Series and Parallel Circuits

Simple circuits (ones with only a few components) are usually fairly straightforward for
beginners to understand. But, things can get sticky when other components come to the party.
Where are the current going? What's the voltage doing? Can this be simplified for easier
understanding? Fear not, intrepid reader. Valuable information follows.

In this tutorial, we’ll first discuss the difference between series circuits and parallel circuits,
using circuits containing the most basic of components -- resistors and batteries -- to show the
difference between the two configurations. We’ll then explore what happens in series and
parallel circuits when you combine different types of components, such as capacitors and
inductors.

Series Circuits
Nodes and Current Flow

Before we get too deep into this, we need to mention what a node is. It's nothing fancy, just a
representation of an electrical junction between two or more components. When a circuit is
modeled on a schematic, these nodes represent the wires between components.

Example schema c with four uniquely colored nodes.

That's half the battle towards understanding the difference between series and parallel. We
also need to understand how current flows through a circuit. Current flows from a high
voltage to a lower voltage in a circuit. Some amount of current will flow through every path it
can take to get to the point of the lowest voltage (usually called ground). Using the above
circuit as an example, here's how current would flow as it runs from the battery's positive
terminal to the negative:
Current (indicated by the blue, orange, and pink lines) flowing through the same example circuit as
above. Different currents are indicated by different colors.

Notice that in some nodes (like between R1 and R2) the current is the same going in as it is
coming out. At other nodes (specifically the three-way junction between R 2, R3, and R4) the
main (blue) current splits into two different ones. That's the key difference between series
and parallel!

Series Circuits Defined

Two components are in series if they share a common node and if the same current flows
through them. Here's an example circuit with three series resistors:

There's only one way for the current to flow in the above circuit. Starting from the positive
terminal of the battery, current flow will first encounter R1. From there the current will flow
straight to R2, then to R3, and finally back to the negative terminal of the battery. Note that
there is only one path for current to follow. These components are in series.

Parallel Circuits
Parallel Circuits Defined

If components share two common nodes, they are in parallel. Here's an example schematic of
three resistors in parallel with a battery:
From the positive battery terminal, current flows to R1... and R2, and R3. The node that
connects the battery to R1 is also connected to the other resistors. The other ends of these
resistors are similarly tied together, and then tied back to the negative terminal of the battery.
There are three distinct paths that current can take before returning to the battery, and the
associated resistors are said to be in parallel.

Where series components all have equal currents running through them, parallel components
all have the same voltage drop across them -- series:current::parallel:voltage.

Series and Parallel Circuits Working Together

From there we can mix and match. In the next picture, we again see three resistors and a
battery. From the positive battery terminal, current first encounters R 1. But, at the other side
of R1 the node splits, and current can go to both R 2 and R3. The current paths through R2 and
R3 have then tied together again, and the current goes back to the negative terminal of the
battery.

In this example, R2 and R3 are in parallel with each other, and R1 is in series with the parallel
combination of R2 and R3.

Calcula ng Equivalent Resistances in Series Circuits

Here’s some information that may be of some more practical use to you. When we put
resistors together like this, in series and parallel, we change the way current flows through
them. For example, if we have a 10V supply across a 10kΩ resistor, Ohm’s law says we've
got 1mA of current flowing.
If we then put another 10kΩ resistor in series with the first and leave the supply unchanged,
we've cut the current in half because the resistance is doubled.

In other words, there's still only one path for current to take and we just made it even harder
for current to flow. How much harder? 10kΩ + 10kΩ = 20kΩ. And, that’s how we calculate
resistors in series -- just add their values.

To put this equation more generally: the total resistance of N -- some arbitrary number of --
resistors is their total sum.

Calcula ng Equivalent Resistances in Parallel Circuits

What about parallel resistors? That’s a bit more complicated, but not by much. Consider the
last example where we started with a 10V supply and a 10kΩ resistor, but this time we add
another 10kΩ in parallel instead of series. Now there are two paths for current to take. Since
the supply voltage didn’t change, Ohm’s Law says the first resistor is still going to draw
1mA. But, so is the second resistor, and we now have a total of 2mA coming from the supply,
doubling the original 1mA. This implies that we’ve cut the total resistance in half.
While we can say that 10kΩ || 10kΩ = 5kΩ (“||” roughly translates to “in parallel with”),
we’re not always going to have 2 identical resistors. What then?

The equation for adding an arbitrary number of resistors in parallel is:

If reciprocals aren't your thing, we can also use a method called “product over sum” when we
have two resistors in parallel:

However, this method is only good for two resistors in one calculation. We can combine
more than 2 resistors with this method by taking the result of R1 || R2 and calculating that
value in parallel with a third resistor (again as a product over sum), but the reciprocal the
method may be less work.

Experiment Time - Part 1

What you’ll need:

 A handful of 10kΩ resistors

 A mul meter
 A breadboard

Let’s try a simple experiment just to prove that these things work the way we're saying they
do.

First, we’re going to hook up some 10kΩ resistors in series and watch them add in a most un-
mysterious way. Using a breadboard, place one 10kΩ resistor as indicated in the figure and
measure with a multimeter. Yes, we already know it’s going to say it’s 10kΩ, but this is what
we in the biz call a “sanity check”. Once we’ve convinced ourselves that the world hasn't
changed significantly since we last looked at it, place another one in a similar fashion but
with a lead from each resistor connecting electrically through the breadboard and measure
again. The the meter should now say something close to 20kΩ.

You may notice that the resistance you measure might not be exactly what the resistor says it
should be. Resistors have a certain amount of tolerance, which means they can be off by a
certain percentage in either direction. Thus, you may read 9.99kΩ or 10.01kΩ. As long as it's
close to the correct value, everything should work fine.

The reader should continue this exercise until convincing themselves that they know what the
outcome will be before doing it again, or they run out of resistors to stick in the breadboard,
whichever comes first.

Experiment Time - Part 2

Now let’s try it with resistors in a parallel configuration. Place one 10kΩ resistor in the
breadboard as before (we’ll trust that the reader already believes that a single 10kΩ the
resistor is going to measure something close to 10kΩ on the multimeter). Now place a second
10kΩ resistor next to the first, taking care that the leads of each resistor are in electrically
connected rows. But before measuring the combination, calculate by either product-over-sum
or reciprocal methods what the new value should be (hint: it’s going to be 5kΩ). Then
measure. Is it something close to 5kΩ? If it’s not, double-check the holes into which the
resistors are plugged.
Repeat the exercise now with 3, 4 and 5 resistors. The calculated/measured values should be
3.33kΩ, 2.5kΩ and 2kΩ, respectively. Did everything come out as planned? If not, go back
and check your connections. If it did, EXCELSIOR! Go have a milkshake before we
continue. You’ve earned it.

Rules of Thumb for Series and Parallel Resistors

There are a few situations that may call for some creative resistor combinations. For example,
if we’re trying to set up a very specific reference voltage you’ll almost always need a very
specific the ratio of resistors whose values are unlikely to be “standard” values. And while we
can get a very high degree of precision in resistor values, we may not want to wait the X
number of days it takes to ship something, or pay the price for non-stocked, non-standard
values. So in a pinch, we can always build our own resistor values.

Tip #1: Equal Resistors in Parallel

Adding N like-valued resistors R in parallel gives us R/N ohms. Let’s say we need a 2.5kΩ
resistor, but all we’ve got is a drawer full of 10kΩ's. Combining four of them in parallel gives
us 10kΩ/4 = 2.5kΩ.
Tip #2: Tolerance

Know what kind of tolerance you can tolerate. For example, if you needed a 3.2kΩ resistor,
you could put 3 10kΩ resistors in parallel. That would give you 3.3kΩ, which is about a 4%
tolerance from the value you need. But, if the circuit you're building needs to be closer than
4% tolerance, we can measure our stash of 10kΩ’s to see which are the lowest values because
they have a tolerance, too. In theory, if the stash of 10kΩ resistors are all 1% tolerance, we
can only get to 3.3kΩ. But part manufacturers are known to make just these sorts of mistakes,
so it pays to poke around a bit.

Tip #3: Power Ra ngs in Series/Parallel

This sort of series and parallel combination of resistors works for power ratings, too. Let’s
say that we need a 100Ω resistor rated for 2 watts (W), but all we’ve got is a bunch of 1kΩ
quarter-watt (¼W) resistors (and it’s 3amp, all the Mountain Dew is gone, and the coffee’s
cold). You can combine 10 of the 1kΩ's to get 100Ω (1kΩ/10 = 100Ω), and the power rating
will be 10x0.25W, or 2.5W. Not pretty, but it will get us through a final project, and might
even get us extra points for being able to think on our feet.

We need to be a little more careful when we combine resistors of dissimilar values in parallel
where total equivalent resistance and power ratings are concerned. It should be completely
obvious to the reader, but...

Tip #4: Different Resistors in Parallel

The combined resistance of two resistors of different values is always less than the smallest
value resistor. The reader would be amazed at how many times someone combines values in
their head and arrives at a value that’s halfway between the two resistors (1kΩ || 10kΩ does
NOT equal anything around 5kΩ!). The total parallel resistance will always be dragged closer
to the lowest value resistor. Do yourself a favor and read tip #4 10 times over.
Tip #5: Power Dissipa on in Parallel

The power dissipated in a parallel combination of dissimilar resistor values is not split evenly
between the resistors because the currents are not equal. Using the previous example of (1kΩ
|| 10kΩ), we can see that the 1kΩ will be drawing 10X the current of the 10kΩ. Since Ohm’s
Law says power = voltage x current, it follows that the 1kΩ resistor will dissipate 10X the
power of the 10kΩ.

Ultimately, the lessons of tips 4 and 5 are that we have to pay closer attention to what we’re
doing when combining resistors of dissimilar values in parallel. But tips 1 and 3 offer some
handy shortcuts when the values are the same.

Voltage Divider and Current Divider

Voltage Divider and Current Divider are the most common rules applied in practical
electronics. As you know, there are two types of combinations in a circuit, they are series and
parallel connections. Parallel circuits are also known as current divider circuits because, in
these circuits, the current is divided through each resistor. Whereas, series circuits are known
as voltage divider circuits because here voltage is divided across all the resistors. Voltage
division rule and current division rule are necessary to understand voltage and the current
flowing through each resistor. These division rules are used in most common electronic
devices.

Voltage Divider Circuit

In order to send a current through an electric conductor, an electromotive force has to be

applied. When we say the current ‘I’ is passing flowing through the resistor ‘R,’ it logically
follows that a force working across resistor R. This force is known as potential difference or
voltage drop across resistor R. Similarly, if we consider any part of the electric circuit three
quantities i.e. voltage, current and resistance comes together.

As we got to know that, a series circuit is known as a voltage divider circuit. It is a circuit
which divides the voltage into small parts. So with a power source and two resistors, we can
make an easy voltage divider circuit. Here we need to connect two resistors in series
combination and then apply a voltage source across the series circuit.
 Voltage Divider Circuit

In this case, resistor R1 of 5 ohms and resistor R2 with 10 ohms resistance are connected.
The voltages Vout1 and Vout2 are divided across the resistors R1 and R2. They can be
calculated by a simple voltage dividing equation.

Where Rx is the resistor across which we need to find the voltage and Rtotal is the total
resistance (R1+R2) in the circuit. It can be simply calculated by adding all of them as they are
connected in series. Thus in the given circuit, the values of the voltage across each resistor
are

Therefore voltage across R1 is 4V and voltage across R2 is 8V. Thus here voltage is divided
in the circuit across the resistors. Hence, this is called voltage divider circuit.

Voltage dividers are used in many applications but they are widely used in all types of
variable resistors. Let’s take an example of a potentiometer. A potentiometer is a variable
resistor which can be used to create an adjustable voltage divider. The potentiometer has
three terminals two of the terminals are connected to the ends of the resistor and middle
terminal is connected to the wiper. It has one resistance. The two outside pins are connected
to the voltage source and the middle terminal acts as a voltage divider.
Current Divider Circuit

A current divider is a circuit which divides the current into small parts. As we got to know
that parallel circuits are current divider circuit. So with a power source and two parallel
resistors, we can make an easy current divider circuit. As in the current divider network, here
we need to connect two resistors in parallel combination and then apply a current source
across the parallel circuit.

Current Divider Circuit

‘I1‘ and ‘I2‘ are the current divided across resistors R1 and R2. They can be calculated by a
simple current dividing equation.

‘In‘ is the required current that flows through the resistor R n. Req is the equivalent resistance
of the parallel resistors.

Equivalent resistance (Req) is given by

So, the current flowing through resistor R1 and R2 would be

Here the resistors are of same value and so current will be divided in exactly half through
each resistor. Thus this is known as the current divider circuit.

Almost every circuit we come across is either a voltage divider circuit, current divider circuit
or it can be both of them. Voltage dividers are used in a variety of applications like variable
resistors (potentiometer), LDR, thermistors and cutting-edge devices like an accelerometer.
Current divider circuits are mainly used to simplify circuits that would make predictions of
resistor selection easy.

1. Series and Parallel Circuits

Series and Parallel Circuits

Simple circuits (ones with only a few components) are usually fairly straightforward for
beginners to understand. But, things can get sticky when other components come to the party.
Where's the current going? What's the voltage doing? Can this be simplified for easier
understanding? Fear not, intrepid reader. Valuable information follows.

In this tutorial, we’ll first discuss the difference between series circuits and parallel circuits,
using circuits containing the most basic of components -- resistors and batteries -- to show the
difference between the two configurations. We’ll then explore what happens in series and
parallel circuits when you combine different types of components, such as capacitors and
inductors.

Series Circuits
Nodes and Current Flow

Before we get too deep into this, we need to mention what a node is. It's nothing fancy, just
representation of an electrical junction between two or more components. When a circuit is
modeled on a schematic, these nodes represent the wires between components.

Example schema c with four uniquely colored nodes.

That's half the battle towards understanding the difference between series and parallel. We
also need to understand how current flows through a circuit. Current flows from a high
voltage to a lower voltage in a circuit. Some amount of current will flow through every path it
can take to get to the point of lowest voltage (usually called ground). Using the above circuit
as an example, here's how current would flow as it runs from the battery's positive terminal to
the negative:

Current (indicated by the blue, orange, and pink lines) flowing through the same example circuit as
above. Different currents are indicated by different colors.

Notice that in some nodes (like between R1 and R2) the current is the same going in as at is
coming out. At other nodes (specifically the three-way junction between R 2, R3, and R4) the
main (blue) current splits into two different ones. That's the key difference between series
and parallel!

Series Circuits Defined

Two components are in series if they share a common node and if the same current flows
through them. Here's an example circuit with three series resistors:

There's only one way for the current to flow in the above circuit. Starting from the positive
terminal of the battery, current flow will first encounter R1. From there the current will flow
straight to R2, then to R3, and finally back to the negative terminal of the battery. Note that
there is only one path for current to follow. These components are in series.
Parallel Circuits
Parallel Circuits Defined

If components share two common nodes, they are in parallel. Here's an example schematic of
three resistors in parallel with a battery:

From the positive battery terminal, current flows to R1... and R2, and R3. The node that
connects the battery to R1 is also connected to the other resistors. The other ends of these
resistors are similarly tied together, and then tied back to the negative terminal of the battery.
There are three distinct paths that current can take before returning to the battery, and the
associated resistors are said to be in parallel.

Where series components all have equal currents running through them, parallel components
all have the same voltage drop across them -- series:current::parallel:voltage.

Series and Parallel Circuits Working Together

From there we can mix and match. In the next picture, we again see three resistors and a
battery. From the positive battery terminal, current first encounters R 1. But, at the other side
of R1 the node splits, and current can go to both R 2 and R3. The current paths through R2 and
R3 are then tied together again, and current goes back to the negative terminal of the battery.
In this example, R2 and R3 are in parallel with each other, and R1 is in series with the parallel
combination of R2 and R3.

Calcula ng Equivalent Resistances in Series Circuits

Here’s some information that may be of some more practical use to you. When we put
resistors together like this, in series and parallel, we change the way current flows through
them. For example, if we have a 10V supply across a 10kΩ resistor, Ohm’s law says we've
got 1mA of current flowing.

If we then put another 10kΩ resistor in series with the first and leave the supply unchanged,
we've cut the current in half because the resistance is doubled.
In other words, there's still only one path for current to take and we just made it even harder
for current to flow. How much harder? 10kΩ + 10kΩ = 20kΩ. And, that’s how we calculate
resistors in series -- just add their values.

To put this equation more generally: the total resistance of N -- some arbitrary number of --
resistors is their total sum.

Calcula ng Equivalent Resistances in Parallel Circuits

What about parallel resistors? That’s a bit more complicated, but not by much. Consider the
last example where we started with a 10V supply and a 10kΩ resistor, but this time we add
another 10kΩ in parallel instead of series. Now there are two paths for current to take. Since
the supply voltage didn’t change, Ohm’s Law says the first resistor is still going to draw
1mA. But, so is the second resistor, and we now have a total of 2mA coming from the supply,
doubling the original 1mA. This implies that we’ve cut the total resistance in half.

While we can say that 10kΩ || 10kΩ = 5kΩ (“||” roughly translates to “in parallel with”),
we’re not always going to have 2 identical resistors. What then?
The equation for adding an arbitrary number of resistors in parallel is:

If reciprocals aren't your thing, we can also use a method called “product over sum” when we
have two resistors in parallel:

However, this method is only good for two resistors in one calculation. We can combine
more than 2 resistors with this method by taking the result of R1 || R2 and calculating that
value in parallel with a third resistor (again as product over sum), but the reciprocal method
may be less work.

Experiment Time - Part 1

What you’ll need:

 A handful of 10kΩ resistors

 A mul meter
 A breadboard

Let’s try a simple experiment just to prove that these things work the way we're saying they
do.

First, we’re going to hook up some 10kΩ resistors in series and watch them add in a most un-
mysterious way. Using a breadboard, place one 10kΩ resistor as indicated in the figure and
measure with a multimeter. Yes, we already know it’s going to say it’s 10kΩ, but this is what
we in the biz call a “sanity check”. Once we’ve convinced ourselves that the world hasn't
changed significantly since we last looked at it, place another one in similar fashion but with
a lead from each resistor connecting electrically through the breadboard and measure again.
The meter should now say something close to 20kΩ.

You may notice that the resistance you measure might not be exactly what the resistor says it
should be. Resistors have a certain amount of tolerance, which means they can be off by a
certain percentage in either direction. Thus, you may read 9.99kΩ or 10.01kΩ. As long as it's
close to the correct value, everything should work fine.
The reader should continue this exercise until convincing themselves that they know what the
outcome will be before doing it again, or they run out of resistors to stick in the breadboard,
whichever comes first.

Experiment Time - Part 2

Now let’s try it with resistors in a parallel configuration. Place one 10kΩ resistor in the
breadboard as before (we’ll trust that the reader already believes that a single 10kΩ resistor is
going to measure something close to 10kΩ on the multimeter). Now place a second 10kΩ
resistor next to the first, taking care that the leads of each resistor are in electrically connected
rows. But before measuring the combination, calculate by either product-over-sum or
reciprocal methods what the new value should be (hint: it’s going to be 5kΩ). Then measure.
Is it something close to 5kΩ? If it’s not, double check the holes into which the resistors are
plugged.
Repeat the exercise now with 3, 4 and 5 resistors. The calculated/measured values should be
3.33kΩ, 2.5kΩ and 2kΩ, respectively. Did everything come out as planned? If not, go back
and check your connections. If it did, EXCELSIOR! Go have a milkshake before we
continue. You’ve earned it.

Rules of Thumb for Series and Parallel Resistors

There are a few situations that may call for some creative resistor combinations. For example,
if we’re trying to set up a very specific reference voltage you’ll almost always need a very
specific ratio of resistors whose values are unlikely to be “standard” values. And while we
can get a very high degree of precision in resistor values, we may not want to wait the X
number of days it takes to ship something, or pay the price for non-stocked, non-standard
values. So in a pinch, we can always build our own resistor values.

Tip #1: Equal Resistors in Parallel

Adding N like-valued resistors R in parallel gives us R/N ohms. Let’s say we need a 2.5kΩ
resistor, but all we’ve got is a drawer full of 10kΩ's. Combining four of them in parallel gives
us 10kΩ/4 = 2.5kΩ.
Tip #2: Tolerance

Know what kind of tolerance you can tolerate. For example, if you needed a 3.2kΩ resistor,
you could put 3 10kΩ resistors in parallel. That would give you 3.3kΩ, which is about a 4%
tolerance from the value you need. But, if the circuit you're building needs to be closer than
4% tolerance, we can measure our stash of 10kΩ’s to see which are lowest values because
they have a tolerance, too. In theory, if the stash of 10kΩ resistors are all 1% tolerance, we
can only get to 3.3kΩ. But part manufacturers are known to make just these sorts of mistakes,
so it pays to poke around a bit.

Tip #3: Power Ra ngs in Series/Parallel

This sort of series and parallel combination of resistors works for power ratings, too. Let’s
say that we need a 100Ω resistor rated for 2 watts (W), but all we’ve got is a bunch of 1kΩ
quarter-watt (¼W) resistors (and it’s 3am, all the Mountain Dew is gone, and the coffee’s
cold). You can combine 10 of the 1kΩ's to get 100Ω (1kΩ/10 = 100Ω), and the power rating
will be 10x0.25W, or 2.5W. Not pretty, but it will get us through a final project, and might
even get us extra points for being able to think on our feet.

We need to be a little more careful when we combine resistors of dissimilar values in parallel
where total equivalent resistance and power ratings are concerned. It should be completely
obvious to the reader, but...

Tip #4: Different Resistors in Parallel

The combined resistance of two resistors of different values is always less than the smallest
value resistor. The reader would be amazed at how many times someone combines values in
their head and arrives at a value that’s halfway between the two resistors (1kΩ || 10kΩ does
NOT equal anything around 5kΩ!). The total parallel resistance will always be dragged closer
to the lowest value resistor. Do yourself a favor and read tip #4 10 times over.
Tip #5: Power Dissipa on in Parallel

The power dissipated in a parallel combination of dissimilar resistor values is not split evenly
between the resistors because the currents are not equal. Using the previous example of (1kΩ
|| 10kΩ), we can see that the 1kΩ will be drawing 10X the current of the 10kΩ. Since Ohm’s
Law says power = voltage x current, it follows that the 1kΩ resistor will dissipate 10X the
power of the 10kΩ.

Ultimately, the lessons of tips 4 and 5 are that we have to pay closer attention to what we’re
doing when combining resistors of dissimilar values in parallel. But tips 1 and 3 offer some
handy shortcuts when the values are the same.