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ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF TENSILE

MEMBRANE ENCLOSED SPACES

1 2 3
Amira ElNokaly , John Chilton and Robin Wilson
1
PhD Researcher, 2Senior Lecturer, 3Lecturer,

School of the Built Environment, University of Nottingham, United Kingdom.

ABSTRACT: Buildings enclosed by fabric membranes are very sensitive to changes in environmental conditions as a result of their low
mass and low thermal insulation values. Development in material technology and the understanding of the structural behaviour of
tensile membrane structures along with the vast progress in computer formfinding software, has made it possible for structural design
of tensile membrane structures to be approached with almost total confidence. On the contrary, understanding of the environmental
behaviour in the spaces enclosed by fabric membrane and their thermal performance is still in its infancy, which to some extent has
hindered their wide acceptance by the building industry. The environmental behaviour of tensile membrane structures is outlined and
the possible use of the fabric’s topology and geometry particularly to enhance ventilation rates and airflow velocities within the
enclosed space is discussed. A need for further research in this area is identified in order to fully realise the potential benefits offered
by these structures.

Key words: Environmental Behaviour; Tensile Membrane Structures; Fabric Membrane Skin; Fabric Topology and Geometry

1. INTRODUCTION
Fabric membrane structures such as the building shown in figure 1, are
a form of lightweight structural systems, where there structural
components such as masts, cables, connecting joints or roofs are
exhibited making them visible from the inside or outside or from both
sides. Fabric structures have been used throughout history. They were
originally used to provide shelter where materials were scarce or
mobility was required. Nowadays, the issue of resource scarcity applies
not only to materials but also to energy and here tensile membrane
structures can have a potential role to play. When adopting fabric
membranes as part of the building enclosure it is important that the
designer should fully understand the environmental implications
implicit in their use. In order to apply the technique effectively and to
increase their acceptability, their environmental and micro-climatic
behaviour should be clearly understood and capable of being predicted Fig.1
by the building design team.
Figure 1 shows the exterior of the Inland Revenue Amenity Building in
Nottingham, UK, which is one of the most successful tensile membrane
projects in the United Kingdom.

1
Tensile membrane structures provide the advantage of enclosing large 2. ENVIRONMENTAL PROPERTIES OF A FABRIC MEMBRANE SKIN
spaces without intermediate supports, using a minimal amount of Fabric membranes have very little thermal mass and as a consequence
material and rapid erection. Recently, the need for such widespan react very quickly to the changes in the environment around them.
enclosures has greatly increased in both developed and developing They mirror the prevailing ambient radiant temperature, heating
countries, to accommodate and facilitate the multifunctional, collective rapidly during periods of bright direct sunshine and cooling quickly to
activities of society. reflect the external radiant temperature at night2.

For membranes, the excitement of their exterior sculptural form,

2.1. Materials
beauty of their interior space, purity of their structural system,
suitability of the materials used and the apparent comfort of their
Woven fabrics have been used to provide shelter since ancient times.
internal climatic conditions are the fundamentals in securing this aim.
Leather tents were used by the Romans in their campaigns. Nomadic
cultures have used fabrics in their shelters for thousands of years and
are still using them, be it in the black goat hair tent of the Bedouin, the
In addition to the lighting and shading functions normally associated North American tepee, or the Mongolian yurt. Although, all these
traditional tents rely on materials with a durability of just a few years,
with tensile membrane structures, the topology of the construction
type offers exciting opportunities to lend additional functionality and they achieve high levels of comfort for the occupants. In the industrial
higher levels of comfort to the enclosure. They can be used as climate age, fabrics are generally not acceptable as building materials because
of their ephemeral nature.
modifiers in both hot and cold regions, offering in some circumstances,
conditions suitable for human occupation and in others, a protected
microclimate within which conventional buildings may be sited and
operated in a more efficient manner.
These types of materials were revisited in the nineteen sixties due to
cultural interest in inflatable, instant cities and new lifestyles3. Through
the pioneering lightweight structures of Frei Otto in Germany, the
influences of the tensegrity structures of Richard Buckminster-Fuller,
and then the inflatable structures of Walter Bird in the United States,
20th century fabric structures were born. Otto2 used cotton canvas and
polyester fabrics for his early garden show structures, and Bird2 used
urethane-coated polyester for his early radome enclosures. Eventually
PVC coated polyester fabric was adopted by both, which is the ancestor
of today’s polyester fabrics, and is currently the most widely used
membrane structure material.

The chronology for the development of membrane materials covers a

Fig.2 (Source: Frei Otto, Bodo Rasch1) long period of history. Started in 1933 with the industrialisation of poly
vinyl chloride (PVC) production, but it did not become the standard
coating for the tensile membrane structures industry until the late
sixties. In, 1947 the industrialisation of polyester fibre took place4. As
As these are light and flexible structures there is also potential for the demand for more permanent membrane enclosures increased in
folding the fabric membranes to change their function at different the early 1970s, poly tetra-flouro-ethylene PTFE (Teflon TM) coated
times of the day or seasons of the year. Figure 2 shows some of the fibreglass was introduced as a durable alternative to PVC coated
foldable umbrellas at the 1971 Cologne Federal Garden Exhibition. polyester. PTFE with a life expectancy of at least 20 years compared
These simply constructed but beautiful umbrellas inspired many with approximately 10 to 15 years for PVC coated polyester,
subsequent projects. considerably extended the life span of membrane structures.

This paper reviews the environmental properties of the fabric In the 1990s Ethylene Tetra Fluoro Ethene (ETFE foils is a thermoplastic
membrane skin, highlighting the optical differences between the fabric copolymer derived from the polymerization of ethylene and tetra
material and those of glass. The paper also discusses the environmental fluoro ethylene monomers) was introduced to architecture. However,
behaviour of tensile membrane structures and the possible use of the the material is not currently being used for single layer membranes, its
fabric’s topology and particularly its geometry to enhance ventilation application instead being in the form of foil cushions.5
rates and airflow velocities within the enclosed space. The physical
properties of the fabric membrane skin and the environmental
behaviour of spaces enclosed by them are reviewed. Subsequently, the 2.2. Optical Properties
possibility of employing a number of architectural strategies commonly The thermal optical properties of a material distinguish its radiant
applied to conventional building types to enhance their environmental behaviour within the thermal spectrum2. Contrary to most of the
performance is discussed. Some that is made possible by the unique structural materials commonly used in the building industry, fabric
nature of the tensile membrane structural type are also outlined. membranes present the advantage of translucency. The transmittance

2
of coated woven fabric membranes typically ranges from 0 to 25% 1. Type 2 PVC coated polyester, gauge 0.7mm.
although it may be even higher. This allows penetration of a significant
amount of solar radiation through the whole surface of the building, 2. Type 3 is PVC coated polyester, gauge 0.85 mm,
while the rest is either absorbed by the membrane or reflected back.
Exact transmittance values depend on the material used, the solar 3. Verseidag Indutex PTFE coated glass (new), gauge 0.75 mm,
angle of incidence and the wavelength of the radiation.
4. Verseidag Indutex PTFE coated glass (weathered), gauge
0.75 mm.

Fabric membranes can be quite translucent, however, their optical 5. Typical float glass surface 6mm gauge6. Reflective glass
properties differ significantly from those of glass2. Glass tends to have surface 6 mm gauge
much higher solar transmittance and lower reflectance than that of
fabric membranes. This means that the effect of the solar reflectance is
higher in fabric membranes than for glass. Harvie has shown that there 2.2. Thermal Properties
is a tendency for fabric membrane properties to change more Structural efficiency of membrane enclosures is essentially based on
significantly at higher angles of solar incidence. One of the main the minimum use of material for the building skin. The thickness of the
advantages of fabric materials is that they have acceptable levels of membrane skin is typically about 1mm and weighs about 1 kg/m2. This
translucency, allowing daytime lighting to be dramatically reduced or keeps the dead loads imposed on the supporting structure to a
eliminated. minimum, thus allowing large spaces to be spanned without any
intermediate supports.

The reflectivity of some membrane materials such as Teflon coated

fibreglass is typically around 70%, which is advantageous in hot However, the inevitable consequence of this lightweight form of
climates as it reduces heat build-up within the enclosure due to construction is the very low thermal mass of the building skin. The
insolation, yet it discharges heat at night reducing the load on air- membrane reacts extremely quickly to external heat inputs, such as air
conditioning plant. temperature changes and solar radiation, and is unable to damp
temperature swings occurring in its environment, as traditional
heavyweight structures do.

The solar optical properties of both PVC coated polyester samples and
PTFE coated glass samples display very similar trends. However, these
trends differ significantly from the displayed behaviour of glass2 (see The thermal properties of fabric materials are quite different from
figure 3). As a consequence, shading coefficient, which is used to conventional buildings. The large surface area of membranes compared
describe the thermal optical properties of glass is not as applicable to to their thickness means that they have insufficient mass to
fabric membrane materials. significantly affect their thermal behaviour. Consequently, their
thermal behaviour derives almost entirely from their convection
surface heat transfers and their optical absorbtance2. The combination
and specific nature of fabric membrane materials suggests a design
potential, precisely in relation to form and location. Heat transfer
100%
7 through fabric materials is quite a complicated issue and depends on a
90%
15
32
number of changeable factors. The amount and direction of the
80%
conduction of heat through the fabric structure depends greatly on the
70%

Pr 60% 80.2 78.22

69.92
74.29 internal and external air temperatures, the wind speed, U-value, the
ece
nta 50% thickness of the fabric and whether it is a single or double membrane7.
ge
% 40% 78 60

30%

20% 24.75 18.29

Wu8states that there are three specific properties of fabric materials

15.45 17.97
10%
7.43 8
4.35 3.81 5.33
0%
PVC/Polyester PVC/Polyester PTFE New 0.75 PTFE Clear float glass Reflecting glass
that influence to a great extent the heat transfer through them:
'Type (2) 0.7 'Type (3) 0.85
mm Weathered 0.75 6mm (Silver) 6mm
mm mm mm
Type of Material
1. solar transmission and absorption
Diffused Transmittance Diffused Absorptance Diffused Reflectance

2. emissivity in relation to long wave radiation, and

3. light transmission and characteristics.

Fig.3
The fabric membrane material has a very low thermal resistance. That
is why solar transmission, solar reflectance/absorbency, and the
Figure 3 shows the comparison of solar optical properties of the surface wind velocity all play important roles in the heat transfer and its
following membrane samples measured by Harvie2 and typical glass
calculation.
products as quoted in Button [et al6]:

3
The U-value is a function of the surface resistance effects and thermal
resistivity of the materials from which the building envelope is made. In External
a conventional structure, the material resistance term is dominant and reflected solar
heat conduction across the building envelope is therefore proportional Solar radiation
to the difference in temperature of the air on either side of it. Surface
resistances are dependent on a great number of environmental Radiation Long wave Convection
Infra red
parameters in addition to air temperature and as a consequence their
radiation
effect is usually approximated when estimating the U-values of
conventional construction materials. The dominance of the material Absorption T Conduction
resistivity ensures reasonable accuracy. MEMBRANE Ti
Absorption o

Internal reflected
a
Convection
solar radiation )
The same assumption does not hold for membranes. Their negligible
thickness results in heat flow being determined by the surface effects.
To be described properly therefore, surface heat transfer should be P
expressed in terms of the difference between the temperature of the
Fig.4 h
membrane surfaces and the environmental conditions that exist on
either side of them2. Most of the membrane manufacturers today tend Figure 4 shows diagrammatically the heat transfer D
model of the
to express the thermal performance of their product in terms of these thermal behaviour of fabric membranes. (After Harvie2)
two quantities and will often quote two U-values: one for standard
winter conditions and one for standard summer conditions. Although 3. PARTICULARITIES OF THE ENVIRONMENT INSIDE TENSILE
R
this may help to account for some variation in the surface effects, the MEMBRANE ENCLOSURES e
approach is far from satisfactory for accurate prediction of thermal It is surprising to see how little published knowledge s is currently
behaviour. Conventional U-values are dominated by the conductance available concerning the environmental behaviour of membrane skins
term, which is related to the material, and approximate surface effects. e
or on their impact on the spaces that they enclose. Generally,
For membranes, where negligible thickness means that conductance is membrane structures react very rapidly to external energy a influences
minimal it is important to describe the surface effects such as long because of their low thermal mass. This, combined with r low thermal
wave infrared radiation and convection, which dominate heat transfer resistivity, generally means that cooling due to winter thermal losses
more accurately. c
and excessive heating in summer by solar radiation of the inner space
can only be controlled by significant expenditure onh heating and
cooling plant. Considerate design of the formfound curvature
e and
external/internal form of the membrane structure also offers a means
Where shading coefficients suppose that the solar optical properties of r space.
of providing appropriate levels of comfort within the enclosed
membranes are directly comparable to those of glass, experimental
work2 has proved that this is not true. For glass it is assumed that the
,
amount of heat entering an enclosed space as a result of solar radiation
falling on its external surface is linearly related to the intensity of that Exploring the potential for passive approaches to reduce b reliance on
solar radiation. Whilst this is a reasonable assumption for glazed active control of internal conditions is a strategy for minimising the
enclosures, it has been shown2,9,10that in the case of membranes, the )
environmental impact of this class of structure. This will assure
proportion of absorbed solar radiation subsequently radiated into the increased importance, as the growing range of applications for which
enclosed space is dependant, not only on the solar intensity, but also
S
tensile structures are being applied means that the designer has to
on the difference between the temperature of its surface and the provide comfort as well as shade and shelter for the occupants.
environmental conditions on either side of them. e
n
i
Environmental properties of the membrane skin and the spaces that
Thus, it can be seen that in case of fabric membranes, both the thermal they enclose can be divided into the following categories:o
transmission and solar heat gain are dependent upon the nature of the
r
internal and external environments as well as the thermal state of the
membrane. Techniques developed for the analysis of conventional 3.1. Highly responsive building skin
construction types do not adequately account for these effects and so The space inside a fabric membrane structure is enclosed L by a highly
can not be expected to give reliable predictions of tensile membrane thermally responsive skin, whose internal surface temperature varies
structures thermal performance2.
e
very quickly depending on the amount of solar radiation that reaches it.
As a result, high contrast in surface temperature is likely c
to occur inside
the building between different areas of the membrane skin t exposed to
unequal solar radiation. The same happens between the lightweight
u
membrane and the thermally heavier floor slab or internal building
walls or the internal thermal mass. r
e
r
,

c 4
)

L
Consideration of this phenomenon is of great importance in assessing
the thermal comfort of the occupants, as great variation in the Solar
temperature of surrounding surfaces could be a source of discomfort Radiation Sky
for the user. This can be made worse by the increased exposure of the Condition
user to the membrane surface, due to the topology of the building. Air
Membrane Contrasting temperature of the Velocity
Boundary fabric skin.
External Internal
3.2. Non uniform internal conditions Stratification within
Temperature Temperature
The topology of fabric membranes favours the accumulation of buoyant the enclosed space
warm air at the high points and formation of cooler air layers at human
height. Air temperature will vary greatly depending on the position in Fig.5
the space and on the height above floor level. Very strong thermal
Figure 5 shows the stratification of air in tensile membrane enclosures.
stratification has been observed in these enclosures and differences of
up to 14C between regions adjacent to the membrane and the floor
have been monitored by Harvie2. However, this stratification appeared
The spanning of large spaces and the presence of high points in a
to be the result of contrasting internal surface temperature rather than
membrane structure implies the enclosure of a large quantity of air in a
simple buoyancy, as negative vertical stratification was monitored
single volume and, consequently, the existence of large-scale air
during clear sky nights2.
movements. Particularly, because of the substantial roof heights, any
source of heat within the enclosure, being either internal gains or solar
gains through the translucent membrane skin, has the potential to
develop into strong convection cells.
Typically, during a warm sunny day, the layer of warm air will remain
stable at the highest points due to the heating caused by the warm
Harvie2 observed pronounced thermal stratification in tensile membrane
membrane surface. The stability of the upper layer can however easily
be disturbed by the induced natural ventilation or by infiltration, enclosures and differences of up to 10C were recorded during bright
usually resulting in large-scale turbulent air movements in the sunshine, while during cold weather or at night negative stratification was
enclosure. observed. This negative stratification was monitored during clear sky
nights. It was concluded that this stratification resulted from the
contrasting internal surface temperature rather than the low thermal
mass of the membrane boundary as illustrated in figure 5.
On a cold day with strong solar radiation, turbulent flows are even
more likely to occur, as large variations in the surface temperature
around the envelope might in turn produce rapid cooling of the warm 3.3. Lighting Performance
air layer and generate strong downward flow of cooler air at certain Providing natural light is a very important use of solar energy.
points in the structure2. There are several factors affecting stratification Therefore, great care must be taken by the designer to ensure that the
in the space enclosed by tensile membrane structures, for instance: environmental implications of using membranes in a building envelope
are understood. When comparing the performance of energy use of
membrane buildings with conventional structures a more extensive
energy balance than just heat gains and losses ought to be considered.
1. Solar radiation transmitted into the internal space heats up
the surroundings. This causes warm air to rise and cooler air
to drop.
If skilfully used, the chosen degree of light transmittance of the fabric
2. The direct heat transfer to the fabric roof contributes to the skin can provide plenty of natural light in the enclosure A bright
warmth of air in the immediate vicinity of the fabric delightful interior is one of the characteristics of buildings with
membrane. membrane enclosures. The translucency of the membrane material
controls the penetration of light while the interior is kept bright. The
fact that sunlight striking the membrane surface is diffusely transmitted
to the internal space also helps to minimise problems of glare. In
addition the continuous changing of its intensity and colour qualities
provide the building occupants with more information about the
external weather conditions and time of the day.

5
It is this range of light transmission characteristics that make tensile 4. USING FABRIC TOPOLOGY TO MANIPULATE THE INTERNAL
membrane structures useful for applications such as sports facilities, ENVIRONMENT
outdoor shelters, music, dance and theatrical activities. It also reduces In addition to the lighting and shading functions that tensile membrane
the need for electric lights. To a degree, this counterbalances the structures provide, the topology of the construction type offers exciting
higher energy consumption due to excessive heat gains or losses opportunities to lend additional functionality. The use of tensile
through the thin membrane. Saving energy used for lighting spaces and membrane structures as microclimate modifiers may be considered as
also saves energy used for cooling in hot climates, as electric lights a prime objective for their use in a number of different applications.
often contribute to internal heat gains and lead to a requirement for
cooling plant.
4.1. Successful Examples In The Built Environment
Figure 6 (Photo courtesy of Alastair Gardner) shows the interior of the There have been many architectural projects and different trials making
Inland Revenue, Amenity Building in Nottingham and it is clear how the use of the unique nature of fabric membrane structures to enhance the
space is naturally lit by the use of the translucent building skin and environment within the enclosures. The topology and form of the
glazed lenticular windows. This apparently cuts down the energy tensile structure can be used to alter the quantity and direction of solar
consumption required for artificial lighting, in addition to a bright, glare radiation entering the enclosure. The structure can be shaped and
free interior space. The luminosity of fabric membrane roofs is basically oriented to allow maximum solar gain in winter by exploiting the low
influenced by three main factors11. angle of the sun as is used in more conventional buildings. In summer
the form of the building can provide shade by screening occupants
from solar radiation from the higher overhead arc of the sun. In sunny
parts of the world, the shape of the structure can also be oriented such
1. The availability of outside daylight.
that it is parallel to the sun’s arc across the sky, providing shade
throughout the day. There follow, some examples that have used
2. The light transmission properties of the fabric roof material.
different techniques for enhancing the environmental behaviour of
3. The reflection/absorption of the membrane surface inside their enclosures.
the space.

a. Arizona Solar Oasis at Phoenix Civic Plaza

Given the directional characteristics of membrane materials, the
internal luminance of the fabric roof depends on the orientation of the
curved surface to the sun and sky11. Thus the internal luminance
depends on the altitude of the sun and the sky condition, which change
continually during the day and from season to season.

Similarly the shape of the roof itself and its orientation plays an
important role in the internal luminance. If properly oriented it can
either make use of sunlight to light the interior or provide solar
protection by working as an effective shading device12. This results in
significant variation in the luminance of the internal surface of the roof.
As a whole, these dynamic changes cause a considerable variation in Fig. 7 (Source URL:
lighting performance within the enclosed space and potentially http://www.architecture.arizona.edu/planning/PROJECT/d+d_planning
represent a tool that may be used by the designer to manipulate the /default.htm)
internal environment.

Figure 7 shows the Arizona Solar Oasis, built for the 1987 “Summer
Invitation”. This project utilised several environmental strategies for
enhancing the internal climate. A large pre-stressed saddle shaped
fabric membrane structure was used as a shade over the exhibition
area. The membrane was placed such that its downward curvature was
oriented east west, parallel to the sun’s arc across the sky. It was also
shaped so that the fabric ran close to the ground along the south
perimeter and high on the north. This shape provided shade all day
long. It also generated a strong air current beneath the membrane
surface that drew in ambient air under the south edge, and resulted in
continuous cross ventilation. It also used some of the passive cooling
techniques used in conventional buildings, which were provided by a
nearby fish pond display and an existing fountain, in addition to a mist
spray cooling system which was employed in the adjacent café, some
Fig.6 greenhouse areas, and two cooling towers. Temperatures in the

6
“Summer Invitation” were reduced to approximately 14C below the c. GCC Conference Centre in Kuwait
ambient temperature13.
The conceptual design for this project was based upon the Bedouin
The structure was only used for a summer installation but it is worth tent, which enjoys a great acceptance in Arab countries, due to the
noting that this fabric enclosure would have worked well for winter tradition of their use. The project is an example of the use of tensile
passive solar heating. This would have been made possible by the membrane structures in an extreme hot climate, not only because it
available thermal storage media of the thermal masses like the plaza was totally exposed to the desert sun, but also because it was designed
deck and the fish pond, along with the other enclosures to the north, to provide an adequate environment for royalty and heads of state and
east and west sides of the fabric enclosure. This would have absorbed had to be completed within just 17 weeks14.
solar radiation and stablised temperatures a little above ambient.

b. Haj Terminal in Jeddah Warm air escapes

Another very good example that has used tensile membrane structures through the roof cap 70% Reflected
to enhance the internal climate is the Haj Terminal in Jeddah, Saudi White PVC outer layer on
Top of 75mm Mineral Solar Radiation
Arabia. This project has successfully made use of the tensile membrane Wool Insulation and White
topology, along with techniques that are used for passive cooling in PVC Inner Layer.
more conventional buildings.
10% of incident energy
Conditioned Air is transmitted

Delivered to space

FRESH AIR
INLET

Fig.9 (After Rudi Scheuermann14)

Three large tensile structures containing a banqueting facility, seating

areas and conference rooms occupy the palace gardens and are linked
together with walkways. The tensile structures are stretched PVC-
Fig. 8 (Source: Horst Berger) coated polyester woven and mat fabric secured to lightweight steel
structures. Figure 914 shows a detailed section through one of the
pavilions at the conference centre in Kuwait. Three layers of fabric are
included in each tent, the outer skin (with a reflectance of 70% to
The structure was to provide comfort for the pilgrims and protect them ensure a minimum of solar absorption), an insulation layer and inner
against the heat of the desert sun. A fabric structure provided a skin, and finally the interior lining finish. The heat re-radiated and
lightweight and translucent solution. The membrane chosen for the convected off the inner surface of the outer skin is removed by natural
structure was Teflon coated fibreglass, which maintains its surface ventilation through large air gaps located between the interior and
temperature within a few degrees of the ambient air temperature, by exterior membranes. The temperature beneath the exterior membrane
reflecting most of the sun’s heat12. The fabric’s translucency makes skin increases due to the conduction heat gains, causing buoyancy. In
artificial light unnecessary during the daytime, and thus energy return, this induces an upward air movement that vents through the
consumption is dramatically reduced. The structure is formed of ten top cap of the structure.
identical modules that are arranged in two rows of five to cover a total
area of approximately 42.5 hectares (105 acres). Each module consists
of 21 square, semi-conical, fabric roof units of a form and height that
promotes circulation of air from the open sides of the roofed area up to This double layer ventilated system ensures that the total transmitted
and through the open steel tension ring located at the top of the roof incident heat does not exceed 10%, providing a high level of
unit. Fan towers placed intermediately between columns enhance air environmental comfort. Figure 10 shows the interior of the Banquet
circulation. Acoustical problems are diminished due to roof height and tent, with the lighting provided by mixed source uplights and the
material. Due to its low heat transmission, the fabric allows the sun to ventilating roof cap that completes the weather proofing.
cast a warm light over the area below. Under the landscaped central
mall are located two large exhaust fans for each module to draw off the
exhaust fumes of the buses.

7
 In Figure 11 it can be seen how the unique nature of the membrane
skin and the fabric’s topology can help in cooling down the internal
environment.

During a warm sunny day, the layer of warm air will migrate to the
highest points due to the heating caused by membrane surface, which
is heated by the solar radiation. As a result the stratification will
maintain a cooler layer of air in the inhabited zone. The hot air at high
levels can then be discharged through the upper vents drawing in air at
low levels, this phenomenon is the thermal stack effect.

Fig.10 Warm
Membrane
(Source:URL; http://www.a10.co.uk/projects_frame.htm) Warm Air
Surface
Stack
Effect
Cool Air
As in the case of any typical conventional building, a deep
understanding of the micro-environments with their critical
characteristics, is a fundamental point for designers to recognise when
designing these types of structures. It is, therefore, essential to deal
Fig.11
with fabric structures as elements that are sensibly integrated into
environments and not as isolated objects.
Using dark colour to selectively heat regions on the structure where
airflow occurs could enhance this effect. When used in conjunction
with a sensible arrangement of high and low vents, this will also
4.2. Enhancing the Internal Environment Of the Enclosures
prevent overheating, by forcing the warm air to escape through the
It is quite rational to consider lightweight membrane structures as high level vents. It can also be used in combination with ground-
environmental ‘filters’ rather than barriers to the external weather.
coupled air inlets or fountains and plants close to inlets, providing
Fabric membranes can be merely used for creating an intermediate
additional opportunities to pre-cool the incoming air, adding to comfort
climate or meso-climate, that acts between the external climate and
the environmentally controlled interior of the building to moderate and in hot environments.
regulate them, rather than shutting it out completely.

The membrane form and orientation and the associated thermal mass
(walls, floors, terraces, water pools, fountains, etc.) can be designed to Radiant Heat
suit different seasons and climates. For example, in winter the structure
should be designed to maximise the absorption of solar heat gain, and
transmitting it into the enclosure. At night it should be sufficiently air Induced Air
tight to prevent the escape of the heat to the night sky. In summer, the Thermal
opposite should occur, as the fabric structure should absorb and Air Flow Mass
transmit the minimum of solar heat, and work in conjunction with Air Flow
thermal mass distributed within the enclosure to stabilise
temperatures. It should be designed with a number of different
openings so the internal heat finds a place to escape at night, or it
could also be folded at night, so as to encourage cross ventilation and Fig.12
escape of the heat that is stored during the day to the night sky.

A number of traditional passive cooling systems can be effectively used

along with fabric membranes, such as evaporative cooling by having
water cascades, mist sprays or fountains, cooling towers, stack effect
and self shading. All of these strategies can be used to enhance the
benefit of tensile membrane structures in hot climates. Reflective
Surface Re-radiation of
Heat inside the
Enclosure
Techniques for influencing conditions within the enclosed space are
illustrated in Figs 11 to 18. These make use of a number of architectural
strategies commonly applied to conventional building types, in addition Fig.13
to some that are made possible by the unique nature of the tensile
membrane structural type.

8
Membrane covered buildings can use the greenhouse effect to their A variant of this is illustrated in Figs 14 and 15, where a retractable
advantage. In winter, or in cold countries, this can be achieved by using structure can be used to provide comfort for the occupants and protect
a transparent membrane skin, or transparent films, with a low- them from the sun in the day time by reflecting most of the suns heat.
emissivity coating which reflects long wave radiation and transmits At night the umbrella structure is closed to expose the interior to the
short wave solar radiation into the enclosure resulting in an increase of night sky for cooling. This idea has been successfully applied in the Holy
the internal temperature as shown in figure 13. Incorporating movable Prophet’s Mosque in Madinah in Saudi Arabia, figure 16, and has
sunshades or insulation into the design can prevent unwanted proved very effective.
excessive heat gains which might be caused by this approach even in
cold climates.

Besides the greenhouse phenomenon, other techniques such as the use

of thermal mass to introduce the ‘thermal flywheel’ effect into the
enclosed space, as in figures 12 & 13, helps in moderating excessive
heat loss through the membrane skin. The available thermal storage
media helps in absorbing heat during the day, suppressing excessive
rises in internal temperature and re-radiating the heat at night to
prevent excessively low temperatures. This enables the structure to
work well as a winter passive solar heating strategy.

Shading Fig.16 (Source: Frei Otto, Bodo Rasch1)

Device

Figure 17 shows how the arrangement of the thermal mass may be

Air Flow varied to increase the effect and to provide protected spaces within the
enclosure where increased levels of shade are achieved. The
membrane may also be used to induce airflow through the space to
Thermal Mass assist in controlling the climate. The ability to manipulate the form of
the membrane offers possibilities to use its shape to enhance wind-
driven ventilation, either through induced airflow, as shown in Figure
Fig.14 12 or using cross ventilation as illustrated in Figure 14.

Warm Air
Re-radiation
to the Night-
sky Cool Air
Flow
Fresh Air
Arrangement of Internal
Thermal mass

Fig.15
Fig.17

9
 and capable of accounting for the complicated topology, time
variant climatic inputs and complicated internal temperature and
Exhaust
airflow behaviour.
Glass
Collector Plate
 Use of these models to develop general design guidance and
Eddies
quantitative descriptions of how these systems behave.

In addition to ensuring the appropriate and effective application of

tensile membrane structures by the industry, such strategies would
avoid unrealistic expectations on the part of the occupier of both
comfort conditions and operating costs. Such tools would permit the
continued development of environmental control strategies and tensile
Fig.18
membrane structure materials with enhanced thermal properties.
A solar chimney can be incorporated into a tensile structure using the
stack effect as seen in Figure 18. The temperature inside the chimney
6. SUMMARY
needs to be higher than that of the outside air, to create a pressure
difference between the inside and the outside and facilitate the exhaust. Fabric membranes are thin translucent materials that have insufficient
This is easily assisted by a collector plate within the chimney which gets mass to significantly affect their thermal behaviour. At any instant, it is
reasonable to assume that their thermal behaviour results from their
heated up by the solar radiation.
surface heat transfer and their characteristic thermal optical properties
at that instant. Early approaches adopted for predicting the thermal
behaviour of tensile membrane structures based on U-values, and
shading coefficients have proved inappropriate. Alternative approaches
This heats the air, making it buoyant, thus forcing an upward flow of hot to the problem have been explored and work is now required to
air from the enclosed space to the outside keeping the inhabited area develop these to the point where they may be used to inform the
cooler. If used in conjunction with transparent insulation it reduces design process.
excessive heat gains into the enclosure thus preventing overheating in
summer.

If fabric structures are to compete with more conventional building

types, which have well established levels of environmental
These ideas, in conjunction with additional strategies, such as the use of performance and face strict energy consumption legislation, designers
multiple skin membranes with thermal insulation layers, or novel and manufacturers must be able to accurately predict their
membrane materials with enhanced thermal properties, are very difficult environmental and thermal behaviour and ensure an appropriate
to evaluate without appropriate environmental modelling tools. Unless comfort level for the occupiers of the spaces.
such tools are made widely available, their application will be inhibited –
left to those prepared to take the risk of investment without a strong
indication that they will function correctly.
The paper has indicated how the unique nature of the tensile
membrane structures topology can be effectively harnessed to achieve
better environmental performance. Features like topography, local
5. THE NEED FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
climate, sun and site orientation and wind should all have a significant
It is important to note that work has been undertaken by leading role in the formfinding of a tensile structure. The possibility of using the
consultants involved in tensile membrane structures design. This work
fabric’s topology to enhance the ventilation rates and the climatic
has addressed condensation issues within the fabric envelope, airflow
studies, CFD modelling, etc. However, most of the work relates to performance of the interiors along with the employment of a number
specific projects and is not in the public domain. Therefore, there is a of architectural strategies commonly applied to conventional buildings
need, recognised by the design community, both for general guidelines were introduced.
to inform the outline design stage of projects and for predictive tools
for detailed design. For this to happen, further detailed investigations
need to be carried out in this field at a number of different levels.

 More investigation into the influence of the topology of the fabric

itself, and the possibility of using it to enhance the environmental
performance of these structures. For example,

 Detailed investigation into the thermal and optical properties of

fabric membranes and studies of internal and external surface
convection heat transfer to inform modelling of such enclosures.

 The development of models (possibly as part of a CFD code)

tailored to suit the particular characteristics of fabric structures

10
6. REFERENCES 9. Sinofsky M. Thermal performance of fabric in permanent
construction. ASHRAE Annual conference. June, 1985.

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3rd ed.. Germany: Deutscher Werkbund Bayem; 1995. analysis". Energy and Environment Division: Lawrence Berkeley
Lab., 1984.
2. Harvie GN. An investigation into the thermal behaviour of spaces
enclosed by fabric membranes. [Phd Thesis]. Cardiff: University of 11. Hart GH. Analysis using DOE 2.1B to predict the annual energy use
Cardiff, 1995. of a retail store covered with an insulated fabric roof. The
architectural fabric structures institute. Proceedings of the
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International Symposium of Widespan Enclosures. University of design process. Orlando, Florida. USA. Nov. 1984; pp: 181-186.
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Glass Performance". Oxford, London: Pilkington Glass Ltd, 1993.
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) Amira ElNokaly, School of the Built Environment, Institute of
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