Chapter 24: Electromagnetic Waves

Mrs. Pooja Brahmaiahchari

Introduction
• The beauty of a coral reef, the warm radiance of sunshine, the sting of
sunburn, the X-ray revealing a broken bone, even microwave
popcorn—all are brought to us by electromagnetic waves.
• The list of the various types of electromagnetic waves, ranging from
radio transmission waves to nuclear gamma-ray ( γ -ray) emissions, is
interesting in itself.
• “Electromagnetic waves” was the name he gave to the phenomena his
theory predicted by James Clerk Maxwell in mid of 19th century.
Maxwell’s Equations: Electromagnetic Waves Predicted
and Observed
• The Scotsman James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)
is regarded as the greatest theoretical physicist of
the 19th century.
• Maxwell not only formulated a complete
electromagnetic theory, represented by Maxwell’s
equations.
• He also developed the kinetic theory of gases and
made significant contributions to the
understanding of color vision and the nature of
Saturn’s rings.
 Maxwell’s Equations
1. Electric field lines originate on positive charges and terminate on
negative charges.
• The electric field is defined as the force per unit charge on a test charge,
and the strength of the force is related to the electric constant 𝜀0 , also
known as the permittivity of free space.
• From Maxwell’s first equation we obtain a special form of Coulomb’s
law known as Gauss’s law for electricity.
2. Magnetic field lines are continuous, having no beginning or end. No
magnetic monopoles are known to exist.
• The strength of the magnetic force is related to the magnetic constant 𝜇0 ,
also known as the permeability of free space. This second of Maxwell’s
equations is known as Gauss’s law for magnetism.

3. A changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force (emf) and,

hence, an electric field. The direction of the emf opposes the change. This
third of Maxwell’s equations is Faraday’s law of induction and includes
Lenz’s law.

4. Magnetic fields are generated by moving charges or by changing electric

fields. This fourth of Maxwell’s equations encompasses Ampere’s law and
adds another source of magnetism—changing electric fields.
• Maxwell’s complete and symmetric theory showed that electric and
magnetic forces are not separate, but different manifestations of the same
thing—the electromagnetic force.
• This classical unification of forces is one motivation for current attempts
to unify the four basic forces in nature—the gravitational, electrical,
strong, and weak nuclear forces.
• The waves predicted by Maxwell would consist of oscillating electric and
magnetic fields—defined to be an electromagnetic wave (EM wave).
• Electromagnetic waves would be capable of exerting forces on charges
great distances from their source, and they might thus be detectable.
• Maxwell calculated that electromagnetic waves would propagate at a
speed given by the equation
1
𝑐=
𝜇𝑜 𝜀𝑜
• When the values for 𝜇𝑜 and 𝜀𝑜 are entered into the equation for c, we
find that
1
𝑐= = 3 x 108 m/s
−12 𝐶2 𝑇.𝑚
8.85 𝑥 10 (4𝜋 𝑥 10−7 𝐴 )
𝑁𝑚2

which is the speed of light.

• In fact, Maxwell concluded that light is an electromagnetic wave
having such wavelengths that it can be detected by the eye.
Hertz’s Observations
• The German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857–1894) was the first to generate and
detect certain types of electromagnetic waves in the laboratory.
• Starting in 1887, he performed a series of experiments that not only confirmed
the existence of electromagnetic waves, but also verified that they travel at the
speed of light.
• Hertz used an AC (resistor-inductor-capacitor) circuit that resonates at a known
1
frequency 𝑓0 = and connected it to a loop of wire as shown in Figure.
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶
• High voltages induced across the gap in the loop produced sparks that
were visible evidence of the current in the circuit and that helped
generate electromagnetic waves.
• Hertz had another loop attached to another RLC circuit, which could be
tuned (as the dial on a radio) to the same resonant frequency as the first
and could, thus, be made to receive electromagnetic waves.
• This loop also had a gap across which sparks were generated, giving
solid evidence that electromagnetic waves had been received.
• Hertz also studied the reflection, refraction, and interference patterns of
the electromagnetic waves he generated, verifying their wave character.
• The SI unit for frequency, the hertz is named in his honor.
Production of Electromagnetic Waves
• Whenever a current varies, associated
electric and magnetic fields vary,
moving out from the source like
waves.
• Perhaps the easiest situation to
visualize is a varying current in a long
straight wire, produced by an AC
generator at its center, as illustrated in
Figure.
• At time t = 0, there is the maximum separation of charge, with negative
charges at the top and positive charges at the bottom, producing the
maximum magnitude of the electric field (or E-field) in the upward
direction.

• One-fourth of a cycle later, there is no charge separation and the field next to
the antenna is zero, while the maximum E-field has moved away at speed c.

• As the process continues, the charge separation reverses and the field reaches
its maximum downward value, returns to zero, and rises to its maximum
upward value at the end of one complete cycle.

• The outgoing wave has an amplitude proportional to the maximum

separation of charge.
• Its wavelength is proportional to the period of the oscillation and, hence, is
smaller for short periods or high frequencies.
• The electric field ( E) shown surrounding the wire is produced by the
charge distribution on the wire.
• Both the E and the charge distribution vary as the current changes. The
changing field propagates outward at the speed of light.
• There is an associated magnetic field (B ) which propagates outward as
well (see Figure).
• The electric and magnetic fields are closely related and propagate as an
electromagnetic wave.
• This is what happens in broadcast antennae such as those in radio and TV
stations.
Electric and Magnetic Waves: Moving Together
• Following Ampere’s law, current in the antenna produces a magnetic
field, as shown in figure below.
• The relationship between E and B is shown at one instant is shown.
(a) The current in the antenna produces the circular magnetic field lines.

• The current (I) produces the separation of charge along the wire,
which in turn creates the electric field as shown.

(b) The electric and magnetic fields (E and B) near the wire are
perpendicular; they are shown here for one point in space.

(c) The magnetic field varies with current and propagates away from the
antenna at the speed of light.
• The electric and magnetic fields produced by a long straight wire
antenna are exactly in phase.
• Note that they are perpendicular to one another and to the direction of
propagation, making this a transverse wave.
• Electromagnetic waves generally propagate out from a source in all
directions, sometimes forming a complex radiation pattern.
• Instead of the AC generator, the antenna can also be driven by an AC
circuit.
• In fact, charges radiate whenever they are accelerated.
• But while a current in a circuit needs a complete path, an antenna has a
varying charge distribution forming a standing wave, driven by the
AC.
• The dimensions of the antenna are critical for determining the
frequency of the radiated electromagnetic waves.
• This is a resonant phenomenon and when we tune radios or TV, we
vary electrical properties to achieve appropriate resonant conditions in
the antenna.
Receiving Electromagnetic Waves
• Electromagnetic waves carry energy away from their source, similar to a sound
wave carrying energy away from a standing wave on a guitar string.
• An antenna for receiving EM signals works in reverse.
• An incoming electromagnetic wave accelerates electrons in the antenna,
setting up a standing wave.
• Sometimes big receiver dishes are used to focus the signal onto an antenna.
• The charges radiate whenever they are accelerated. When designing circuits,
we often assume that energy does not quickly escape AC circuits, and mostly
this is true.
• A broadcast antenna is specially designed to enhance the rate of
electromagnetic radiation, and shielding is necessary to keep the radiation
close to zero.
Relating E-Field and B-Field Strengths
• The stronger the E-field created by a separation of charge, the greater
the current and, hence, the greater the B-field created.
• Since current is directly proportional to voltage (Ohm’s law) and
voltage is directly proportional to E-field strength, the two should be
directly proportional.
• It can be shown that the magnitudes of the fields do have a constant
ratio, equal to the speed of light. That is,
𝐸
=𝑐
𝐵
1. What is the maximum strength of B-Field in an electromagnetic wave
that has maximum E-Field strength of 1000 V/m?

2. Calculate the wavelength of A) 60Hz EM wave? B) 93.3-MHz FM

radio wave, C) of a beam of visible red light from the frequency of
4.74 x 1014Hz.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• As noted, an electromagnetic wave has a frequency and a wavelength
associated with it and travels at the speed of light, or c.
• The relationship among these wave characteristics can be described by
𝑣𝑤 = 𝑓𝜆 , where 𝑣𝑤 is the propagation speed of the wave, f is the
frequency, and 𝜆 is the wavelength.
• Here 𝑣𝑤 = c, so that for all electromagnetic waves, 𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆
Electromagnetic Spectrum: Rules of Thumb
Three rules that apply to electromagnetic waves in general are as follows:

• High-frequency electromagnetic waves are more energetic and are more

able to penetrate than low-frequency waves.

• High-frequency electromagnetic waves can carry more information per

unit time than low-frequency waves.

• The shorter the wavelength of any electromagnetic wave probing a

material, the smaller the detail it is possible to resolve.
Transmission, Reflection, and Absorption
What happens when an electromagnetic wave impinges on a material?
• If the material is transparent to the particular frequency, then the wave can
largely be transmitted.
• If the material is opaque to the frequency, then the wave can be totally
reflected.
• The wave can also be absorbed by the material, indicating that there is some
interaction between the wave and the material, such as the thermal agitation of
molecules.
• What is not obvious is that something that is transparent to light may be
opaque at other frequencies.
• For example, ordinary glass is transparent to visible light but largely opaque
to ultraviolet radiation. Human skin is opaque to visible light—we cannot see
through people—but transparent to X-rays.
Radio and TV Waves
• The broad category of radio waves is defined to
contain any electromagnetic wave produced by
currents in wires and circuits.
• Its name derives from their most common use as a
carrier of audio information.
• The lowest commonly encountered radio
frequencies are produced by high-voltage AC power
transmission lines at frequencies of 50 or 60 Hz.
• These extremely long wavelength electromagnetic
waves (about 6000 km!) are one means of energy
loss in long-distance power transmission.
• Extremely low frequency (ELF) radio waves of about 1 kHz are used to
communicate with submerged submarines.
• The ability of radio waves to penetrate salt water is related to their
wavelength (much like ultrasound penetrating tissue)—the longer the
wavelength, the farther they penetrate.
• AM radio waves are used to carry commercial radio signals in the
frequency range from 540 to 1600 kHz.
• The abbreviation AM stands for amplitude modulation, which is the
method for placing information on these waves.
• A carrier wave having the basic frequency of the radio station, say 1530
kHz, is varied or modulated in amplitude by an audio signal.
• The resulting wave has a constant frequency, but a varying amplitude.
• A radio receiver tuned to have the same resonant frequency as the carrier
wave can pick up the signal, while rejecting the many other frequencies
impinging on its antenna.
• Amplitude modulation for AM radio.
(a) A carrier wave at the station’s basic frequency.
(b) An audio signal at much lower audible frequencies.
(c) The amplitude of the carrier is modulated by the audio signal without
changing its basic frequency.
FM Radio Waves
• FM radio waves are also used for commercial radio
transmission, but in the frequency range of 88 to 108
MHz.
• FM stands for frequency modulation, another
method of carrying information.
• Carrier wave having the basic frequency of the radio
station, perhaps 105.1 MHz, is modulated in
frequency by the audio signal.
• FM radio is inherently less subject to noise from
stray radio sources than AM radio. The reason is that
amplitudes of waves add.
• So an AM receiver would interpret noise added onto
the amplitude of its carrier wave as part of the
information.
• Television is also broadcast on electromagnetic waves.
• Since the waves must carry a great deal of visual as well as audio
information, each channel requires a larger range of frequencies than simple
radio transmission.
• TV channels utilize frequencies in the range of 54 to 88 MHz and 174 to
222 MHz. These TV channels are called VHF (for very high frequency).
• Other channels called UHF (for ultra high frequency) utilize an even higher
frequency range of 470 to 1000 MHz.
• The TV video signal is AM, while the TV audio is FM.
• Satellite dishes and cable transmission of TV occurs at significantly higher
frequencies and is rapidly evolving with the use of the high-definition or
HD format.
Radio Wave Interference
• Astronomers and astrophysicists collect signals from outer space using
electromagnetic waves.
• A common problem for astrophysicists is the “pollution” from
electromagnetic radiation pervading our surroundings from communication
systems in general.
• Even everyday gadgets like our car keys and TV remotes involve radio-wave
frequencies.
• The reason sometimes we are asked to switch off our mobile phones in
airplanes and in hospitals is that important communications or medical
equipment often uses similar radio frequencies, and their operation can be
affected by frequencies used in the communication devices. Ex: MRI scan
Microwaves
• They have high frequencies; their wavelengths are short compared with those
of other radio waves—hence the name “microwave.”
• Microwaves can also be produced by atoms and molecules. They are, for
example, a component of electromagnetic radiation generated by thermal
agitation.
• The thermal motion of atoms and molecules in any object at a temperature
above absolute zero causes them to emit and absorb radiation.
• Radar is a common application of microwaves that was first developed in
World War II.
• By detecting and timing microwave echoes, radar systems can determine the
distance to objects as diverse as clouds and aircraft.
Heating with Microwaves
• Water and some other constituents of food have a slightly negative charge at
one end and a slightly positive charge at one end (called polar molecules).
• The range of microwave frequencies is specially selected so that the polar
molecules, in trying to keep orienting themselves with the electric field,
absorb these energies and increase their temperatures—called dielectric
heating.
• Another use of microwaves for heating is within the human body.
• Microwaves will penetrate more than shorter wavelengths into tissue and so
can accomplish “deep heating”.
• This is used for treating muscular pains, spasms, tendonitis, and rheumatoid
arthritis.
Infrared Radiation
• The microwave and infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum
overlap.
• Infrared radiation is generally produced by thermal motion and the vibration
and rotation of atoms and molecules.
• Electronic transitions in atoms and molecules can also produce infrared
radiation.
• The range of infrared frequencies extends up to the lower limit of visible
light, just below red. In fact, infrared means “below red.”
• The relatively constant temperature of the Earth is a result of the energy
balance between the incoming solar radiation and the energy radiated from
the Earth.
Visible Light
• Visible light is the narrow segment of the electromagnetic spectrum to
which the normal human eye responds.
• Visible light is produced by vibrations and rotations of atoms an
molecules, as well as by electronic transitions within atoms and
molecules.
• We usually refer to visible light as having wavelengths of between 400 nm
and 750 nm
Ultraviolet Radiation
• Ultraviolet means “above violet.” The electromagnetic frequencies of
ultraviolet radiation (UV) extend upward from violet, the highest-frequency
visible light.
• The wavelengths of ultraviolet extend from 400 nm down to about 10 nm at
its highest frequencies, which overlap with the lowest Xray frequencies.
• Solar UV radiation is broadly subdivided into three regions: UV-A (320–
400 nm), UV-B (290–320 nm), and UV-C (220–290 nm), ranked from long
to shorter wavelengths (from smaller to larger energies).
• Most UV-B and all UV-C is absorbed by ozone molecules in the upper
atmosphere. Consequently, 99% of the solar UV radiation reaching the
Earth’s surface is UV-A.
Human Exposure to UV Radiation
• It is largely exposure to UV-B that causes skin cancer.
• All UV radiation can damage collagen fibers, resulting in an acceleration of
the aging process of skin and the formation of wrinkles.
• The tanning response is a defense mechanism in which the body produces
pigments to absorb future exposures in inert skin layers above living cells.
• Repeated exposure to UV-B may also lead to the formation of cataracts in
the eyes—a cause of blindness.
• A major acute effect of extreme UV exposure is the suppression of the
immune system, both locally and throughout the body.
UV Light and the Ozone Layer
• The layer of ozone (O3 ) in our upper atmosphere (10 to 50 km above
the Earth) protects life by absorbing most of the dangerous UV
radiation.
• Unfortunately, today we are observing a depletion in ozone
concentrations in the upper atmosphere.
• This depletion has led to the formation of an “ozone hole” in the upper
atmosphere.
• This depletion is attributed to the breakdown of ozone molecules by
refrigerant gases called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
Benefits of UV Light
• Vitamin D production in the skin (epidermis) results from exposure to UVB
radiation, generally from sunlight.
• UV radiation is used in the treatment of infantile jaundice and in some skin
conditions.
• It is also used in sterilizing workspaces and tools, and killing germs in a
wide range of applications. It is also used as an analytical tool to identify
substances.
• When exposed to ultraviolet, some substances, such as minerals, glow in
characteristic visible wavelengths, a process called fluorescence.
• Ultraviolet is also used in special microscopes to detect details smaller than
those observable with longer-wavelength visible-light microscopes.
X-Rays
• In the 1850s, scientists (such as Faraday) began experimenting with high-
voltage electrical discharges in tubes filled with rarefied gases.
• It was later found that these discharges created an invisible, penetrating form
of very high frequency electromagnetic radiation.
• This radiation was called an X-ray, because its identity and nature were
unknown.
• there are two methods by which X-rays are created—both are
submicroscopic processes and can be caused by high-voltage discharges.
• While the low-frequency end of the X-ray range overlaps with the
ultraviolet, Xrays extend to much higher frequencies.
• The widest use of X-rays is for imaging objects that are opaque to visible
light, such as the human body or aircraft parts.
• The ability of X-rays to penetrate matter depends on density, and so an X-
ray image can reveal very detailed density information.
• The use of X-ray technology in medicine is called radiology—an
established and relatively cheap tool in comparison to more sophisticated
technologies.
• Consequently, X-rays are widely available and used extensively in
medical diagnostics.
Gamma Rays
• Soon after nuclear radioactivity was first detected in 1896, it was found that
at least three distinct types of radiation were being emitted.
• The most penetrating nuclear radiation was called a gamma ray (γ ray) and it
was later found to be an extremely high frequency electromagnetic wave.
• Gamma rays have characteristics identical to X-rays of the same
frequency—they differ only in source.
• At higher frequencies, γ rays are more penetrating and more damaging to
living tissue.
• Gamma radiation from radioactive materials is used in nuclear medicine.
• Food spoilage can be greatly inhibited by exposing it to large doses of γ
radiation, thereby obliterating responsible microorganisms.
• Damage to food cells through irradiation occurs as well, and the long-
term hazards of consuming radiation-preserved food are unknown and
controversial for some groups.
• Both X-ray and technologies are also used in scanning luggage at airports.
Detecting Electromagnetic Waves from Space
• The entire electromagnetic spectrum is used by researchers for
investigating stars, space, and time.
• Penzias and Wilson detected microwaves to identify the background
radiation originating from the Big Bang.
• Radio telescopes such as the Arecibo Radio Telescope in Puerto Rico and
Parkes Observatory in Australia were designed to detect radio waves.
• Infrared telescopes need to have their detectors cooled by liquid nitrogen
to be able to gather useful signals.
• The most famous of these infrared sensitive telescopes is the James
Clerk Maxwell Telescope in Hawaii.
• The Hubble Space Telescope (launched in 1990) gathers ultraviolet
radiation as well as visible light.
• In the X-ray region, there is the Chandra X-ray Observatory (launched
in 1999), and in the -ray region, there is the new Fermi Gamma-ray
Space Telescope.
Energy in Electromagnetic Waves
• Electromagnetic waves can bring energy into a system by virtue of their
electric and magnetic fields.
• These fields can exert forces and move charges in the system and, thus, do
work on them.
• If the frequency of the electromagnetic wave is the same as the natural
frequencies of the system, the transfer of energy is much more efficient.
• A wave’s energy is proportional to its amplitude squared ( E2 or B2).
• This is true for waves on guitar strings, for water waves, and for sound
waves, where amplitude is proportional to pressure.
• In electromagnetic waves, the amplitude is the maximum field strength
of the electric and magnetic fields.
• Thus, the energy carried and the intensity I of an electromagnetic wave is
proportional to E2 and B2.
• In fact, for a continuous sinusoidal electromagnetic wave, the average
intensity is given by
𝑐 𝜖0 𝐸02
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2
Where c is the speed of light, 𝜖0 is the permittivity of free space, and 𝐸02 is
the maximum electric field strength; intensity, as always, is power per unit
area.
• The equation can also be represented as:
𝑐𝐵02
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2𝜇0

• One more expression for in terms of both electric and magnetic field
strengths is useful. Substituting the fact that 𝑐. 𝐸0 = 𝐵0 , the previous
expression becomes
𝐸0 𝐵0
𝐼 𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2𝜇0
Problems
1. Calculate wavelength for radio wave from a radio station that is broadcasting
at 88.1 MHz.

2. Calculate frequency of red light(𝜆 = 650𝑛𝑚)

3. A certain 50Hz AC power line radiates an Electromagnetic wave having a

maximum Electric Field strength of 13.0 kV/m. a) Calculate the wavelength b)
What Is the maximum magnetic field strength?
4. What is the intensity of Electromagnetic wave with a peak electric field
strength of 125V/m?

5. Find the intensity of EM wave having a peak magnetic field strength of

4.00 x 10-9 T?