Bioresource Technology Reports 23 (2023) 101515

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Bioresource Technology Reports

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Food waste digestate as biofertilizer and their direct applications

in agriculture
Pooja Sharma a, b, 1, Ambreen Bano c, 1, Kajal Verma d, Mamta Yadav d, Sunita Varjani e, f,
Surendra Pratap Singh d, *, Yen Wah Tong a, b, g, *
a
NUS, Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, #02-01, T-Lab Building, 5A Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117411, Singapore
b
Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 CREATE Way,
Singapore, 138602, Singapore
c
IIRC-3, Plant-Microbe Interaction and Molecular Immunology Laboratory, Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Sciences, Integral University, Lucknow, UP, India
d
Plant Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Botany, Dayanand Anglo-Vedic (PG) College, Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur, 208001, India
e
School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong
f
Sustainability Cluster, School of Engineering, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun-248 007, Uttarakhand, India
g
Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive, 117585, Singapore

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A useful way to reduce food waste (FW) environmental impact is by turning it into biofertilizer. The conversion
Biofertilizer of FW into biogas can be used for agricultural applications after being converted into biofertilizer through
Waste re-use techniques such as anaerobic digestion (AD), composting, and vermicomposting. Through use of food waste
Economic balance
digestate (FWD) as a biofertilizer, nutrient loops are closed and waste is reduced. Instead of dumping FW into
Environmental protection
Agriculture sustainability
landfills, which contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, the waste is processed into digestate and fed to plants,
creating a sustainable cycle. In addition to enhancing soil micronutrients, reducing environmental pollution, and
reducing the need for chemical fertilizers, FW biofertilizers contribute to the circular economy. There are several
methods for applying FWD to agricultural fields, including surface spreading, injection, and incorporation into
the soil. Technology for converting FW to biofertilizers is sustainable, and invention productivity can be
increased through well-procedure regulatory approaches and innovative machinery.

1. Introduction billion hectares of agricultural land are being utilized to produce food
that is wasted. That equates to 28 % of the worldwide total agricultural
Food waste (FW) is a worldwide issue that does not seem to reduce, land. Food that is not ever consumed is grown covers a size area of India,
raising environmental, economic, and social concerns (Benucci et al., the United States, along with Egypt combined.
2022). This issue has long been ignored, resulting in an increase in waste Aside from the environmental impact of FW, there are also economic
at the food chain at all levels. FW yield in Asia will increase to 4.16 implications. The United Nations estimates that the direct economic
billion tonnes by 2025 (National Bureau of Statistics of China 2020). consequences of FW total $750 billion per year. That doesn’t even
Treating FW is a challenging task because of its higher moisture levels, include seafood and fish. Counting seafood and fish, the figure ap­
complex composition, as well as higher organic content (Sharma et al., proaches $1 trillion. Food loss is also challenging because of the water
2022a). Every year, the world loses an incredible amount of food in used to produce the food. The majority of the water used on this planet is
waste. One-third of produced food for consumption by humans globally for producing food, so wasted food also indicates wasted water. Every
is lost or wasted. 1.3 billion tonnes of human-consumable food and 1.6 year, 250 km2 of fresh water are wasted to produce food that is lost/
billion tonnes of “primary product equivalents” are lost/wasted. 35 % of wasted. A quarter of all freshwater on the planet is used to produce food
wasted food is simply discarded by shops, supermarkets, and house­ that will never be eaten. By 2050, it is expected to reach nearly 4 billion
holds. Much of it is still perfectly edible. It is estimated that approx. 1.4 people (https://www.theworldcounts.com/challenges/people-and-po

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S.P. Singh), [email protected] (Y.W. Tong).
1
These authors contributed equally to this work.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biteb.2023.101515
Received 26 January 2023; Received in revised form 19 June 2023; Accepted 19 June 2023
Available online 21 June 2023
2589-014X/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P. Sharma et al. Bioresource Technology Reports 23 (2023) 101515

verty/hunger-and-obesity/food-waste-statistics). preparation, cooking, and consumption in households, restaurants, and

Thus, valorizing FW provides an economic and environmental op­ other food service establishments. Food scraps include fruit and vege­
portunity that can mitigate the problem associated with its conventional table peels, leftover food, coffee grounds, eggshells, and other similar
disposal (Haldar et al., 2022). FW is frequently disposed of in inciner­ materials. Globally, one-third (1300 t) of food is wasted or lost, ac­
ated or landfills, resulting in numerous social, environmental, and eco­ cording to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2019). Global
nomic issues. A sustainable solution for producing biofuel from organic food demand will be challenging to meet by 2050 (World Resources
waste and managing waste in an environmentally sustainable way is Institute, 2018 https://research.wri.org/wrr-food). A sustainable food
organic waste (Agrawal et al., 2021; Satlewal et al., 2018). FW is future needs a significant decrease in FW and loss. As a result, the FW
generated in large quantities via the agricultural food supply chain, such issue has received significant attention in present years across various
as distribution, consumption, post-harvest, processing, and production. disciplines, as well as from institutions and policymakers. The United
A wide range of goods, including biofuels, bioplastics, biofertilizers, Nations 2030 Agenda established Sustainable Development Goals
chemicals, and nutraceuticals, can be produced from FW. Making these emphasizing the importance of sustainable production and consumption
items from FW can help to reduce the growth in the economy made from pattern (World Resources Institute, 2021. https://www.wri.org/food/
fossil fuels, which have been a substantial source of pollution (O’Connor food-loss-and-waste). KFW which accounts for a significant portion of
et al., 2022). A wide range of feedstocks is available from food chain municipal solid waste (MSW), comprises peels and FW (Rajendran et al.,
suppliers, which are chemically, biologically, or physically modified to 2022). From a variety of sources, organic wastes are discharged, from
form a variety of soil amendments and biofertilizers. FW products into restaurants, schools, households, and the food industry leftover. Kitchen
soil amendments and biofertilizers are anaerobic digestion (AD) and waste consists of fruits, oils, rice, bones, vegetables, meats, and inert
composting. substances that are available on a daily basis. The KFW growth rate is
Furthermore, bio-fertilizers not just boost nutrients, production, and progressively rising with population and economic development (Meng
organic matter but also mitigate the negative effects of chemical fertil­ et al., 2015). Because the huge amount of KFW can cause environmental
izers because of the potential combination of organic wastes and mi­ issues as well as resource waste, recycling, as well as utilization of KFW,
crobes. The production of digestate as a biofertilizer can be inexpensive are required.
compared to chemical fertilizers (Dai et al., 2013). FW has enormous Landfilling, incineration, and resource recovery are all methods of
potential to improve biofertilizer production because they are present in treating and disposing of KW (Wong, 2022). In China, MSW is primarily
biodegradable forms and may effectively accelerate microbial metabolic disposed of through incineration and landfill, with more than 90 %
activity. FW fertilizers like composts, digestates, and dehydrates, can treatment rate (Jin et al., 2021). Although sanitary landfill is usually
enhance the fertility of the soil but also balanced microorganism com­ inexpensive, KFW higher moisture content causes secondary pollution
munities while having a low environmental effect. Recent research has during the transportation as well as disposal stage (Zhang et al., 2019a).
shown that biofertilizers produced from FW can be enhanced with plant The incineration’s higher cost combined with a lower resource utiliza­
growth-promoting microorganisms like Azospirillum during the conver­ tion rate is not a sustainable route for KFW management (Slorach et al.,
sion process (Mahmood et al., 2019). FW comes from a variety of 2020). As a result, in recent years, low-energy biological treatments
sources, including agriculture (farm), household (kitchen), as well as have been preferred for KFW disposal (Fei et al., 2022.). To dispose of
industrial wastes with variable biological, chemical, and physical and treat KFW, three main processes are used: anaerobic digestion (AD),
properties. Furthermore, conversion approaches can change the bio­ feed identification, and composting (Ajay et al., 2021). Even though
logical and physicochemical properties of FW fertilizers. The digestate composting has been proposed to decrease emissions of greenhouse gas
generated from AD of organic waste is composed of microbial biomass, and is suitable for decentralized KFW treatment, the process of com­
semi-degraded organic matter, and inorganic compounds (Roopnarain posting emits noxious gases like ammonia (NH3) along with hydrogen
and Adeleke, 2017). Because of the considerable differences in proper­ sulfide (H2S) (Preble et al., 2020). Feeding KFW to animals is also un­
ties, and the enrichment with microorganisms, FW-derived biofertilizers desirable because of protein homogeneous contamination, which poses
can be applied to a variety of crops (Thomas and Singh, 2019). Excessive a threat of transmission of disease from an animal that consumes
usage of these fertilizers causes local streams’ eutrophication and products derived from the animal which are obtained from bone, meat,
accumulation of heavy metals. FW can be used to create fertilizer on a and further tissues of the animal. Because it is high in moisture, carbon,
large scale, cost-effective for horticultural and agricultural purposes. and biomass, and is usually biodegradable, KFW is an excellent substrate
The main constraint to industrializing FW is a lack of adequate infra­ for AD (Kumar and Samadder, 2022). AD emits less greenhouse gas
structure and legislation (Cecilia et al., 2019). While full-scale AD of compared to composting as well as landfilling (Kumar and Samadder,
sewage sludge and animal manure is very prevalent, particularly in 2022). Furthermore, AD is ideal for waste treatment in terms of eco­
European countries, full-scale FW-AD is not (Xu et al., 2018). FW are nomic balance (Xiao et al., 2022). As a result, AD treatment of KFW is
typically co-digested in animal-manure and sewerage-sludge digestion promising in lowering greenhouse gas emissions and in light of the
plants, which have limited capacity. As a result, the supply of FW fer­ depletion of fossil fuels. KFW characteristics change with the seasons as
tilizers like FW digests for agricultural use has decreased (Pathak and well as dietary habits, necessitating disposal, and treatment modifica­
Christopher, 2019). Because of the metals contained in sludge, using it tions. Because of differences in KFW components, it is hard to achieve
as a supplement could negatively impact agriculture and crop produc­ effective utilization of organic components using simple conventional
tion. Hence, the sludge should be properly tested for metal concentra­ treatment processes, but there are very few focused perceptions on KFW
tions before being applied as a supplement to AD. An overview of components in AD performances as well as subsequent digestate use
biofertilizers is presented here, which recycle and return nutrients (Sharma et al., 2022).
directly to the soil to be used in agriculture through direct application. Among the future benefits of converting kitchen FW into bio­
Sustainable agriculture and circular economies align with the use of FW fertilizers are sustainable waste management, nutrient recycling,
as a biofertilizer. It is possible to improve soil health and agricultural improved soil health, reduced chemical usage, mitigation of climate
productivity by converting FW into biofertilizer, thus addressing waste change, circular economy practices, and cost savings. A more environ­
management challenges, reducing environmental impacts, and sup­ mentally friendly and sustainable approach to agriculture and waste
porting sustainable food systems. management results from these advantages (Fig. 1). Depicts the pro­
cessing of FW into biofertilizer and renewable energy.
2. Kitchen food waste

Kitchen food waste (KFW) is organic waste generated from food

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Fig. 1. Food waste processing for the generation of fertilizer.

3. Anaerobic digestion of food waste 3.1. Hydrolysis

FW can be diverted from landfills using AD, reducing methane Acidogenic bacteria use this water-soluble compound after hydro­
emissions, odor, and adverse environmental impacts. Digestate from AD lyzing high t substrates, such as proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.
is a nutrient-rich fertilizer. By returning valuable nutrients to agricul­ Hydrolysis in AD is the rate-limiting stage. pH, Temperature, nature of
tural systems, it can replace synthetic fertilizers, improve soil health, substrate, organic load, and particle size all directly impact this process
and close the nutrient loop. By reducing methane gas emissions from (Varjani et al., 2022). Generally, hydrolysis occurs at temperatures of 30
organic waste, AD helps mitigate climate change. The global warming to 50 ◦ C and pH levels of 5 to 7. A continuously stirred tank reactor
potential of methane is higher than that of carbon dioxide. AD procedure hydrolyzes under mesophilic conditions with a pH between 5 and 6 and
Fig. 3 depicts the four stages of AD: hydrolysis; acidogenesis; aceto­ a hydraulic retention time of 2–3 days (Meegoda et al., 2018; Menzel
genesis; and methanogenesis. The biogas final product is composed of et al., 2020). The production of enzymes, adsorption on the substrate’s
CO2, methane, a trace amount of H2S, and water vapor (Sharma et al., surface, and bacterial concentration may also affect hydrolysis (Zhao
2022). Mixing lime water with biogas and passing it through a stripper et al., 2021).
will remove CO2 and H2S and improve its quality. AD of FW is an
environmentally sustainable approach that reduces waste, generates 3.2. Acidogenesis
renewable energy, and recycles nutrients. The circular economy and
reduced environmental impact of FW are closely linked. In this further decomposition of substrates into VFAs such as buty­
AD digestate contains more nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium rate, acetate, propionate, isobutyrate, and valerate via the acidogenic
than compost. Agricultural and horticultural applications can benefit bacteria-catalyzed reaction. CO2, H2S, and NH3 are by-products of the
from AD digestate nutrient-rich composition. Soil health and fertility acidogenesis process (Paritosh et al., 2017). Anaerobic facultative bac­
can benefit from this stability. In comparison to compost, AD digestate is teria use oxygen and carbon to create an anaerobic environment during
often considered to have a lower risk of containing viable pathogens, the acidification process. Methane is created by combining acetate, CO2,
making it a safer option for land application. There is usually more and hydrogen. Furthermore, isobutyrate, butyrate, propionate, and
moisture in AD digestates than in compost, and this higher moisture valerate are degraded further in a reaction catalyzed by syntrophic
content can benefit certain soil types and conditions, as it facilitates acetogenic bacteria to produce hydrogen and acetate (Chew et al.,
nutrient uptake and soil moisture retention. Carbon sequestration can be 2021).
enhanced by using AD digestate as a soil amendment. AD digestate
contributes to long-term carbon storage in the soil, thereby mitigating
3.3. Acetogenesis
greenhouse gas emissions and combating climate change.

The acetogens use the end products of other microbial processes,

such as fermentation or hydrolysis, as substrates during acetogenesis.
Hydrogen, alcohols, and VFAs are among these end products. In

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Fig. 3. Schematic presentation of the process of food waste.

acetogenesis, carbon dioxide (CO2) or carbon monoxide (CO) is reduced 4. Anaerobic digestion optimization of kitchen waste
using hydrogen (H2) or formate as electron donors. For these conver­
sions, acetogens use enzymes such as carbon monoxide dehydrogenase 4.1. Pre-treatment
and acetyl-CoA synthase. A number of factors can affect acetogenesis
and the subsequent stages of AD, such as pH, temperature, nutrient The rate-limiting step of AD is thought to be hydrolysis. The hy­
availability, and the presence of specific microbial communities. In drolysis rate is determined by the composition as well as the concen­
acetogenesis step the acetogenic bacteria convert VFAs into acetate, H2, tration of organic fractions in KW. Higher grease levels, high lignin
and CO2. The CO2 reduction using hydrogen as an electron source results content, large particle-size matter, and coarse fibers all slow down hy­
in the production of acetate molecules. In this acetate molecules pro­ drolysis. Physical pre-treatments include pyrolysis, ultrasonic, micro­
duced will be used in the process of methanogenesis. The hydrogen wave, hydrolysis, freezing, mechanical grinding, as well as hyperbaric,
release will inhibit the microorganism’s activity. As a result, there is a chemical pre-treatments include alkalization, oxidation, and acidation,
syntrophic relationship between hydrogenotrophic methanogens and biological pre-treatments include micro‑oxygen and enzyme, whereas
acetogenic bacteria. Furthermore, during the reduction of acetate, ace­ the combined pre-treatments include acid-enzymes, thermal-acid/al­
togenesis can produce 70 % methane while also producing 11 % kali, and microwave-alkali are shown in Table 1. According to Yue et al.
hydrogen (Sharma et al., 2022). (2021), microwave and ultrasound pre-treatments reported fatty acid
accumulation in the system, enhancing substrate utilization by mi­
3.4. Methanogenesis crobes. They also discovered that ultrasound pre-treatment increased
energy conversion by 18 % compared to using microwave pre-
Acetate, H2, and CO2 are used by methanogenic bacteria in this step treatment. By using microwave Ca(OH)2 to pre-treat KW in search of
for methane gas production occurs. The process involves two pathways, improving pre-treatment effects, achieved improved activity of protease
acetoclastic methanogenesis and hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis and production capacity of methane (430.4 N mL CH4/g VS) (Sun et al.,
(Paritosh et al., 2017). In anaerobic environments, such as wetlands, 2020). Fig. 2 represents the pre-treatment process of FW and its con­
marshes, and the gastrointestinal tracts of ruminants, acetoclastic version into useful resources.
methanogenesis occurs during the production of methane (CH4). The
amount of methane formed by methanogens from CO2 reduction is only
30 %. The addition of conductive materials can speed up methane 4.2. Kitchen waste co-digestion with various substrates
production (Liu et al., 2022). Hydrogenotrophic methanogens are crit­
ical in keeping hydrogen at a partial pressure of less than 10 Pa so that Multiple substrates or feedstocks are combined for AD in co-
acetogenins and acetoclastic methanogens can maintain their metabolic digestion. Cow dung, poultry litter, or pig manure are commonly used
activity (Pandey et al., 2020). as co-substrates for AD. KW can be co-digested with crop residues such
as straw, corn stover, or rice husks. In AD, these agricultural residues can
provide additional carbon sources for microbes due to their high

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Table 1
Kitchen waste pre-treatments prior to anaerobic digestion and disposal. Standard deviations (±) were included based on the literature’s availability.
Pre-treatments Digestion substrates Parameters Performance References

Microwave Kitchen waste + Microwave heating Ca (OH)2 4 % Improves production of methane 430.4 mL/g VS and process (Sun et al., 2020)
sugarcane stability.
Ultrasound Kitchen waste 1600 W, 28 kHz for 30 min Increasing caproic acid production while decreasing VFA (Lim et al., 2016)
Separation screen Kitchen waste 10-mm Recovers 98 % biogas (Ma et al., 2021)
Potassium ferrate Kitchen waste 0.4 g/g TSS Higher yield of hydrogen 173.5 mL/g (Alessi et al.,
2020)
Enzymatic pre- OFMSW Aspergillus niger fermentation at pH of The capacity for methane has increased (Kuang et al.,
hydrolysis 4.5 and 50 ◦ C 2020)
Hydrothermal Kitchen waste 225 ◦ C, 4.5 h Enhance the yield of methane by up to 19 % (Mlaik et al.,
2019)
Lactic acid Kitchen waste Lactobacillus casei Increasing the effects of bacteriostatic and hydrolytic (Zhou et al., 2020)
acidification
Microwave Kitchen waste 2.7 ◦ C, 145 ◦ C/min The total COD (TCOD)/ soluble COD (SCOD) ratio rises from (Zhou et al., 2015)
0.38 to 0.44 to 0.42–0.51.
Acid enzymatic Kitchen waste 1.5 % (v/v) Hydrochloric acid, 85 U/mL Production of fermentable sugar increased 2.04-fold, with an (Shahriari et al.,
hydrolysis glucoamylase 86.8 % conversion efficiency. 2013)
Thermal Kitchen waste 55–160 ◦ C for 15–120 min Improved AD efficiency and longer treatment durations (Hafid et al.,
2017)
90–120 ◦ C for 15–30 min In total nitrogen organic nitrogen content reduces (Li et al., 2016a)
Ethanol pre- Kitchen waste + Dry yeast active by 0.5 % alcohol at 35 Maintain system stability; yield of methane increased by 26.8 (Li et al., 2016b)
fermentation distillers’ grain ± 2 ◦ C for 24 h %
Micro oxygen Kitchen waste Micro oxygen at 20 mL Total yield of methane 399.25 mL/g VS (Yu et al., 2018)

Fig. 2. Anaerobic digestion of food waste for the generation of biofuel.

cellulose and lignocellulosic content. To increase biogas production, process optimization are crucial to ensuring efficient biogas production
dedicated energy crops, such as maize or switchgrass, can be co-digested and maximizing co-digestion benefits.
with KW. Waste generated from food processing industries, such as KW is generally high in carbohydrates, with a COD (chemical oxygen
dairy, breweries, or vegetable processing plants, can be co-digested with demand)/NH4-N ratio of 200/0.14–0.36, far exceeding the recom­
KW. Wastewater sludge, a by-product of wastewater treatment, can be mended value of 200/5 for AD (Odejobi et al., 2021). As a result, organic
co-digested with kitchen waste. If you are co-digesting KW with different rapid degradation in KW leads to volatile fatty acid accumulation that
substrates, you should consider substrate compatibility, feedstock ratios, might impair AD performance. Co-digestion of KW with substrates rich
and the specific requirements of the AD system. Monitoring, mixing, and in nitrogen like toilet water, microalgae, agricultural waste, animal

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manure, and municipal sludge could help to balance the COD/NH4-N In recent years, research has progressively focused on improving the
ratio, dilute toxic agents, promotes nutrient balance, as well as improve efficiency of gas production along with process stability by incorpo­
operational strength. Co-digestion is thus an appealing strategy for rating additives into AD reactors (Cai et al., 2017). Additives that are
improving the performance of AD and increasing multisource utilization generally used, comprise trace elements like nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co),
efficacy. Table 2 illustrates the processes of KW co-digestion for disposal. iron (Fe), tungsten (W), and molybdenum (Mo) solid additives like cli­
Zhao and Ruan (2013) by adding algae, enhanced the carbon‑nitrogen noptilolite, bentonite, graphite, biochar, and mineral, and biological
ratio of KW to 15-1, along with yield of biogas increased to 388.6 mL/g additives like gene bacteria, enzyme, and rumen bacteria. Wu et al.
TS, which was 1.18-fold high compared to without algae. Co-digestion (2016) discovered that adding manganese (Mn), magnesium (Mg), and
of KW and vegetable-fruits waste efficiently prevents volatile fatty potassium (K) to KW enhanced digestion, with optimum additions of
acid accumulation and maintains system stability, resulting in a micro-metal of 11.6 mg of Mn, 720.2 mg of K, and 47.3 mg of Mg per g of
methane maximum production rate of 354.51 mL/g VS with a KW/ COD. Jiang et al. (2020a) discovered that using 1.5 g/g VS citrus biochar
vegetable-fruit waste (2:3). Co-AD with multiple substrates is an effec­ as a solid additive reduced the lag time of methanogenic to 3.5 days and
tive method for maximizing KW use, increasing the production of increased the precise production rate of methane by 33.0 %. Jiang et al.
biogas, and lowering CO2 emissions (Guo and Dai, 2017). During waste- (2020b) increased the archaea population by using bioaugmentation
activated sludge with KW co-digestion and agricultural waste, municipal and volumetric biogas production improved 12-fold in optimum con­
sludges, brown water, livestock manure, and microalgae are examples of ditions of 0.25 g/(L/day) per 3-day dosing compared to the control
co-digestion substrates for KW. Suitable nitrogen-rich materials for co- group. Furthermore, a major research direction at the moment is the
digestion can be selected based on the characteristics of local KW multiple additive materials synergistic effect. After the addition of bio­
components to enhance material recycling and the full utilization of char-FeCl3, methane of 1.75 L/day was obtained (Capson-Tojo et al.,
regional waste in engineering applications. 2019).
It is critical to comprehend the environmental consequences of ad­
ditive dosage, investigate the digested product, and decrease heavy
4.3. Additives
metal accumulation (Yuan et al., 2021). Based on numerous substrates
fermentation and process types of machinery, AD constancy was
Additives are crucial in maintaining biogas plants’ effective pro­
improved using the optimum dosage. Because of their low environ­
duction of methane and the AD system’s long-term operational stability.
mental risk and high efficiency, carbon-based enzymes, as well as ma­
terials, are frequently utilized in methane production additives
Table 2 (Srisowmeya et al., 2020). The use of biogas residues as a biochar ad­
Kitchen waste Co-digestion with various substrates. Standard deviations (±)
ditive increases CH4 yield. It is especially significant to introduce high-
were included based on the literature’s availability.
performance microbes as well as increase the specific microbial pop­
Substrates Ratio Conditions Co-digestion References ulation’s number based on the different substrates’ digestive charac­
Black water 1:2 V = 500 mL, Hydrolysis (Zhen et al., teristics, while also improving the economic technical probability to
+ Kitchen (VS) 120 rpm, T = efficiency 87 ± 8 2020) meet profit maximization (Table 3 represents the use of additives for the
waste 35 ◦ C %, 449 ± 32 mL/g
production of methane).
VS methane yield
Algae + 15:1 70 rpm, T = 55 388.6 mL/g TS (Zhang et al.,
Kitchen (C/N) ± 1 ◦ C, Biogas yield 2019b) 4.4. Optimization of process
waste
Poultry 1:2 At 30 ◦ C, 300 48 % methane (Zhao and Reactor optimization, Multi-stage digestion, and process combina­
manure + (gm) mg/L content, 920 ± 11 Ruan, 2013)
Kitchen mL biogas yield
tion can all help to improve AD performance. Table 4 summarises recent
waste research on improving the AD performance of KW disposal. The two-
Wastewater 1:1 The total 43.6 % Methane (Rahman stage anaerobic system, for example, offers increased energy produc­
sludge + (TS) volume of the content et al., 2021) tivity, optimum process stability, and recovery of energy (Owamah
Kitchen tank was 300
et al., 2014). The separation of hydrolytic methanogenesis and acidifi­
waste m3, T = 35 ±
1 ◦ C, cation phases improves the system’s buffering capability and optimizes
Black water 1:1 V = 500 mL 313.2 mL/g (Antony and microbial population structure.
+ Kitchen (TS) Cumulative yield Murugavelh,
waste of methane 2018) 5. Biofertilizer generation via anaerobic digestion
Excess sludge 1:4 V = 1000 mL, TS, COD, and VS (Wang et al.,
+ Kitchen (TS) T = 35 ◦ C degradation reach 2020)
waste 37.8 %, 49.7 %, Biofertilizers are the most effective modern agricultural tools, for
and 30.0 % converting waste into functional types. Biofertilizers are environmen­
Fruit/ 5:8 V = 1.5 L, T = CH4 yields 725 mL (Han et al., tally friendly fertilizers that not just avoid harming natural sources but
vegetable (VS) 35 ± 1 ◦ C, 120 CH4/g VS 2016)
also, to some extent, help nature from precipitated chemical fertilizers
waste + r/min
Kitchen clean up. In the agricultural sector, biofertilizers are used to replace
waste chemical fertilizers, which are not environmentally friendly and may
Cow manure 1:2.5 V = 120 mL, T 441 mL CH4/g VS (Wang et al., deplete the fertility of soil over time (Mahanty et al., 2017). Bio­
+ Kitchen (VS) = 39 ◦ C, 120 Methane 2014) fertilizers contain dormant cells of potential microorganisms that are
waste rpm production
Sewage 50:50 T = 37 ± 1 ◦ C, Highest (Xing et al.,
applied via soil or seed, they aid in nutrient absorption by crop plants
sludge + (VS) every 30 min at biodegradability 2020a) through rhizosphere interactions (Akbar et al., 2021). There are several
Kitchen 50 rpm up to 91 % techniques used to generate biofertilizers, which are organic fertilizers
waste derived from biological sources. In these techniques, organic materials
Cow manure 1:3.4 V = 0.7 L, T = Enzyme and (Varsha et al.,
are converted into nutrient-rich products that enhance soil fertility and
+ Kitchen (VS) 39 ◦ C, lignocellulose 2020)
waste domesticated contents Increases support plant growth.
sludge 550 d As a result, digestates as bio-fertilizers are required to provide
Corn stalk + 1:4 V = 10 L, T = 41.55 % increase (Zhou et al., environmental benefits such as soil improvement, food protection, and
Kitchen (VS) 37 ◦ C in production of 2020) quality, along with the health of animals and humans (Torrisi et al.,
waste Bio-methane
2021). Numerous types of research show higher yields when using

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Table 3
Additive for improvement of methane production.
Digestion Additive types Dosages Performances References
substrate

Kitchen waste Graphite Graphite 1 g/L 1128.46 mL/g VS biogas yield (Xing et al., 2020b)
Kitchen waste Carbon nutrition Biochar -FeCl3 Higher rates of methane production (Jiang et al., 2020b)
Kitchen waste Biological additives Seed bioaugmentation 0.25 g/ Metanephric increased from 81 % to 86 %, and VBP increased 12 (Wu et al., 2016)
(L⋅day) times.
Kitchen waste Carbon-based Peel of Citrus biochar 250.8 mL/g VS Methane yield while promoting T direct interspecies Jiang et al., 2020a
materials electron transfer
Chicken manure Enzyme 1 % enzyme-treated Improved hydrolysis results. (Muratçobanoglu et al.,
2020)
Kitchen waste Micro-materials 5 g/L Zero-valent iron Enhancing hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis. (Capson-Tojo et al., 2019)
Cattle manure Rumen bacteria Rumen fluid volume fraction 20 Improved degradation of lignocellulose and increased production of (Bhatnagar et al., 2020)
% methane.

matter in AD digestate enhances soil structure, moisture retention, and

Table 4
microbial activity. Agricultural soils benefit from biofertilizers like AD
Assessment to enhance kitchen waste anaerobic digestion. Standard deviations
digestate because of their near-neutral pH, which contributes to carbon
(±) were included based on the literature’s availability.
sequestration. By offsetting energy costs and potentially generating
Substrates Optimization Reactors Efficiency References
additional revenue, co-producing renewable energy from organic waste
Configuration
can provide economic benefits.
Kitchen Two-stage High-solid Increasing (Nagler
waste system methane output et al., 2019)
5.1. Biofertilizers production via composting & vermicomposting
and removing
methane more
efficiently. Natural composting occurs when organic materials, including FW,
Kitchen Modeling Multi-criteria Methane yield (Rusín et al., agricultural residues, and plant matter, decompose under controlled
waste approach decision 544 ± 65 mL/ 2021)
conditions. Bacteria, fungi, and earthworms break down organic matter
modeling gVS after multi-
performance
during composting, resulting in nutrient-rich compost. To improve the
optimization. fertility and structure of the soil, compost can be applied directly. In
Kitchen Start-up Continuous 217.28–325.92 (Kesharwani vermicomposting, earthworms are used to accelerate decomposition.
waste stirred tank mL/L methane and Bajpai, Agricultural residues and food scraps are fed to the worms, which digest
reactor yield. 2020)
the waste and produce nutrient-rich vermicompost. As a biofertilizer,
Effluent Combined Combined Higher removal (Feng et al.,
from process process efficacy of NO- 2015) vermicompost is highly valued for its beneficial microorganisms. There
Kitchen 2-N and NH + 4- is evidence that vermicompost can improve crop yields, increase
waste N (96 and 88 %). nutrient uptake, and enhance soil fertility in rice-legume cropping sys­
Municipal Mixer Mechanical Increasing (Gao et al.,
tems. Vermicompost builds soil organic carbon over time by combining
solid mixers methane 2020)
waste + production and
organic matter and humic substances. Vermicompost also reduces the
Cow enriching the need for synthetic fertilizers, reducing environmental pollution and
manure microbial promoting sustainable agriculture (Jeyabal and Kuppuswamy, 2001;
+ community. Pandit et al., 2012). Using FW as a biofertilizer aligns with circular
Kitchen
economy principles and sustainable waste management. Recycling nu­
waste
trients back into the food production system reduces the environmental
impact associated with FW disposal. Reduced synthetic fertilizer use also
digested as a substitute for chemical fertilizer (Lin et al., 2013). Several reduces nutrient runoff and water pollution caused by synthetic fertil­
types of digestate are used as biofertilizers, with the main difference izers (Du et al., 2018). The FW to biofertilizer technology has been
being the raw materials, the microorganism’s source, and the methods of described in Fig. 4.
utilization used in the preparation. Furthermore, the substrates of
inorganic and organic matter can influence the consistency of the 5.2. Food waste biofertilizer on plants
digestate. The microorganism consumes the majority of organic matter
and converts certain to inorganic compounds during the AD procedure. Enhancing soil fertility and promoting plant growth with FW is a
In the digester, for example, accessible nitrogen, whether from the at­ sustainable and eco-friendly approach. With growing awareness of the
mosphere, or the substrate, is converted into nitrates and ammonium, FW-associated problems, research into the conversion of FW into bio­
which continue to stay in the digester till the AD process is completed. polymers, biochemical, and biofuel has gained traction (Torrisi et al.,
The AD plant’s primary goal is waste stream treatment and genera­ 2021). The importance of producing biofertilizers from FW has been
tion of biogas. As an additional revenue stream, the AD plant’s solid underestimated in comparison to biochemical and biofuel production.
residue could be processed into compost, biofertilizer, or soil condi­ Fertilizers have a promising market perspective, with a projected value
tioner (O’Connor et al., 2021). The process by which power, heat, as of more than $150,109 per year by 2020 (Lin et al., 2013). The use of
well as biofertilizer, are produced concurrently from FW. Table 5 the synthetic chemical fertilizer could be reduced by replacing it with bio­
nutritional significance of biofertilizers derived from AD using several fertilizer derived from FW lowering FW environmental impact while
FW streams. Compared to other organic fertilizers, AD digestate offers directly profiting from food production. The primary processes for
several advantages. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), in converting FW streams into biofertilizers that have been developed are
addition to other secondary and micronutrients, are typically present in depicted in Fig. 1. FW and food processing waste have a higher level of
AD digestate. Slowly releasing nutrients over time, AD keeps plants protein, carbohydrates, and/or fat, as well as higher levels of moisture.
nourished for a long time. A slow-release characteristic reduces the risk Though biogas is the AD primary product, the co-product of digestate is
of nutrient leaching and improves nutrient uptake by crops. This reduces biofertilizer and this is crucial in revenue-generating strategy. Agricul­
nutrient waste and reduces the frequency of application. The organic tural residues, on the other hand, are produced during crop cultivation.

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P. Sharma et al. Bioresource Technology Reports 23 (2023) 101515

Table 5 for agricultural use (Kadir et al., 2016). Recent studies have reported
Using food waste nutrients to improve soil quality. that FW fertilizer is effective in growing ornamental plants like Stachy­
Outcome Application Advantages References tarpheta jamaicensis (Yan et al., 2023). To compare FW-derived organic
liquid fertilizer with commercial liquid fertilizer for hydroponically
Dehydration Fertilizer • High biochemical oxygen (Mahmoodi-
demand (BOD) leads to low Eshkaftaki and growing lettuce, cucumbers, and cherry tomatoes, the study evaluated
nutrient accessibility. Ebrahimi, 2019) organic liquid fertilizer made from FW (Siddiqui et al., 2023). It was also
• High BOD leads to low demonstrated that FW is a good fertilizer in a study on the effects of
nutrient accessibility. organic fertilizer mixed with FW dry powder on the growth of Chinese
• Mature plants are more
nutrient-dense.
cabbage seedlings (Kang et al., 2021).
Soil • Increased microbial (Mahmood et al.,
amendment activity and carbohydrate 2019) 5.3. Food waste fertilizer on crop plants
preservation.
• Food waste can be
Although the biofertilizer quality is largely determined by the feed­
inoculated with a variety of
microbes. stock utilization, there is no discernible difference in ammonia, nitro­
• Increased microbial gen, phosphorus, and nitrogen content between biofertilizers produced
activity enhances soil by aerobic composting and AD. In field tests, the use of biofertilizer
stability.
revealed that AD digestate use has a variety of advantages, including
• Moisture repels immature
compost.
enhancing pH, adjusting C/N ratio, providing organic material, allevi­
Compost Fertilizer • Nutrient enhancement in C, (Selim and Ali ating salinity, increasing aggregate stability, and improving water
source N, P, K, Na, Ca, and Mg. Mosa, 2012) holding capacity in soils (Jordán et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2017). On
• Nutrient release is slow. potato and sweet corn plants, three composts derived from organic
• Increased yield and plant
fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW) were compared with
growth.
Soil • Soil pH is enhanced. (Sall et al., 2019) chemical fertilizers (Sangamithirai et al., 2015). In this study, results
amendment • Beneficial microbes and depicted that the compost used had similar phosphorus content as an
enzyme activity increase inorganic fertilizer but a lesser nitrogen content.
soil biomass.
A subsequent description from a similar group found that an OFMSW
• Increased capacity of cation
exchange.
compost provided sufficient minerals but insufficient nitrogen (Mkha­
• Suppression of pests and bela and Warman, 2005). Site trial in which OFMSW compost was used
pathogens. on forage and cereal crops (Hargreaves et al., 2009). Over a 34-year
• The increased population period, crops consumed only 13 to 23 % of the nitrogen available (pri­
of earthworms.
marily mineral nitrogen) in the compost. Fertilizer was useful in
• Reduced hydrocarbon
contamination in soil. comparatively large quantities, such as 20 to 30 t/ha (Horrocks et al.,
• Reduced availability of 2016). In comparison, a soluble bio-waste substance obtained from
heavy metals. compost chemical hydrolysis contained no ammonia N and more
Digestate Soil • Beneficial microbes and (Ventorino et al., organic N, allowing it to be used at lower doses, such as 140 kg/ha
amendment enzyme activity increase 2019; Tambone
soil biomass. et al., 2010)
(Sortino et al., 2013). The fertility of the soil is enhanced via microbial
Fertilizer • Nutrients are more (Barzee et al., reactions related to in situ degradation, in addition to nutrients directly
source available. 2019) liberated from straws (Zhu et al., 2010). Nitrogen in small amounts
• Grows and yields more should be added to meet the N requirements of microbes. The amount of
plants.
carbon absorbed during microbial metabolism, as well as the majority of
Hydrolysis Soil • Increased polysaccharides. (Tampio et al.,
amendment • Microbial and enzyme 2015) the nitrogen augmented from the preceding procedures, are converted
activity increased. into biological nitrogen and deposited within the soil. Simultaneously,
• An increase in amino acids. increased microbial activity converts unstable inorganic nitrogen fer­
• Growth regulators tilizers into stable biological nitrogen. Nitrogen is released into the soil
enhanced.
• Reduction of pathogens.
as a result of the decomposition and decay of these microbes, resulting in
Fertilizer • Increased assimilation of N. (Tampio et al., a slow nitrogen release.
source • Improvements in N, C, K, 2015) A study reported the effects of using anaerobically digested dairy
and P. manure and FW-derived biofertilizer in tomato processing. When
• Nutrient concentration.
compared to synthetically fertilized tomatoes, tomatoes grown with
• Grows and yields more
plants. FWC biofertilizer had considerably higher total and soluble solids con­
tent. Furthermore, digestate-derived biofertilizers may have the capac­
ity to enhance crop yield and harvested tomato fruit quality (Zhu et al.,
They have a low moisture content and high lignocellulose content 2010). The nutrient requirements of different crops vary, so it’s
(Research Market, 2017). https://www.researchandmarkets.com/rese important to assess the compost’s nutrient content and adjust the
arch/fcrscs/fertilizers (accessed on 30 June 2022). application rates accordingly. Various crops such as rice, tomato, pak­
Despite their less economic value, agricultural residues are a signif­ choi, and common bean benefit from the application of FW by improving
icant renewable mineral as well as a carbon resource for soil. Residues its physical, chemical, and biological properties (Rady et al., 2016;
from agricultural land are returned to the soil they are converted into Zheng et al., 2016; Tartoura et al., 2014; Cha-um and Kirdmanee, 2011).
biofertilizers. Returning agricultural residues as a biofertilizer in the Furthermore, there might be local guidelines or regulations regarding
proper way has enhanced modified soil particle structure, and soil the use of food waste as fertilizer, so check with the appropriate au­
organic content, improved niche microorganism activities, reduce water thorities or agricultural extension services for local recommendations. In
evaporation, and reduced loss of fertilizer (Pensupa et al., 2013). A study order to maintain balanced nutrition for optimal plant growth, FW
found that banana peels can be used to ferment FW for composting. They should be added to other fertilizers or soil amendments, depending on
contain nitrogen values ranging from 35,325 mg/L to 78,775 mg/L, your crop plants’ nutritional requirements. In addition, if FW and agri­
phosphorus values ranging from 195.83 mg/L to 471 mg/L, and potas­ cultural residues are compared, it is shown that FW refers to all edible
sium values ranging from 422.3 mg/L to 2046 mg/L, which are suitable and inedible parts of food that are discarded or not consumed, while AR

8
P. Sharma et al. Bioresource Technology Reports 23 (2023) 101515

Fig. 4. Technology for food waste to biofertilizers.

is the non-edible parts that remain after harvesting or processing agri­

cultural products. FW consists of a variety of organic materials, while AR Table 6
Food waste and agriculture residue composition comparison.
consists primarily of non-edible parts of plants and crops. If managed
properly, FW and AR can be valuable resources (as shown in Table 6). Agriculture residue Composition References

35 %–55 % Cellulose Kumar et al., 2009

6. Economical sustainability of FW fertilizer 25 %–40 % Hemicellulose Kumar et al., 2009
15 %–25 % Lignin Kumar et al., 2009
Fixed carbon
The biofertilizer market value is determined by the nutrient value (weight %)
consistency of the biofertilizer, quality, plant location, season, and the Rice straw 11.3–16.1 Sannigrahi et al., 2010; Pešenjanski et al.,
biofertilizer’s public acceptance. The potential savings from replacing 2016; Pottmaier et al., 2013
chemical fertilizers with biofertilizers were estimated to be £84 to118/ Wheat straw 15.9–17.7 Sannigrahi et al., 2010; Pešenjanski et al.,
2016; Pottmaier et al., 2013
ha (Barzee et al., 2019). Ma et al. (2017) In Singapore, co-digestion of Sugarcane bagasse 7.0–13.4 Sannigrahi et al., 2010; Pesenjanski et al.,
FW with activated sludge for the production of biogas was compared to 2016; Pottmaier et al., 2013
biofertilizer as well as biogas co-production. In 2019 the worldwide Volatile matter
biofertilizers market was worth USD 1.0 billion and is predicted to rise at (weight %)
Rice straw 35.0–72.4 Sannigrahi et al., 2010; Pešenjanski et al.,
a compound annual growth rate of 12.8 % from 2020 to 2027 (Ma et al.,
2016; Pottmaier et al., 2013
2017). Microbes are increasingly being used in biofertilizers, demon­ Wheat straw 65.5–79.0 Sannigrahi et al., 2010; Pešenjanski et al.,
strating the potential for sustainable food safety and farming methods. 2016; Pottmaier et al., 2013
Over the forecast period, the growing concern about food safety is ex­ Sugarcane bagasse 42.2–82.2 Sannigrahi et al., 2010; Pešenjanski et al.,
pected to drive the market for biofertilizers. The biofertilizer market in 2016; Pottmaier et al., 2013
Ash and silica
South America is expected to grow at the second-fastest CAGR during (weight %)
the forecast period. The economic growth in Argentina and Brazil has Rice straw 7.8–20.3 Sannigrahi et al., 2010; Pešenjanski et al.,
significantly contributed to the biofertilizers market growth; in these 2016; Pottmaier et al., 2013
countries, these markets are expected to grow significantly faster than Wheat straw 5.2–10.5 Sannigrahi et al., 2010; Pešenjanski et al.,
2016; Pottmaier et al., 2013
the regional average. This market will grow due to the accessibility of
Sugarcane bagasse 0.9–11.0 Sannigrahi et al., 2010; Pešenjanski et al.,
arable land along with farmlands expansion, particularly in Argentina, 2016; Pottmaier et al., 2013
Brazil, and Chile. In South America, Crop production has increased Food waste
dramatically in recent years, and it is estimated to increase further as TS 19.7 ± 0.4 Zhang et al., 2021
growers in countries like Brazil which is continuously expanding planted VS 18.1 ± 0.3 Zhang et al., 2021
C (%TS) 49.6 ± 0.3 Zhang et al., 2021
area. As a result, enhanced biofertilizer consumption will be supported VS/TS ratio 0.916 Zhang et al., 2021
(https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/biofertilizers N (%TS) 2.41 ± 0 Zhang et al., 2021
-industry, (accessed on 30 June 2022). In biofertilizers, market key S (%TS) 0.525 ± 0.01 Zhang et al., 2021
players are Vegalab SA, Kiwa Bio-Tech Products Group Corporation, Abbreviations: VS- volatile solids; TS- Total solids; C-Carbon; N- Nitrogen; S-
AgriLife, Biotech International Ltd., Novozymes, RIZOBACTER, Sym­ Sulfur; VS/TS means the ratio of volatile solids to total solids. Standard de­
borg, Company Limited, UPL, and T. Stanes and Mapleton Agri Biotec Pt viations (±) were included based on the literature’s availability.
Ltd. (https://www.grandviewresearch.com/industry-analysis/biof

9
P. Sharma et al. Bioresource Technology Reports 23 (2023) 101515

ertilizers-industry, (accessed on 30 June 2022). The economic viability CRediT authorship contribution statement
along with the long-term viability of aerobic composting technology
(https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20220421005935/en/Gl Pooja Sharma: Conceptualization, writing-original draft, Editing &
obal-Biofertilizers). In contrast to AD, an aerobic composting system reviewing.
needs less capital investment, but it foregoes the profitability from the Ambreen Bano: Conceptualization, writing-original draft, Editing &
generation of energy. reviewing.
Kajal Verma: Conceptualization, writing-original draft, Editing &
7. Future recommendations reviewing.
Mamta Yadav: Conceptualization, writing-original draft, Editing &
FW contains organic matter as well as essential nutrients such as reviewing.
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. By composting or converting Sunita Varjani: Conceptualization, writing-original draft, Editing &
these materials into fertilizer, these nutrients are released slowly and reviewing.
readily available to plants. The following explorations must be explored: Surendra Pratap Singh: Conceptualization, writing-original draft,
Editing & reviewing.
1. Educate the public, farmers, and gardeners about the benefits of FW Yen Wah Tong: Conceptualization, writing-original draft, Editing &
fertilizer and how it should be used and applied. Campaigns, work­ reviewing.
shops, and educational programs can be used to emphasize the All authors have read and agreed to the final version of the
environmental and agricultural benefits of reusing FW. manuscript.
2. Field experiments should be conducted to investigate the value of
FW-derived products in enhancing crop yield and soil properties, Declaration of competing interest
with a focus on products and biochar derived from dehydration, AD,
as well as chemical hydrolysis. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
3. Conformity and quality assurance research are major issues in FW interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
valorization biofertilizer production. There is a need for research to the work reported in this paper.
develop protocols for testing the uniformity of FW-derived bio­
fertilizer quality. Data availability
4. Using various biofertilizer products derived from FW valorization,
researchers are investigating the bioavailability and transformation Data will be made available on request.
of nutrients and carbon in soils.
5. FW fertilizers can be promoted by governments and regulatory Acknowledgments
bodies. Supportive policies can be implemented, incentives can be
provided to businesses and farmers to recycle FW. Quality standards This research is supported by the National Research Foundation,
can be set for the production and labeling of FW fertilizers. Prime Minister’s Office, Singapore under its Campus for Research
6. In addition to improving soil health and reducing nutrient runoff, Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE) program. The author
holistic and regenerative agricultural practices can maximize the (s) are thankful to their illustrative institutions for providing the liter­
benefits of FW fertilizers. ature services.

8. Conclusions and remarks

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