Environmental Health Engineering and Management Journal 2023, 10(3), 273–279 doi 10.34172/EHEM.2023.

31
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Environmental Health
HE
Engineering and
MJ
Management Journal Original Article
Open Access
Publish Free

Development of microbial fuel cell for wastewater treatment

and electricity generation using domestic wastes
ID ID ID
Tensay Kifle , Esayas Alemayehu , Chali Dereje Kitila*
Department of Water Supply and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Jimma Institute of
Technology, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia

Abstract
Article History:
Background: The energy crisis is a growing problem around the world, requiring the creation of
Received: 30 August 2022
alternative energy sources that can generate less carbon dioxide and benefit the ecosystem. Re- Accepted: 14 January 2023
utilization of wastewater is becoming the emerging energy solution. Wastewater contains a large ePublished: 30 June 2023
amount of organic matter that can be oxidized in microbial fuel cells (MFCs) to produce electricity.
MFCs use biodegradable materials to create energy in the presence of microorganisms.
Methods: Purposive sampling technique was employed to collect samples from critical polluting
sources. The samples were certainly maintained in a refrigerator at 4°C. Several mixes for sample
were prepared and tested analytically- for physio-chemical and bacteriological characterizations of
each substrate status at pre- and post-treatment stages. Electricity generating capacity of MFCs that
employing different substrates was investigated experimentally using batch reactors. The cross-sectional
methodology was employed to study possible power generation.
Results: The maximum voltage output of 118.93, 144.84, and 89.76 mV were produced keeping the
resistance unlimited for MFC1 (urine substrate), MFC2 (blackwater substrate), and MFC3 (graywater
substrate), respectively. MFC that utilized graywater as a substrate brought the tiniest quantity of
electricity; however, it stood the most stable. The highest COD reduction (65.83%) in the process
was reported in urine substrate and the highest BOD5 removal (69.18%) was reported in black water
substrate.
Conclusion: The experimental results provided a promising indication of MFCs viability, providing
hope for future power generation and alternative wastewater treatment option in developing countries.
Keywords: Domestic wastes, Electricity generation, Microbial fuel cell, Substrate, Water purification
*Correspondence to:
Citation: Kifle T, Alemayehu E, Kitila CD. Development of microbial fuel cell for wastewater treatment
Chali Dereje Kitila,
and electricity generation using domestic wastes . Environmental Health Engineering and Management Email: [email protected]
Journal 2023; 10(3): 273–279. doi: 10.34172/EHEM.2023.31.

Introduction and green technology in recent years. MFC is regarded

A microbial fuel cell (MFC) is a bio-electrochemical system as a promising viable technology for meeting increasing
that produces electricity via natural breakdown + s of energy and environmental requirements principally while
microbes (1). It is a promising system that turns chemical wastewaters are used as substrates. MFCs produce useful
energy into electricity and eliminates contaminants from electricity and beside purify wastewater effluents that
wastewater using microorganisms’ catalytic action (2,3). potentially offsetting the operational costs of wastewater
Selective microorganisms can biologically breakdown treatment plants (5,6).
organic wastes and nutrients via simulating natural system It has been proved that MFCs have the potential to
generate electricity (10-12). The present study investigated
change (4). Specifically, bacteria can generates electricity
the potential for MFCs to generate electricity from
in MFCs while also biodegrading organic materials (5,6).
domestic wastes effluent particular to institutional setting
Biological treatment might take place in either an and examining their potential to treat domestic waste
aerobic or anaerobic setting (7). Microorganisms devour effluent discharged in developing country, Ethiopia.
dissolved and colloidal organic materials in wastewater
in both conditions (8). The operation of single chamber Materials and Methods
MFC involves anaerobic and aerobic conditions at Materials
electrodes, respectively (Figure 1). Plastic bottles
MFC technology has been a quickly rising, sustainable Plastic bottles are low-cost, lightweight, and long-lasting

© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Kerman University of Medical Sciences. This is an open-access article distributed under
the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Kifle et al

materials that may be easily molded into a number of Study design

products for a variety of uses. In the present study, plastic The MFC is made up of four main parts:
bottle that holds 2000 mL of wastewater samples were 1. Anode: The bacteria and organic debris are kept in an
employed in each chamber of the MFCs. anaerobic condition in the anode chamber.
2. Cathode: Container containing a conductive water
Electrode solution.
Electrodes are crucial components in electrochemical 3. Proton-exchange membrane: Salt is a proton-
systems (13). Metals and their alloys are electrode exchange membrane that divides the anode and
materials usually in use. Aluminum and stainless-steel cathode and allows protons to flow between the two
electrodes have been used for this study. chambers.
4. External circuit: It permits electrons to enter the
Salt bridge cathode and serves as a conduit for them to go
Salt bridge is a key element in MFC. It keeps separately through when they are extracted out of the anode’s
the anode and cathode electrodes. Water in the cathode solution.
contains dissolved oxygen and it needs to keep separate As a part of their digestive process, bacteria in the anode
the anode anaerobic. Furthermore, it must allow for chamber produce protons and electrons by oxidation.
spontaneous proton migration from the anode to the MFCs are well-known for their ability to transfer
cathode. chemical energy from organic substrates into electricity.
This is due to the so-called electrogenic bacteria’ unique
Copper wire metabolic activity. Anode and cathode are connected
Copper was utilized as outside circuit that interfaces the by an external circuit and split into compartments by a
cathode and anode. On both electrode sides, the copper proton exchange membrane in a conventional MFC (14).
wires were attached along with electric tape. MFCs are essentially consisting cathode (aerobic) and
anode (anaerobic) electrodes connected by salt bridge
Miscellaneous Materials (Figure 2).
The miscellaneous materials utilized in the present The electrodes employed in the study have different
study include Glue gun, Para film, variety of glassware, surface area. Dimensionally 8 cm × 4 cm cathode and
PH meter, digital multi-meter, spectrometer, chemical anode with aluminum electrodes, giving a total surface
reagents, digital balance, thermometer, crucibles, oven, area of 32 cm2. Steel electrodes are 8 cm long and 4 cm
and desiccator. wide, with 32 cm2 surface area. The anodic surface area is
used to standardize the unit of power.
Substrate
Three distinct substrates examined in the present study Sample size and sampling procedure
include urine, black-water, and graywater effluents. All Sample size
substrates considered were entirely collected from a Samples were collected from three wastewater sources
deep sewage on campus and various areas of the Wolkite in Wolkite University compound using a purposive
University compound, Ethiopia. sampling technique. Critical polluting sources including
waste disposal sites, major sewer lines, and different
manhole were considered during sample collection. For
all effluents, 2 L and 1 L of samples were collected, and
subsequently, examined in laboratory facilities.

Sampling procedure and sample preservation

The wastewater samples were collected for several hours

e e

Salt bridge
Anode Cathode

H+ →
Microbes

Anode chamber (anaerobic) Cathode chamber (aerobic)

Figure 1. The single-chamber microbial fuel cell (9) Figure 2. Schematic diagram of MFC setup

274 Environmental Health Engineering and Management Journal 2023, 10(3), 273–279
 Kifle et al

in a given day to ensure that the wastewater samples were cell potential.
not greatly disturbed by bacterial growth, which can affect Alternatively, power can be expressed by the following
the temperature and total dissolved solids content. equation:
All the plastic bottles were washed with warm soapy
water, and then, rinsed three times with distilled water. P = I2 × Rext.
For microbial analysis, wastewater samples were collected
with 1000 mL plastic bottles and stored in a black box Power density is expressed as the following equation:
to avoid bacterial contamination. The collected samples
V2
were maintained in the refrigerator at 4 °C to avoid any P=
Aan × Rex
changes in the results during the experiment. The samples
were put at 4 °C for 2 days in their original water-based Where Aan is surface area for anode, V is electric voltage,
suspension. and Rex is external resistor.
For the mixed waste analysis, samples were collected
for three consecutive days and one-day representative Internal resistance
and the next two days representative were prepared using The total maximum power is theoretically calculated by
the same procedure. To keep the results consistent, the the following equation:
samples were filtered and stored in the refrigerator.
OCV 2
P=
Rint + Rext
Sample measurement and analysis processes
Prior to the trials, sludge samples were gently mixed The principles of electric circuits reveal that when
together and left to adjusted room temperature, before Rint = Rext, the maximum power is recorded. Thus:
inoculating 2000 mL of sludge in the connected stacks
OCV 2
(3 MFCs). For each parameter examined, the maximum Pmax =
4* Rint
holding duration was retained until the beginning of
the laboratory measurement processes. All parameters The above equation can be used to obtain internal
examined must be maintained in case the analysis is not resistance in the MFC’s system.
immediately completed. The maximum holding time was
kept and performed based on the WHO/UNEP, 1996 Columbic efficiency
standard protocol. The columbic efficiency is generally expressed as:
For MFCs, suitable fittings and other measurement
electron recovered
devices were prepared initially before collecting samples Ce =
total electron in biomass
from each site.
During the experiment—up on preparing the sample, The term “electrons” refers to the charge of an electron
different parameters (pH, conductivity, TS, VS, turbidity, in coulombs. In MFCs’, the columbic efficiency is
and voltage) were tested and recorded. Several mixes expressed as:
were prepared, and ultimately the experimental results
8 ∫ I × dt
were collected. The pH of the solution (suspension) was Ce =
F × Van × ∆COD
adjusted to a standard pH (5-8) within a temperature
range of 22-40°C. Where F is Faraday’s constant, Van is substrate volume
in anode chamber, COD is proportional to substrate
Equations in used in the study concentration, and 8 is constant value.
Power
Power is literally the product of voltage and current. It is Results
described as: Characterization of wastewater samples
Physio-chemical and bacteriological characterizations
P=V×I of effluents at pre-treatment stage and effluent status
following digestion in MFC at post-treatment stages are
Where P is power output, V is voltage output, and I is presented in Table 1. The actual MFC setup employed
current. to examine various conditions in blackwater substrate is
Whereas, the following alternate equation is also used shown in Figure 3.
to express power in the study. In Table 1, pH and DO parameters show an increase
following the significant reduction of pH and DO
V2
P= depressing-species from wastewater effluents. Whereas,
Rext .
total solids (TS), volatile solids (VS), biochemical oxygen
Where R is the applied external resistance and V is the demand (BOD5), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total

Environmental Health Engineering and Management Journal 2023, 10(3), 273–279 275
Kifle et al

Table 1. Physico-chemical and bacteriological characterization of substrates

Substrate characteristics (pre-treatment) Substrate characteristics (post-treatment)

Parameter Unit
Urine Blackwater Gray water Urine Blackwater Gray water

pH - 6.3 6.7 7.4 6.8 7.1 7.2

TS mg/L 385 3982 56 156 1256 38.2

VS mg/L 213 1231 37 78 874 21.6

BOD5 mg/L 208 902 45 67 278 32

COD mg/L 600 1600 900 205 693 378

DO mg/L 3.9 2.56 3.9 4.2 4.8 4.2

TK mg/L 2740 1112 5564 1231 636 3674

TP mg/L 1600 500 1352 764 230 589

TN mg/L 8830 1388 564 3423 879 332

TC Col/100 ml 215*10 4
513*10 4
0.3*10 4
134*10 4
302*10 4
0.13*104

FC Col/100 ml 98*104 317*104 0.1*104 54*104 125*104 0.04*104

Conductivity µS/cm 19067 27894 12271 9645 11092 4515

Col = colonies.

160
140
120
Voltage (mV)

100
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Day
MFC1 (Urine) MFC2 (Black Water) MFC3 (Gray Water)

Figure 3. MFC setup for blackwater substrate Figure 4. Diurnal voltage outputs for different substrates

potassium (TK), total nitrogen (TN), total coliform (TC), voltage. The MFC that utilized graywater as a substrate
Fecal coliform (FC) and conductivity show an increase generated the minimum quantity of voltage of the three
due to metabolic breakdown and decomposition by substrates; nevertheless, it was the utmost stable one.
microorganism involved in the process.
Discussion
Electric voltage production Substrates characteristics
Three sets of MFCs (urine, blackwater, and graywater) Graywater, blackwater, and urine are extremely different
were distinctly examined for the maximum voltage output substrates in terms of composition and overall physical
potential at ambient temperatures ranging from 22 to 10 quality. Urine has the highest nutritional concentration,
°C. For all three sets, the voltage outputs were carefully and its isolation allows for recovery from a much less
measured using a calibrated multimeter (Model No volume of urine. Despite that graywater makes up the
8NF6R) across a 1000-ohm resistor at regular intervals of bulk of domestic trash, it is rather clean, and hence,
24 hours until the output voltage dropped to zero, which appropriate for reuse. Light graywater that does not
essentially took a period of one month. include kitchen wastewater has very low particle, organic
Blackwater substrate produced the maximum voltage content, and nutritional levels. Blackwater that contains
output while all three substrates run under the similar organic matter making it ideal for energy recovery.
environmental conditions (Figure 4). The voltage output In this research, blackwater is defined as wastewater
change within days of incubation for blackwater substrate from kitchen sinks and feces. Blackwater (feces and
is more significant than other substrates. For black kitchen wastewater) contains high levels of organic and
water substrate, electricity generation gradually reduced nutritional content, as well as sediments, bacteria, and
just after 13 days. It also took much less time than both pharmaceutical/hormone residues.
urine and graywater substrates to generate the maximum Greywater has the lowest pollution among the three

276 Environmental Health Engineering and Management Journal 2023, 10(3), 273–279
 Kifle et al

80 phosphorus, and sulfur).

70 MFC1(Urine)

60 MFC2 (Blackwater) BOD5 and COD removal efficiency

BOD5 Removal (%)

50
MFC3 (Graywater) BOD5 reduction of substrates urine, blackwater, and
40
graywater are 67.79%, 69.18%, and 28.89%, respectively
(Figure 5). The maximum BOD5 removal was occurred
30
in blackwater substrate and the lowest one occurred
20
in graywater substrate. Thus, BOD5 removal with all
10
examined substrates were found moderate.
0
Substrate COD reduction for all MFC is below 80% (Figure 6).
The maximum COD removal was in urine waste (roughly
Figure 5. BOD5 reduction for different substrates
65.83%), while matched to 56.69% and 58% for
blackwater and graywater substrate, respectively. Thus,
80 COD reduction with all developed MFCs and examined
70 substrates were also found moderate.
60
COD Removal (%)

50 Electrochemical analysis
MFC1(Urine)
40 Power and power density curve
MFC2 (Blackwater)
30 MFCs operate in the same way as traditional electricity
MFC3 (Graywater) generators. They slightly generate a current and a certain
20
cell potential.
10
To determine the optimal current and potential for
0
Substrate maximizing power, a variety of external resistors having
Figure 6. COD reduction for different substrates
various values were employed.
Blackwater substrate produced the maximum power
output. In fact, all substrates in the investigation were
streams yet contributes the most to total volume. The
operated within similar environmental settings. The
most detergents and personal care items are found in light
power change exhibited for blackwater substrate is very
graywater, which is also low in nutrients and pathogens.
significant compared to other substrates (Figure 7). Power
Graywater is also low in organic content.
output gradually reduced just after 13 days for black water
The wastewater from non-kitchen sinks, laundry,
substrate, which took much less time than both urine and
and showers is usually termed graywater. It is also
graywater substrates to generate the maximum power.
known as “mild graywater” in the scientific community.
MFC2 produced the highest power compared to MFC1
When compared to other graywater sources, “dark
and MFC3, with a value of 655 µW/cm2 equating to 453
graywater”, which comprises kitchen sinks, is the most
polluting source. Pollution loads up to 40-60% is mainly µA/cm2 of current. Whereas MFC1 produced 442 µW/
contributed by kitchen wastewater (VS, COD, BOD, total cm2 corresponding to current value of 372 µA/cm2. MFC3
oil, and active substances). According to the experiment produced the lowest power (442 µW/cm2), corresponding
results, graywater’s physical and chemical quality varies to current value of 281 µA/cm2. Hence, the best system
for different sources. The quality of cleaning and bathing in terms of the maximum power generation is the one
products, the number of people in a household, and that stacks MFC2 in series (blackwater), followed by
other sink disposal procedures and personal behaviors MFC1 (Figure 8). In MFC1, at both anode and cathode
all have an impact on graywater’s physical and chemical side, aluminum electrodes had been used. MFC3, which
characteristics. had steel at the anode and aluminum at the cathode with
On average, an adult produces 0.8-1.5 L of urine each graywater substrate, produced a low power density.
day, whereas a toddler produces around half that amount. All MFC1, MFC2, and MFC3 were activated under the
Water makes up 95% of the mixture, with dissolved salts same conditions; with the only difference in the substrate
accounting for 5%. Food determines the quality of urine source. In the present research, MFC that employed
output per capita, yet scientifically established design black water substrate outperformed urine and graywater
values have emerged. While urine makes up only 1% of substrates. As the electrode combination used in MFC3
total residential wastewater, it contains 50-80% of total were slightly different, reduced power density was
nutrients (75-80% nitrogen, 50-55% phosphorus, and 70% exhibited in the case of gray water substrate.
potassium), as well as the majority of pharmaceuticals and
their metabolites. Adults are principally responsible for Internal resistance
the elimination of macronutrients (nitrogen, potassium, Internal resistance is an important element that can affect

Environmental Health Engineering and Management Journal 2023, 10(3), 273–279 277
 Kifle et al

25000 70

Columbic efficiency (Ce)(%)

60
20000
50
Power μW

15000
40
MFC1(Urine)
10000 30
MFC2 (Blackwater)
5000 20
MFC3 (Graywater)
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0
Days 1
MFC1 (Urine) MFC2 (Black Water) MFC3 (Gray Water) Type of MFC
Figure 7. Diurnal power outputs for substrates Figure 9. Columbic efficiencies of the examined substrates

700 an energy source along with domestic waste treatment

Power Density (µW/cm2)

600 capacity of MFCs in Ethiopia was investigated. The

500 amount of electricity produced from wastewater effluents
400 and corresponding treatment achieved were measured
300
using appropriate techniques and instruments.
200
The MFCs potential for removal of BOD5 and COD
100
from substrates blackwater, urine, and graywater is only
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 moderate. TC and FC removal with MFCs are also moderate.
Current Density(µA/cm2) The MFCs potential for electric power generation is highly
variable with duration given. The MFC using gray water
MFC2 (Black Water) MFC1 (Urine) MFC3 (Gray Water)
as a substrate produced the least electricity but proved
Figure 8. The power density curve for MFCs to be the most stable MFC. Wastewater treatment and
electricity generation potential with MFCs for substrates
the performance of the MFC. In other words, some MFCs are blackwater > urine > graywater. The experimental
may have the same reactor volume and even the same results provide a moderate indication of MFCs viability
amount of substrate, but produce different currents. with substrates blackwater, urine, and graywater.
In early experiments, the power density curves were Further research is required to examine the possibility
developed using variety of external resistances. The of enhanced wastewater treatment and electricity
internal resistance of each MFC was determined by generation with blended substrates along with boosted
recording the maximum output power and comparing microbial activities in MFCs. In addition, future research
it to the external resistance. The internal resistances of will investigate the MFCs potential for effluent flow
MFCs (1-2-3) in the present study were entirely 1 kΩ. conditions apart from batch flow.

Columbic efficiency Acknowledgements

The columbic efficiency is an important parameter to The authors would like to express their profound
consider while evaluating the MFC’s performance. The gratitude to Jimma University for financial assistance
bacteria and the system as a whole are more active and of this research and Mr. Seifu Kebede, Environmental
efficient when the columbic efficiency is high. Engineering Chair holder at Jimma University, Jimma
It is critical to determine the COD before estimating Institute of Technology, for technical assistance of
the columbic efficiency of the fuel cells. The average COD this research. In addition, special thanks to Mr. Yared
in urine, blackwater, and graywater was considered to Temesgen and Amsayawu Genet (Hydraulic and Water
compute columbic efficiencies for each MFCs. Resource Engineering Department of Wolkite University)
The instantaneous current value after 24-hour who gave us technical assistance up to the end of this
operation was used to calculate the columbic efficiency research.
of the examined MFCs. MFC2 exhibited the maximum
columbic efficiency (Figure 9). Because, blackwater was Authors’ contribution
the major substrate and both electrode chambers were Conceptualization: Esayas Alemayehu.
aluminum. Data curation: Tensay Kifle.
Formal analysis: Chali Dereje Kitila.
Conclusion Funding acquisition: Tensay Kifle.
In the present research, technical feasibility of MFCs as Investigation: Tensay Kifle.

278 Environmental Health Engineering and Management Journal 2023, 10(3), 273–279
 Kifle et al

Methodology: Esayas Alemayehu. 5. Wang Y, Chen Y, Wen Q, Zheng H, Xu H, Qi L. Electricity

Project administration: Chali Dereje Kitila. generation, energy storage, and microbial-community
Resources: Chali Dereje Kitila. analysis in microbial fuel cells with multilayer capacitive
anodes. Energy. 2019;189:116342. doi: 10.1016/j.
Software: Chali Dereje Kitila.
energy.2019.116342.
Supervision: Esayas Alemayehu. 6. Teoh TP, Ong SA, Ho LN, Wong YS, Oon YL, Oon YS,
Validation: Chali Dereje Kitila. et al. Up-flow constructed wetland-microbial fuel cell:
Visualization: Chali Dereje Kitila. Influence of floating plant, aeration and circuit connection
Writing–original draft: Tensay Kifle. on wastewater treatment performance and bioelectricity
Writing–review & editing: Chali Dereje Kitila. generation. J Water Process Eng. 2020;36:101371. doi:
10.1016/j.jwpe.2020.101371.
7. Kirchman DL. Degradation of organic material. In:
Competing interests
Processes in Microbial Ecology. New York: Oxford
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interests. University Press; 2012. p. 79-98.
8. Castro C. The Green Latrine: Development of a Large Scale
Ethical issues Microbial Fuel Cell for the Treatment of Human Waste in
The authors hereby certify that all data collected in the Developing Areas. University of Massachusetts Amherst;
field of study were described in the manuscript and 2014. doi: 10.7275/BEX1-WD44.
no data from the study have been or will be published 9. Flimban SG, Ismail IM, Kim T, Oh SE. Overview of recent
separately elsewhere. advancements in the microbial fuel cell from fundamentals
to applications: design, major elements, and scalability.
Energies. 2019;12(17):3390. doi: 10.3390/en12173390.
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