Gustave de Ponton d’Amécourt in
derives its source of lift from the rotor 1861.
blades rotating around a mast.
▪ It is linked to the Greek words:
helix/helikos (“spiral” or “turning”)
and pteron (“wing”).

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 4

▪ Year 400 C.E. There are historical
references to a Chinese kite that
used a rotary wing as a source of lift.
▪ 15th Century. Leonardo da Vinci
made drawings of a helicopter that
used a spiral airscrew to obtain lift.
▪ 19th Century. The first scientific
exposition of the principles that
ultimately led to the successful
helicopter came in 1843 from Sir
George Cayley, who is also regarded
by many as the father of fixed‐wing
flight.
AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 5
▪ On September 29, 1907, the Breguet
brothers, Louis and Jacques, under
the guidance of the physiologist and
aviation pioneer Charles Richet
made a short flight in their
Gyroplane No. 1, powered by a
45‐horsepower engine.
▪ The Gyroplane had a spiderweb‐like
frame and four sets of rotors. The
piloted aircraft lifted from the ground
to a height of about two feet, but it
was tethered and not under any
control.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 6

▪ In November 1907, Paul Cornu, who
was a bicycle maker like the Wright
brothers, attained a free flight of
about 20 seconds’ duration, reaching
a height of one foot in a twin‐rotor.
▪ (During this time in the United States,
Igor Sikorsky is already making
experiments about vertical flight,
however, most of his experiments are
unsuccessful)

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 7

 How The Auto-
Giro Works (1931)
07:04

Gyrocopter low g
power push over crash
02:24

▪ On January 9, 1923, Juan de la Cierva

made the first successful flight of an
autogiro (autogyro). An autogiro
operates on a different principle than a
helicopter.
▪ Its rotor is not powered but obtains lift
by its mechanical rotation as the
autogiro moves forward through the air.
▪ It has the advantage of a relatively short
takeoff and a near vertical descent, and
the subsequent success of Cierva’s
autogiros and those of his competitors
seemed to cast a pall on the future of
helicopter development.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 8

▪ In 1936 Germany stepped to the
forefront of helicopter development
with the Focke Achgelis Fa 61, which
had two three‐bladed rotors mounted
on outriggers and powered by a
160‐horsepower radial engine.
▪ The Fa 61 had controllable cyclic
pitch and set numerous records,
including, in 1938, an altitude flight of
11,243 feet and a cross‐country flight
of 143 miles.
▪ First successful helicopter

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 9

▪ On September 14, 1939, the VS‐300,
the world’s first practical
helicopter, took flight at Stratford,
Connecticut.
▪ Designed by Igor Sikorsky and built
by the Vought‐Sikorsky Aircraft
Division of the United Aircraft
Corporation, the helicopter was this
first to incorporate a single main
rotor and tail rotor design.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 10

▪ Charles Kaman’s first helicopter, the
K‐125 first flew on 15 January 1947. It
led to the design of the improved
K‐225 helicopter.
▪ On December 11, 1951, he modified
his K‐225 helicopter with a new kind
of engine, the turboshaft engine
making it the first turbine‐powered
helicopter in the world.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 11

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 12
▪ Single Rotor
▪ Tandem Rotor
▪ Coaxial Rotor
▪ Intermesh Rotor
▪ Transverse / Tilt Rotor
▪ * Autogyro

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 13

▪ With a single main rotor helicopter,
the creation of torque as the engine
turns the rotor creates a torque effect
that causes the body of the helicopter
to turn in the opposite direction of
the rotor.
▪ To eliminate this effect, some sort of
antitorque control must be used with
a sufficient margin of power available
to allow the helicopter to maintain its
heading and provide yaw control.
▪ Tail Rotor System
▪ Tail rotor, ducted fan, NOTAR

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 14

▪ Tandem rotor (sometimes referred to
as dual rotor) helicopters have two
large horizontal rotor assemblies; a
twin rotor system.
▪ Tandem rotor helicopters use
counterrotating rotors, with each
canceling out the other’s torque.
Counterrotating rotor blades won’t
collide with and destroy each other if
they flex into the other rotor’s pathway.
▪ This configuration also has the
advantage of being able to hold more
weight with shorter blades, since there
are two sets.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 15

▪ Coaxial rotors are a pair of rotors
turning in opposite directions, but
mounted on a mast, with the same
axis of rotation, one above the other.
▪ This configuration is a noted feature
of helicopters produced by the
Russian Kamov helicopter design
bureau.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 16

▪ Intermeshing rotors on a helicopter
are a set of two rotors turning in
opposite directions, with each rotor
mast mounted on the helicopter with
a slight angle to the other so that the
blades intermesh without colliding.
▪ The arrangement allows the
helicopter to function without the
need for a tail rotor. This
configuration is sometimes referred
to as a synchropter.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 17

▪ Transverse rotors are mounted on the
end of wings or outriggers
perpendicular to the body of the
aircraft.
▪ Like tandem rotors and intermeshing
rotors, the transverse rotor also uses
differential collective pitch. But like
the intermeshing rotors, the
transverse rotors use the concept for
changes in the roll attitude of the
rotorcraft.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 18

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 19
AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 20
▪ There are three major controls in a
helicopter that the pilot must use
during flight. They are the collective
pitch control, the cyclic pitch control,
and the antitorque pedals for tail
rotor control.
▪ In addition to these major controls,
the pilot must also use the throttle
control, which is usually mounted
directly to the collective pitch control
in order to fly the helicopter.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 21

 How To FLY A
HELICOPTER
05:44
Torque effect
on helicopters
01:16

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 22

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 23
▪ The collective is used to make
changes to the pitch angle of the
main rotor blades and does this
simultaneously, or collectively, as the
name implies.
▪ As the collective pitch control is
raised, there is a simultaneous and
equal increase in pitch angle of all
main rotor blades; as it is lowered,
there is a simultaneous and equal
decrease in pitch angle.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 24

The function of the throttle is to ▪ A governor is a sensing device that
regulate engine rpm: senses rotor and engine rpm and
makes the necessary adjustments in
▪ Twisting the throttle to the left -
order to keep rotor rpm constant.
Increases rpm;
▪ A correlator is a mechanical
▪ Twisting the throttle to the right –
connection between the collective
Decreases rpm. lever and the engine throttle. This
system maintains rpm close to the
desired value, but still requires
adjustment of the throttle for fine
tuning.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 25

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 26
▪ The collective pitch is the primary
control for manifold pressure, and the
throttle is the primary control for
rpm.
▪ However, the collective pitch control
also influences rpm, and the throttle
also influences manifold pressure;
therefore, each is a secondary control
of the other’s function.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 27

▪ The cyclic control allows the pilot to
fly the helicopter in any direction of
travel: forward, rearward, left, and
right.
▪ The purpose of the cyclic pitch
control is to tilt the tip‐path plane in
the direction of the desired horizontal
direction. The cyclic controls the
rotor disk tilt versus the horizon,
which directs the rotor disk thrust to
enable the pilot to control the
direction of travel of the helicopter.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 28

▪ The antitorque pedals, located on the ▪ The tail rotor is used to control the
cabin floor by the pilot’s feet, control heading of the helicopter while
the pitch and therefore the thrust of hovering or when making hovering
the tail rotor blades or other turns, as well as counteracting the
antitorque system. torque of the main rotor.
▪ A vertical fin or stabilizer is used in
many single‐rotor helicopters to help
aid in heading control. The fin is
designed to optimize directional
stability in flight with a zero-tail rotor
thrust setting.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 29

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 30
▪ Main Rotor System
▪ Fuselage
▪ Empennage
▪ Tail Rotor System

▪ Airframe
▪ Landing Gear
▪ Transmission
▪ Powerplant

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 31

The rotor system is the rotating part of
a helicopter which generates lift. The
rotor consists of a mast, hub, and rotor
blades.
▪ MAST ‐ is a hollow cylindrical metal
shaft which extends upwards from
and is driven and sometimes
supported by the transmission.
▪ HUB ‐ is the attachment point for the
rotor blades at the top of the mast.
▪ ROTOR BLADES – rotating airfoils to
create a lift for the helicopter.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 32

Fully Articulated
▪ Feather
▪ Tilt / Flap
▪ Lead / Lag
Semi Rigid
▪ Tilt / Flap
▪ Lead / Lag
Rigid
▪ Feather

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 33

Fully articulated rotor systems allow
each blade to:
▪ lead/lag (move back and forth in
plane)
▪ flap (move up and down about an
inboard mounted hinge)
independent of the other blades, and
▪ feather (rotate about the pitch axis to
change lift)

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 34

A semirigid rotor system is usually
composed of two blades that are rigidly
mounted to the main rotor hub. The main
rotor hub is free to tilt with respect to the
main rotor shaft on what is known as a
teetering hinge. This allows the blades
to flap together as a unit.
As one blade flaps up, the other flaps
down. Since there is no vertical drag
hinge, lead/lag forces are absorbed and
mitigated by blade bending. The
semirigid rotor is also capable of
feathering, which means that the pitch
angle of the blade changes. This is made
possible by the feathering hinge.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 35

In this system, the blade roots are
rigidly attached to the rotor hub. Rigid
rotor systems tend to behave like fully
articulated systems through
aerodynamics but lack flapping or
lead/lag hinges.
Instead, the blades accommodate
these motions by bending. They cannot
flap or lead/lag, but they can be
feathered. Rigid rotor systems may
become more common because the
system is fundamentally easier to
design and offers the best properties
of both semirigid and fully articulated
systems.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 36

 THE MAGIC SAUCE THAT
MAKES A HELICOPTER WORK
4:57

The purpose of the swash plate is to ▪ Stationary swash plate is mounted

convert stationary control inputs from around the main rotor mast and
the pilot into rotating inputs which can connected to the cyclic and
be connected to the rotor blades or collective controls by a series of
control surfaces. It consists of two main pushrods. It is restrained from
parts: rotating by an antidrive link but can
tilt in all directions and move
vertically.
▪ Rotating swash plate is mounted to
the stationary swash plate by means
of a uniball sleeve. It is connected to
the mast by drive links and must
rotate in constant relationship with
the main rotor mast.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 37

 Rotor Head
Animation
07:20
Bell-206 Swashplate
Function
01:10

Collective Pitch Control Cyclic Pitch Control

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 38

The freewheeling unit automatically
disengages the engine from the main
rotor when engine revolutions per
minute (rpm) is less than main rotor
rpm.
This allows the main rotor and tail rotor
to continue turning at normal inflight
speeds. The most common
freewheeling unit assembly consists of
a one‐way sprag clutch located
between the engine and main rotor
transmission.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 39

 ▪ Note(s):

END OF
MODULE 03

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 40

 How does a
Helicopter fly ?
08:28

Recall how aerodynamics

affect helicopter flight
Analyze different helicopter
flight conditions
Discussion of Momentum
Theory and Wake Analysis
Discussion on major factors
affecting performance of
helicopters
Explain basic helicopter
performance through
performance charts
Analyze the Preliminary
Specifications (Comparative
Analysis) of helicopters.
AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 41
▪ Lift/Drag, L/D ▪ Lift, L
▪ Probably the ▪ opposes the downward force of
single most weight, is produced by the
important rotor dynamic effect of the air acting
design parameter on the airfoil and acts
which should be as perpendicular to the flightpath
high as possible. through the center of lift.
▪ Thrust, T
▪ Drag, DT ▪ the forward force
▪ a rearward, retarding produced by the
force caused by powerplant or rotor.
disruption of airflow ▪ The resultant lift and
How drag affects Forces acting
by the wing, rotor, thrust determines the
a helicopter on a helicopter
fuselage, and other 05:23 01:54 direction of
protruding objects. movement of the
▪ Parasite, Do helicopter.
▪ Profile
▪ Form (Shape)
▪ Load factor, Gs, L/W
▪ is the ratio of the
▪ Friction (SF) ▪ Weight, W load supported by
▪ Interference (V)
the main rotor
▪ the combined load of the aircraft itself, the system to the actual
▪ Induced (Lift), Di crew, the fuel, and the cargo or baggage. weight of the
helicopter and its
AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design ▪ Basic Empty Weight + Payload contents 42
▪ An airfoil is any surface producing
more lift than drag when passing
through the air at a suitable angle.
▪ Certain airfoils, such as rotor blades,
combine some of these functions.
▪ The main and tail rotor blades of the
helicopter are airfoils, and air is
forced to pass around the blades by
mechanically powered rotation.
▪ Symmetrical or asymmetrical
▪ reflex

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 43

 Airfoils and lift -
How lift is created
05:01

▪ Blade span ▪ Flightpath velocity, V

▪ the length of the rotor blade from ▪ the speed and direction of the airfoil
center of rotation to tip of the blade. passing through the air.
▪ Chord line ▪ Induced flow
▪ a straight line intersecting leading and ▪ the downward flow of air through the
trailing edges of the airfoil. rotor disk.
▪ Chord, C ▪ Center of pressure
▪ the length of the chord line from ▪ the point along the chord line of an
leading edge to trailing edge. airfoil through which all aerodynamic
forces are considered to act.
▪ Mean camber line
▪ a line drawn halfway between the
upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 44

Angle of Incidence, AOI, Angle of Attack, AOA,
(Mechanical) (Aerodynamic)
▪ The angle between the chord line ▪ The angle measured between the
and rotor disk. It is usually referred resultant relative wind and chord
to as blade pitch angle. line.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 45

Tip-Path Plane Plane of Rotation

▪ It is the plane developed by the tip of ▪ It is the plane of the disk in

the blades in the plane of rotation. comparison to the mast. This is
This changes with coning angles changed with the cyclic movement.
created with load or with collective
▪ Parallel with the tip-path plane.
input.
▪ It defines the circle scribed by the
average flight path of the blade tips
in a rotor system. The tip-path-plane
is most often referred to as the rotor
disk.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 46

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 47
AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 48
 ▪ This increases the induced air
velocity and blade loading near the
inboard section of the blade.
▪ Rotational relative wind velocity is
highest at blade tips, decreasing
uniformly to zero at the axis of
▪ This is because of lift differential due rotation (center of the mast).
to differing rotational relative wind
values along the blade, the blade
should be designed with a twist to
alleviate internal blade stress and
distribute the lifting force more
evenly along the blade.
▪ Blade twist provides higher pitch
angles at the root where velocity is
low and lower pitch angles nearer the
tip where velocity is higher.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 49

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 50
 How the relative wind
affects helicopters
04:05

▪ Relative wind is
airflow relative to
an airfoil.
Movement of an
airfoil through the
air creates relative
wind.
▪ Relative wind
moves in a
parallel but
opposite direction
to movement of
the airfoil.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 51

There are two parts to wind passing a
rotor blade:
▪ Horizontal part
▪ caused by the blades turning plus
movement of the helicopter through
the air
▪ Vertical part
▪ caused by the air being forced down
through the rotor blades plus any
movement of the air relative to the
blades caused by the helicopter
climbing or descending

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 52

▪ The rotation of rotor blades as they
turn about the mast produces
rotational relative wind (tip‐path
plane).
▪ The term rotational refers to the
method of producing relative wind.
▪ Rotational relative wind flows
opposite the physical flightpath of
the airfoil, striking the blade at 90° to
the leading edge and parallel to the
plane of rotation; and it is constantly
changing in direction during rotation.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 53

▪ When the helicopter has horizontal
motion, airspeed further modifies the
resultant relative wind. The airspeed
component of relative wind results from
the helicopter moving through the air.
▪ This airspeed component is added to, ▪ The pattern of air circulation through
or subtracted from, the rotational the disk changes when the aircraft has
relative wind depending on whether horizontal motion. As the helicopter
the blade is advancing or retreating in gains airspeed, the addition of forward
relation to helicopter movement. velocity results in decreased induced
flow velocity.
▪ Introduction of airspeed relative wind
also modifies induced flow. Generally, ▪ This change results in an improved
the downward velocity of induced flow efficiency (additional lift) being
is reduced. produced from a given blade pitch
setting.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 54

▪ As blade pitch angle is increased, the
rotor system induces a downward flow
of air through the rotor blades creating
a downward component of air that is
added to the rotational relative wind.
▪ Because the blades are moving
horizontally, some of the air is
displaced downward. The blades travel
along the same path and pass a given
point in rapid succession.
▪ Rotor blade action changes the still air
to a column of descending air.
Therefore, each blade has a decreased
AOA due to the downwash.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 55

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 56
▪ Ground effect is the increased efficiency of the rotor
system caused by interference of the airflow when near
the ground.
▪ The air pressure or density is increased, which acts to
decrease the downward velocity of air. Ground effect
permits relative wind to be more horizontal, lift vector to
be more vertical, and induced drag to be reduced. These
conditions allow the rotor system to be more efficient.
▪ Rotor efficiency is increased by ground effect to a height
of about one rotor diameter (measured from the ground
to the rotor disk) for most helicopters.
▪ Since the induced flow velocities are decreased, the AOA
is increased, which requires a reduced blade pitch angle
and a reduction in induced drag. This reduces the power
required to hover IGE.
AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 57
AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 58
▪ The benefit of placing the helicopter
near the ground is lost above IGE
altitude.
▪ Above this altitude, the power
required to hover remains nearly
constant, given similar conditions
(such as wind).
▪ Induced flow velocity is increased,
resulting in a decrease in AOA and a
decrease in lift.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 59

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 60
 How to FLY A
HELICOPTER Part 2
04:13

▪ Hovering Flight ▪ Vertical Flight

▪ Translating Tendency
or Drift
▪ Forward Flight
▪ Dissymmetry of Lift
▪ Pendular Action
▪ Translational Lift
▪ Coning
▪ Induced Flow
▪ Coriolis Effect (Law of
Conservation of ▪ Transverse Flow Effect
Angular Momentum) ▪ Sideward Flight
▪ Ground Effect ▪ Rearward Flight
▪ Gyroscopic Precession ▪ Turning flight

Autorotation (unpowered flight)

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 61
 Translating Tendency - Why
helicopters drift in a hover
02:21

Total lift and thrust forces of a rotor are

perpendicular to the rotor disk.

Translating Tendency (Drift)

▪ During hovering flight, a single main
rotor helicopter tends to move in the
direction of tail rotor thrust. This
lateral (or sideward) movement is
called translating tendency.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 62

 Pendular Action
in helicopters
01:39

Pendular Action
▪ Since the fuselage of the helicopter,
with a single main rotor, is suspended
from a single point and has
considerable mass, it is free to
oscillate either longitudinally or
laterally in the same way as a
pendulum.
▪ This pendular action can be
exaggerated by overcontrolling;
therefore, control movements should
be smooth and not exaggerated.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 63

 Helicopter
Blade Coning
01:50

Coning
▪ As lift on the blades is increased (in a
takeoff, for example), two major
forces are acting at the same time—
centrifugal force acting outward, and
lift acting upward. The result of these
two forces is that the blades assume a
conical path instead of remaining in
the plane perpendicular to the mast.
▪ This can be seen in any helicopter
when it takes off; the rotor disk
changes from flat to a slight cone
shape.
AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 64
 Coriolis Effect
and Helicopters
01:50

Coriolis Effect (Law of Conservation

of Angular Momentum)
▪ Angular momentum is the moment of
inertia (mass times distance from the
center of rotation squared) multiplied
by the speed of rotation.
▪ The Coriolis effect is when the rotor
blades speed up or slow down as the
center of gravity moves closer or
further away, respectively, from the
axis of rotation.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 65

Gyroscopic Precession
▪ The spinning main rotor of a
helicopter acts like a gyroscope. As
such, it has the properties of
gyroscopic action, one of which is
precession. Gyroscopic precession is
the resultant action or deflection of a
spinning object when a force is
applied to this object. This action
occurs approximately 90° in the
direction of rotation from the point
where the force is applied (or 90°
later in the rotation cycle). How gyroscopic precession
affects helicopters
01:54
AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 66
AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 67
▪ Hovering is an element of vertical
flight. Increasing the angle of
incidence of the rotor blades (pitch)
while keeping their rotation speed
constant generates additional lift and
the helicopter ascends. Decreasing
the pitch causes the helicopter to
descend. In a no‐wind condition in
which lift, and thrust are less than
weight and drag, the helicopter
descends vertically. If lift and thrust
are greater than weight and drag, the
helicopter ascends vertically.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 68

 ▪ In steady forward flight, with no
change in airspeed or vertical speed,
the four forces of lift, thrust, drag, and
weight must be in balance. Once the
tip‐path plane is tilted forward, the
total lift‐thrust force is also tilted
forward.
▪ Airflow across the rotor system in
forward flight varies from airflow at a
hover. In forward flight, air flows
opposite the aircraft’s flightpath. The
velocity of this air flow equals the
helicopter’s forward speed. Because
the rotor blades turn in a circular
pattern, the velocity of airflow across
a blade depends on the position of
the blade in the plane of rotation at a
given instant, its rotational velocity,
and airspeed of the helicopter

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 69

▪ The highest velocity of airflow occurs
over the right side (3 o’clock position)
of the helicopter (advancing blade) and
decreases to rotational velocity over the
nose.
▪ It continues to decrease until the lowest
velocity of airflow occurs over the left
side (9 o’clock position) of the
helicopter (retreating blade) and
increases to rotational velocity over the
tail.
▪ It continues to increase until the blade
is back at the 3 o’clock position.
AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 70
Dissymmetry of Lift
▪ It is the differential (unequal) lift
between advancing and retreating
halves of the rotor disk caused by the
different wind flow velocity across
each half. This difference in lift would
cause the helicopter to be
uncontrollable in any situation other
than hovering in a calm wind.
▪ As result of the relative wind speed,
the advancing blade side of the rotor
disk can produce more lift than the
retreating blade side.
AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 71
▪ DoL is
counteracted by
rotor blade
flapping and
feathering.

▪ To compensate
for blowback,
you must move
the cyclic
forward

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 72

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 73
 Effective Translational Lift
▪ As speed increases, translational lift
becomes more effective, nose rises
or pitches up, and aircraft rolls to the
right. The combined effects of
dissymmetry of lift, gyroscopic
Translational Lift precession, and transverse flow effect
cause this tendency. Once the
▪ Improved rotor efficiency resulting helicopter is transitioning through
from directional flight is called ETL, apply forward and left lateral
translational lift. The efficiency of the cyclic input to maintain a constant
rotor-disk attitude.
hovering rotor system is greatly
improved with each knot of incoming Translational Thrust
wind gained by horizontal movement ▪ As the tail rotor works in
of the aircraft or surface wind. As the progressively less turbulent air, this
incoming wind produced by aircraft improved efficiency produces more
movement or surface wind enters the antitorque thrust, causing the nose of
rotor system, turbulence and vortices the aircraft to yaw left, apply right
are left behind and the flow of air pedal (decreasing the AOA in the tail
becomes more horizontal. rotor blades) in response.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 74

Induced Flow (Downwash)
▪ Affects rotational relative wind thus
decreasing AOA (then efficiency).
Transverse Flow Effect
▪ Rolling tendency due to lift
difference of forward (goes up)and
aft (goes down) portion of the rotor
disk. Acting as a gyro, maximum
effect occurs 90 deg in the direction
of rotation.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 75

▪ The tip‐path plane is tilted in the
direction that flight is desired. This
tilts the total lift‐thrust vector
sideward. In this case, the vertical or
lift component is still straight up and
weight straight down, but the
horizontal or thrust component now
acts sideward with drag acting to the
opposite side.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 76

▪ For rearward flight, the tip‐path plane
is tilted rearward, which, in turn, tilts
the lift‐thrust vector rearward. Drag
now acts forward with the lift
component straight up and weight
straight down.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 77

▪ In forward flight, the rotor disk is
tilted forward, which also tilts the
total lift-thrust force of the rotor disk
forward. When the helicopter is
banked, the rotor disk is tilted
sideward resulting in lift being
separated into two components. Lift
acting upward and opposing weight
is called the vertical component of
lift. Lift acting horizontally and
opposing inertia (centrifugal force) is
the horizontal component of lift
(centripetal force).

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 78

▪ Autorotation is the state of flight
where the main rotor system of a
helicopter is being turned by the
action of air moving up through the
rotor rather than engine power
driving the rotor.
▪ In normal, powered flight, air is
drawn into the main rotor system
from above and exhausted
downward, but during autorotation,
air moves up into the rotor system
from below as the helicopter
descends.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 79

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 80
AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 81
▪ The driven region, also called the propeller region, is nearest the blade tips.
Normally, it consists of about 30 percent of the radius. In the driven region, the total
aerodynamic force (TAF) acts behind the axis of rotation, resulting in an overall
drag force.
▪ The driving region, or autorotative region, normally lies between 25 to 70
percent of the blade radius, which produces the forces needed to turn the blades
during autorotation. Total aerodynamic force (TAF) in the driving region is inclined
slightly forward of the axis of rotation, producing a continual acceleration force.
▪ The inner 25 percent of the rotor blade is referred to as the stall region and
operates above its maximum AOA (stall angle), causing drag, which tends to slow
rotation of the blade.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 82

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 83
AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 84
▪ Many engineering
applications require the
consideration of variable
systems of particles.
▪ e.g., hydraulics, rocket
engine, etc.
➢ Steady stream (min=mout) Mass
decreases
➢ Streams Gaining
during flight:
or Losing Mass (m) Fuel burned

MECH 323 - Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 85

 1 1
[ ]
𝑡 𝑡

Mass flow rate

Mass in the
system is
considered
constant.

Force is equal to the

mass flow rate and
change in velocity

ⅆ𝑚
𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑣rel
ⅆ𝑡

MECH 323 - Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 86

▪ 𝑝1 = 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑢 ⅆ𝑚
▪ 𝑝2 = 𝑚 + ⅆ𝑚 𝑣 + ⅆ𝑣
▪ 𝑝2 = 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑚 ⅆ𝑣 + 𝑣 ⅆ𝑚 + ⅆ𝑚 ⅆ𝑣
▪ ⅆ𝑝 = (𝑚𝑣 + 𝑚 ⅆ𝑣 + 𝑣 ⅆ𝑚 + ⅆ𝑚 ⅆ𝑣) − (𝑚𝑣 +
𝑢 ⅆ𝑚)
▪ ⅆ𝑝 = (𝑚 ⅆ𝑣 + 𝑣 ⅆ𝑚 + ⅆ𝑚 ⅆ𝑣) − (𝑢 ⅆ𝑚)
▪ ⅆ𝑝 = 𝑚 ⅆ𝑣 − (𝑢 − 𝑣 + ⅆ𝑣 ) ⅆ𝑚
▪ Applying Newton’s 2nd Law:
ⅆ𝑝 ⅆ𝑣 ⅆ𝑚 ⅆ𝑣 ⅆ𝑚
▪ 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = =𝑚 − 𝑢 − 𝑣 + ⅆ𝑣 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑚 − 𝑣rel
ⅆ𝑡 ⅆ𝑡 ⅆ𝑡 ⅆ𝑡 ⅆ𝑡

MECH 323 - Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 87

 ⅆ𝑚
= 𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝐴𝑉𝑖
ⅆ𝑡

VA = Vc = 0; VB = Vs
Kinetic Energy from A to B per unit time
1 1
ሶ =
▪ ⅆ𝐾𝐸 𝑚ሶ 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 2 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑉𝐵 2
2 2
Work done by the rotor disk per unit time
𝑑𝑠
▪ 𝑊ሶ = 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑉𝑖
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
▪ 𝑇=𝑉 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑉𝐵
𝑑𝑡

▪ 𝐝𝑲𝑬 ሶ
ሶ = 𝒅𝑾 𝐓 = 𝟐𝝆𝑨𝑽𝟐𝒊
1
▪ 𝑚ሶ 𝑉𝐵 2 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝑖 ; 𝑽𝑩 = 𝟐𝑽𝒊
2

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 88

 2
−𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐 𝑇
𝑉𝑖 = + +
2 2 2𝜌𝐴

ⅆ𝑚
= 𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝐴(𝑉𝑐 +𝑉𝑖 )
ⅆ𝑡

VA = Vc ; VB = Vs +Vc
Kinetic Energy from A to B per unit time
1 1
ሶ =
▪ ⅆ𝐾𝐸 𝑚ሶ 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 2 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑉𝑠 2
2 2
Work done by the rotor disk per unit time
𝑑𝑠
▪ 𝑊ሶ = 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑉𝑖
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚
▪ 𝑇=𝑉 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑉𝑠
𝑑𝑡

▪ 𝐝𝑲𝑬 ሶ
ሶ = 𝒅𝑾 𝐓 = 𝟐𝝆𝑨(𝑽𝒄 +𝑽𝒊 ) 𝑽𝒊
1
▪ 𝑚ሶ 𝑉𝑠 2 = 𝑚ሶ 𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑖 ; 𝑽𝒔 = 𝟐𝑽𝒊
2

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 89

 Less induced velocity is
required for climb as the
momentum change
applied to a higher initial
velocity is more effective.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 90

 ⅆ𝑚
= 𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝐴(𝑑𝑉)
ⅆ𝑡
2
𝑉𝑑 𝑉𝑑 𝑇
𝑉𝑖 = + +
2 2 2𝜌𝐴

Moderate descending (ring state, no T)

𝐓 = 𝟐𝝆𝑨(𝑽𝒅 −𝑽𝒊 ) 𝑽𝒊

𝐓 = 𝟐𝝆𝑨(𝑽𝒄 +𝑽𝒊 ) 𝑽𝒊
Slowly descending (Positive T)

Fast descent rate (windmilling)

Autorotation

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 𝐓 = 𝝆𝑨(𝑽𝒄 ) 𝟎 91

▪ Engine power is required to be ▪ Neglecting power losses in
supplied to the disk in order to transmission, fuselage drag
produce the required thrust. components, blade profile drag
power, etc. The power required for
▪ There will be two components of
the operation of the rotor will be,
power requirement in this simple
analysis. Power is required to
produce the momentum change 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑞′ 𝑑 = 𝑇𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑞′ 𝑑 = 𝑇(𝑉𝑐 +𝑉𝑖 )
2
(𝑃1 = 𝑇𝑉𝑖 ) −𝑉𝑐 𝑉𝑐 𝑇
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑞′ 𝑑 = 𝑇(𝑉𝑐 + + + )
2 2 2𝜌𝐴
▪ and power is required to make the
helicopter climb 𝑽𝒄 𝑽𝒄 𝟐
𝑻
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒒′ 𝒅 = 𝑻( + + )
(𝑃2 = 𝑇𝑉𝑐 ) 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝝆𝑨

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 92

 Assuming climb rates are
small so thrust
approximately equals
weight, the variation of
power required for
different climb rates is
shown.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 93

The production of performance charts ▪ Performance (Section 5)
and diagrams for helicopters are
▪ Weight and Balance (Section 6)
regulatory as set out in Title 14 of the
Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) ▪ Aircraft and Systems Description
Part 27, Airworthiness Standards. (Section 7)
▪ General Information (Section 1) ▪ Handling, Servicing, and
▪ Operating Limitations (Section 2)
Maintenance (Section 8)
▪ Supplements (Section 9)
▪ Emergency Procedures (Section 3)
▪ Safety and Operational Tips (Section
▪ Normal Procedures (Section 4)
10)

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 94

Moisture (Humidity) – DENSITY Winds – VELOCITY
▪ decrease in hovering and takeoff ▪ takeoff and climb performance is
performance in high humidity greatly affected by wind
conditions.
▪ translational lift increases, resulting
Weight – WEIGHT in less power required to hover
▪ at higher gross weights, the ▪ increased tail rotor thrust absorbs
increased power required to hover power from the engine, which means
produces more torque, which means there is less power available to the
more antitorque thrust is required. main rotor to produce lift

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 95

▪ Height/Velocity Diagram ▪ Hovering Performance Chart
▪ to shows the combinations of airspeed ▪ to provided for in ground effect (IGE)
and height needed to complete a hover and out of ground effect (OGE)
landing after an engine failure hover under various conditions of
gross weight, altitude, temperature,
▪ Gross Weight vs. Altitude Chart and power
▪ to be an advisory of the autorotative
capability of the helicopter during ▪ Climb Performance Chart
takeoff and climb ▪ to show the change in torque, above or
below torque, required for level flight
▪ Autorotational Performance Chart under the same gross weight and
▪ to shows the various combinations of atmospheric conditions to obtain a
horizontal and vertical speeds that given rate of climb or descent
supply the required energy to keep the
rotor turning at a constant rpm

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 96

 (L) Sample height/velocity diagram for a Robinson Model R44 II.
(R) Gross weight versus density altitude.
AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 97
 An
autorotation
curve for the
S-300 shows
the various
combinations
of horizontal
and vertical
speeds that
supply the
required
energy to
keep the
rotor turning
at a constant
471 rpm.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 98

 (L) In ground
effect
hovering
ceiling versus
gross weight
chart.
(R) of ground
effect hover
ceiling versus
gross weight
chart.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 99

 Torque required for cruise or level flight.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 100

 (L) Maximum
rate-of-climb
chart.
(R) Climb/
descent
torque
percentage
chart.

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 101

▪ In orthographic projection shows the
six possible views of an object
▪ One-, two-, and three-view drawings
are the most common.
▪ Top (width)
▪ Front (height)
▪ Side (depth/length)

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 102

 ▪ Note(s):

END OF
MODULE 04

AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 103

 END OF
MIDTERM
PERIOD
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AE 412: Basic Helicopter and Propeller Design 104