Types of Radiation

 Some atomic nuclei are unstable

 This is because of an imbalance in the forces within the nucleus
o Forces exist between the particles in the nucleus
 Carbon-14 is an isotope of carbon which is unstable
o It has two extra neutrons compared to stable carbon-12
 When an unstable nucleus decays it emits radiation, called nuclear radiation

Carbon-12 is stable, whereas carbon-14 is unstable. This is because carbon-14

has two extra neutrons

 Some isotopes are unstable because of their large size or because they have too
many or too few neutrons

 Unstable nuclei can emit radiation to become more stable


o Radiation can be in the form of a high energy particle or wave

Unstable nuclei decay by emitting high energy particles or waves

 There are different types of radiation that can be emitted:

 o Alpha (α)
o Beta-minus (β-)
o Beta-plus (β+)
o Gamma (γ)
o Neutrons

 As the radiation moves away from the nucleus, it takes some energy with it
o This reduces the overall energy of the nucleus
o This makes the nucleus more stable
 The process of emitting radiation is called radioactive decay
 Radioactive decay is a random process
o This means it is not possible to know exactly when a particular nucleus will
decay

The Nature of Radiation

Alpha Particles

 The symbol for alpha is α

 An alpha particle is the same as a helium nucleus
o This is because they consist of two neutrons and two protons
 Alpha particles have a charge of +2
o This means they can be affected by an electric field

Beta Particles

 The symbol for beta is β

 Beta particles are fast-moving electrons emitted from the nucleus
 Beta-plus particles are fast-moving positrons (positive version of electrons)
 They are produced in nuclei when a neutron changes into a proton and an
electron
 Beta-minus particles have a charge of -1
 Beta-plus particles have a charge of +1
o This means they can be affected by an electric field

Gamma Rays

 The symbol for gamma is γ

 Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves
 They have the highest energy of the different types of electromagnetic waves
 Gamma rays have no charge

Neutrons

 The symbol for a neutron is n

 Neutrons are one of the two particles found in the nucleus of atoms
 Neutrons are neutral, they have no charge
 Alpha particles, beta particles, gamma waves and neutrons can be emitted from
unstable nuclei

Ionising Radiation
 Ionisation is the process by which an atom loses an electron due to radiation
 All nuclear radiation is capable of ionising atoms that it hits
 When an atom is ionised, the number of electrons it has changes
o This gives it a non-zero charge (the atom is left with a net positive charge)
When radiation passes close to atoms it can knock out electrons, ionising the
atom

 Alpha radiation is the most ionising form of nuclear radiation

o This is because alpha particles have a charge of +2 and is the heaviest
 Gamma radiation is the least ionising form of nuclear radiation
Comparing Alpha, Beta & Gamma
 The properties of Alpha, Beta-plus, Beta-minus and Gamma are given in this
table, and then described in more detail below

Different Properties of Nuclear Radiation

 The trend down the table shows:


o The range increases
o Penetrating power increases
o Ionisation decreases

Penetrating Power

 Alpha, beta and gamma have different properties

 They penetrate materials in different ways
o This means they are stopped by different materials
Alpha, beta and gamma are different in how they penetrate materials. Alpha is the
least penetrating, and gamma is the most penetrating

 Alpha is stopped by paper, whereas beta and gamma pass through it

 Beta is stopped by a few millimetres of aluminium
o Gamma can pass through aluminium
 Gamma can be reduced by several metres of concrete or several centimetres
of lead

 The more ionising a form of radiation is, the sooner it will react with the air it is
moving through
 Strongly ionising radiation has the shortest range in air
o Alpha only travels a few centimetres in air
o Beta has a range of a few tens of centimetres
o Gamma is not absorbed by air and so has an infinite range, although it
does become less intense with distance
Background Radiation
 It is important to remember that radiation is a natural phenomenon
 Radioactive elements have always existed on Earth and in outer space
o However, human activity has added to the amount of radiation that
humans are exposed to on Earth

 Background radiation is defined as:

The radiation that exists around us all the time

 There are two types of background radiation:

o Natural sources
o Man-made sources

Background radiation is the radiation that is present all around in the

environment. Radon gas is given off from some types of rock

 Every second of the day there is some radiation emanating from natural
sources such as:
o Rocks
o Cosmic rays from space
o Foods
Origins of Background Radiation
 Background radiation can come from natural sources on Earth or space and
man-made sources

Natural Sources

 Radon gas from rocks and soil

o Heavy radioactive elements, such as uranium and thorium, occur naturally
in rocks in the ground
o Uranium decays into radon gas, which is an alpha emitter
o This is particularly dangerous if inhaled into the lungs in large quantities
 Cosmic rays from space
o The sun emits an enormous number of protons every second
o Some of these enter the Earth’s atmosphere at high speeds
o When they collide with molecules in the air, this leads to the production of
gamma radiation
o Other sources of cosmic rays are supernovae and other high energy
cosmic events
 Carbon-14 in biological material
o All organic matter contains a tiny amount of carbon-14
o Living plants and animals constantly replace the supply of carbon in their
systems hence the amount of carbon-14 in the system stays almost
constant
 Radioactive material in food and drink
o Naturally occurring radioactive elements can get into food and water since
they are in contact with rocks and soil containing these elements
o Some foods contain higher amounts such as potassium-40 in bananas
o However, the amount of radioactive material is minuscule and is not a
cause for concern

Man-Made Sources

 Medical sources
o In medicine, radiation is utilised all the time
o Uses include X-rays, CT scans, radioactive tracers, and radiation therapy
 Nuclear waste
o While nuclear waste itself does not contribute much to background
radiation, it can be dangerous for the people handling it
 Nuclear fallout from nuclear weapons
o Fallout is the residue radioactive material that is thrown into the air after a
nuclear explosion, such as the bomb that exploded at Hiroshima
o While the amount of fallout in the environment is presently very low, it
would increase significantly in areas where nuclear weapons are tested
 Nuclear accidents
o Accidents such as that in Chernobyl contributed a large dose of radiation
into the environment
o While these accidents are now extremely rare, they can be catastrophic
and render areas devastated for centuries
Corrected Count Rate

 Background radiation must be accounted for when taking readings in a laboratory

 This can be done by taking readings with no radioactive source present and then
subtracting this from readings with the source present
o This is known as the corrected count rate

Detecting Radiation
 It is important to regulate the exposure of humans to radiation
 The amount of radiation received by a person is called the dose and is measured
in sieverts (Sv)
 One sievert is a very big dose of radiation
o It would cause acute radiation poisoning
 People would normally receive about 3 mSv (0.003 Sv) in one year
 To protect against over-exposure, the dose received by different activities is
measured
 Radiation can be measured and detected using a photographic film or
a Geiger–Müller tube

Photographic Film

 Photographic films detect radiation by becoming darker when it absorbs radiation,

just like it does when it absorbs visible light
o The more radiation the film absorbs, the darker it is when it is developed
 People who work with radiation, such as radiographers, wear film badges which
are checked regularly to monitor the levels of radiation absorbed
 To get an accurate measure of the dose received, the badge contains different
materials that the radiation must penetrate to reach the film
o These materials may include aluminium, copper, paper, lead and plastic

 The diagram shows what a typical radiation badge looks like:

 A badge containing photographic film can be used to monitor a person’s
exposure to radiation

 The badge shows the amount of different types of radiation that the radiographer
has been exposed to
 Different areas of the film are exposed to different types of radiation
o Alpha radiation is unlikely to be detected at all as it will be absorbed /
stopped by the paper
o Beta radiation is absorbed by the aluminium
o Gamma (or X-rays) affect all areas of the film but the lead will reduce
some of the gamma radiation

Geiger-Müller tube

 The Geiger-Müller tube is the most common device used to measure and detect
radiation
 Each time it absorbs radiation, it transmits an electrical pulse to a counting
machine
 This makes a clicking sound or displays the count rate
 The greater the frequency of clicks, or the higher the count rate, the more
radiation the Geiger-Müller tube is absorbing
o Therefore, it matters how close the tube is to the radiation source
o The further away from the source, the lower the count rate detected

A Geiger-Müller tube (or Geiger counter) is a common type of radiation detector

Beta-Minus Decay
 Beta (β−) particles are high energy electrons emitted from the nucleus
o β− particles are emitted by nuclei that have too many neutrons
 During beta decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron
o The electron is emitted and the proton remains in the nucleus
 A completely new element is formed because the atomic number changes

Beta-minus decay often happens in unstable nuclei that have too many neutrons.
The mass number stays the same, but the atomic number increases by one

 An electron has a mass number of 0

o This is because electrons have a negligible mass, compared to neutrons
and protons
 Therefore, the mass number of the decaying nuclei remains the same

 Electrons have an atomic number of -1

o This means that the new nuclei will increase its atomic number by 1 in
order to maintain the overall atomic number before and after the decay

 The following equation shows carbon-14 undergoing beta decay

o It forms nitrogen-14 and a beta minus particle
 Beta minus particles are written as an electron in this equation

The carbon nucleus emits a beta particle, causing its charge to increase. This
means it changes into a new element

Beta-Plus Decay
  Beta (β+) particles are high energy positrons (anti-matter of electrons) also
emitted from the nucleus
o β+ particles are emitted by nuclei that have too many protons
 During beta plus (β+) decay a proton turns into a neutron emitting
a positron (anti-electron)
o The positron is emitted and the neutron remains in the nucleus
 A completely new element is formed because the atomic number changes

Beta-plus decay often happens in unstable nuclei that have too many protons.
The mass number stays the same, but the atomic number decreases by one

 A positron has a mass number of 0

o This is because the positrons have a negligible mass, just like the
electron, compared to neutrons and protons
 Therefore, the mass number of the decaying nuclei remains the same
 Positrons have an atomic number of +1
o This means that the new nuclei will decrease its atomic number by 1 in
order to maintain the overall atomic number before and after the decay
Nuclear Transformations
 During radioactive decay, the atomic (proton) number and mass (nucleon)
number of the nuclei will change

Alpha Emission

 An alpha particle consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (same as a helium

nucleus)
 It is emitted from large unstable nuclei

Nuclear notation for an alpha particle

 When an alpha particle is emitted from a nucleus:

o The nucleus loses 2 protons
 The atomic (proton) number decreases by 2
o The nucleus loses 4 particles (nucleons) in total
 The mass (nucleon) number decreases by 4

Beta emission

Nuclear notation for beta minus and beta plus particle

 Beta minus decay is when a neutron turns into a proton emitting an electron
 When a beta minus particle is emitted from a nucleus:
o The number of protons in the nucleus increases by 1
 The atomic (proton) number increases by 1
o The total number of particles in the nucleus remains the same
 The mass (nucleon) number does not change

 Beta plus decay is when a proton turns into a neutron emitting a positron
 When a beta plus particle is emitted from a nucleus:
o The number of protons in the nucleus decreases by 1
  The atomic (proton) number decreases by 1
o The total number of particles in the nucleus remains the same
 The mass (nucleon) number does not change

Gamma Emission

Nuclear notation for a gamma particle

 Gamma waves are emitted from a nucleus when the nucleus needs to lose some
energy
 This usually occurs because the nucleus has excess energy following a previous
decay
 Therefore, no protons or neutrons are lost from the nucleus in this process
o The atomic (proton) and mass (nucleon) numbers do not change

Neutron Emission

 A small number of isotopes can decay by emitting neutrons

 When a nucleus emits a neutron:
o The number of protons does not change
 The atomic (proton) number does not change
o The total number of particles (nucleons) in the nucleus decreases by 1
 The mass (nucleon) number decreases by 1

Gamma Emission
 Nuclei that have undergone radioactive decay often undergo nuclear
rearrangement with a loss of energy as gamma radiation rather than a change in
the atomic structure
 A gamma ray emitted has high energy but there is no change to the mass or
charge of the initial atom
o This is because gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation that have 0
atomic and mass number
 Atom emitting high energy gamma radiation

Nuclear Equations
Use given data to balance nuclear equations in terms of mass and charge

 Nuclear radioactive decay equations show the changes in mass and charge of
the nuclei in the decay
 Each term will have the chemical symbol of the element or the type of radiation

Nuclear notation

 The top number A represents the nucleon number or the mass number
o Nucleon number (A) = total number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus
 The lower number Z represents the proton or atomic number
o Proton number (Z) = total number of protons in the nucleus

 Nuclear equations, just like chemical equations, balance:

o The sum of the nucleon (mass) numbers on the left of each equation
should equal the sum on the right
o The sum of the proton (atomic) numbers should also balance on the left
and right
 The parent nucleus is the nucleus that decays
o Subsequently, the daughter nucleus remaining after the decay

Alpha Decay Equation

 In nuclear equations representing alpha decay:

o The nucleon number of the daughter nucleus is 4 less than the parent
o The proton number of the daughter nucleus is 2 less than the parent
 Alpha decay equation

Beta Minus Decay Equation

 In nuclear equations representing beta minus decay:

o The nucleon number of the daughter nucleus is the same as the parent
o The proton number of the daughter nucleus is 1 more than the parent

Beta-minus decay equation

Beta Plus Decay Equation

 In nuclear equations representing beta plus decay:

o The nucleon number of the daughter nucleus is the same as the parent
o The proton number of the daughter nucleus is 1 less than the parent
 Beta-plus decay equation

Gamma Decay Equation

 In nuclear equations representing gamma decay:

o The nucleon number of the daughter nucleus is the same as the parent
o The proton number of the daughter nucleus is the same as the parent

Gamma decay equation

The Random Nature of Decay
 It cannot be predicted when a particular unstable nucleus will decay
 Radioactive decay is a random process, this means that:
o There is an equal probability of any nucleus decaying
o It cannot be known which particular nucleus will decay next
o It cannot be known at what time a particular nucleus will decay
o The rate of decay is unaffected by the surrounding conditions
o It is only possible to estimate the probability of a certain nucleus
decaying in a given time period

 This is done by the half-life which enables the activity of a very large number of
nuclei to be predicted during the decay process
o During one half-life a particular nucleus will have a 50% chance of
decaying
o This means that, on average, 50% of nuclei will decay during one half-life
o As a result, the number of nuclei remaining after each successive half-life
will on average halve
o However, even after a large number of half-lives, there is still a small
probability that a particular nucleus will not have decayed
o As a result, the number of nuclei remaining will never quite fall to zero

 A researcher might take some readings of background radiation

 If the researcher reset the counter to zero, waited one minute and then took the
count

reading and repeated the procedure, they might obtain results such as:

32 11 25 16 28

 The readings don’t appear to follow a particular trend

o This happens because of the randomness of radioactive decay

Dice Analogy

 An analogy is a way of understanding an idea by using a different but similar

situation
 Rolling dice is a good analogy of radioactive decay because it is similar to the
random nature of radioactive decay
 A dice roll is a random process because you don’t know when you will roll a
particular value. However, you can determine the probability of a particular result

 Imagine someone rolling a dice and trying to get a ‘6’

o Each time they roll, they do not know what the result will be
o But they know there is a 1/6 probability that it will be a 6
 If they were to roll the dice 1000 times, it would be very likely that they would roll
a 6 at least once

 The random nature of radioactive decay can be demonstrated by observing the

count rate of a Geiger-Muller (GM) tube
o When a GM tube is placed near a radioactive source, the counts are found
to be irregular and cannot be predicted
o Each count represents a decay of an unstable nucleus
o These fluctuations in count rate on the GM tube provide evidence for the
randomness of radioactive decay
The variation of count rate over time of a sample radioactive gas. The fluctuations
show the randomness of radioactive decay
Activity & Decay
 Objects containing radioactive nuclei are called sources of radiation
 Sources of radiation decay at different rates which are defined by their activity
 The activity is defined as

The rate at which the unstable nuclei from a source of radiation decays

 Activity is measured in Becquerels

o The symbol for Becquerels is Bq
 1 Becquerel is equal to 1 nucleus in the source decaying in 1 second

 As an isotope decays, the number of nuclei of that isotope that remain will
decrease
 As a consequence of this, the activity of that isotope will also decrease over
time
 This can be shown on a graph of activity against time for a decaying source:

Activity decreasing with time for a radioactive isotope

Half-Life
 It is impossible to know when a particular unstable nucleus will decay
 But the rate at which the activity of a sample decreases can be known
o This is known as the half-life
 Half-life is defined as:

The time taken for half the undecayed nuclei to decay or the activity of a source to
decay by half

 In other words, the time it takes for the activity of a sample to fall to half its
original level
 Different isotopes have different half-lives and half-lives can vary from a fraction
of a second to billions of years in length

Using Half-life

 Scientists can measure the half-lives of different isotopes accurately:

 Uranium-235 has a half-life of 704 million years
o This means it would take 704 million years for the activity of a uranium-
235 sample to decrease to half its original amount
 Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5700 years
o So after 5700 years, there would be 50% of the original amount of carbon-
14 remaining
o After two half-lives, or 11 400 years, there would be just 25% of the
carbon-14 remaining
 With each half-life, the amount remaining decreases by half

Graph showing how the activity of a radioactive sample changes over time. Each
time the original activity halves, another half-life has passed
  The time it takes for the activity of the sample to decrease from 100 % to 50 % is
the half-life
 It is the same length of time as it would take to decrease from 50 % activity to 25
% activity
 The half-life is constant for a particular isotope

Half-Life Calculations
 To calculate the half-life of a sample, the procedure is:
o Measure the initial activity, A0, of the sample
o Determine the half-life of this original activity
o Measure how the activity changes with time
 The time taken for the activity to decrease to half its original value is the half-life