Boolean Algebra and Combinatorial Circuits The objectives of this chapter are to: '® Learn about Boolean expressions = Become aware of the basic properties of Boolean algebra 1m Explore the application of Boolean algebra in the design of electronic circuits © Learn the application of Boolean algebra in switching circuits In Chapter 3, we introduced the notion of Boolean algebra. In 1854, George Boole in his book The Laws of Thoughts described the basic laws of logic. In 1938, C. E. Shannon showed how Boole’s basic laws of logic can be used in the design of electronic Circuits. n the first two sections of this chapter, we further study Boolean algebra and its basic properties. We then show how Boolean algebra is used in the design of electronic circuits. 169770 Chapter 12 12.1__Two-ELEMENT BOOLEAN ALGEBRA In Chapter 1, we considered the nyo-elementset B = (7,F}. On this setwe defined the operations v (or), A (and), and ~ (not) as follows; TvT TAT ‘These operations on B can be described as follows. A|T F ~ T T\T F T\F F F\FE OF Flr Let 5 be a nonempty set. Now § and f are subsets of S, Let B= [S,#). Then Bis a owo-element set. As in Chapter I, we can define the operations U (union), 1° (intersection), and ' (complement) on B as follows. visa nls o Y S] (Sete) | seoleeeees)|(0) o|s a ole a ajs Let us consider electric switches. The words associated with electric switches are “on” and “off.” Let B = (on, off). Then Bis a wo-element set In view of these examples. in general, we can consider a two-element set B = (1,0), where 1 may stand for 7’ or the whole set 5 or for the word “on” and 0 may stand for F or the empty set # or for the word “off.” We can define the three operations +, -, and’ on B as Jollows. +[1 0 10 e ie ett 1fi o 1fo o}1o ojo o ofa In other words, George Boole nal at the age of 24. Boole was ap- cussed a fundamental connection be: (1815-1864) pointed chair of the mathematics de- tween logic and mathematics, particu Born in theEnglishin- partment at Queens Gllege, Cork, in larly using the concepts of “and, dustrial town of Lin- 1849 and had an outstsnding teaching and “nol.” Boolean algebra was thus — AE coln, Boole obtained record there for the remainder of his developed and defined. This con his early mathematics instruction from career. ncetion has provided a foundation to his father. Although he did not study Boole’s greatest accomplishment mathematicians in the areas of abstract, for an academiedegree, Boole excelled revolved around an article published in algebra and numerical analysis, In ad- and became an assistant teacher at the 1854, “An Investigation into the Laws dition, it provided a foundation for the age of 16. He opened hisovn school at of Thought, on Which are Founded design of electrical cireuits the age of 20 and published his first pa: the Mathematical Theories of Logic per in the Cambridge Mathematical Jou and Probabilities.” This article disDEFINITION 12.1.1 » DEFINITION 12.1.2 » DEFINITION 12.1.3 » Sener DEFINITION 12.1.5 > Claude Elwood Boolean Algebra and Combinatorial Circuits 771 The operations +, », and ’ on B= (0,1) are called the Boolean sum, Boolean product, and Boolean complementation, respectively. On the wo-elementset B = (7, F], the Boolean sum corresponds to the logical operation v (or), the product corresponds to © (and), and complementation corresponds to ~ (negation, or not) The set B = (0,1) together with Boolean sum, +, Boolean product, -, and Boolean complementation, ’, is called a two-element Boolean algebra. We denote this two- element Boolean algebra by B. Any literal symbol such as x,y, 41, ,...,% (with or without subscripts) used t© represent an element of B = (0,1) is called a Boolean variable Let x1, %,-..,%) be Boolean variables. A Boolean expression over B is defined recursively as follows. 1, Oand 1 are Boolean expressions. 2 m4,%)..00%9 are Boolean expressions, 8. Ifais a Boolean expression, then (@’) is a Boolean expression. Ifa and a are Boolean expressions, then (a - ay) and (a +a) are also Boolean expressions. 5. Theonly expressions thatare Boolean expressions on x1, 9, ..., 4 are those that are determined by rules 1-4 (oy + (8). (ar + (94) 39), and ((ay 29) + Gas +29)! are Boolean expressions. Convention: ‘To avoid using so many parentheses in writing Boolean expressions we adopt the following convention: We omit the outer pair of parentheses in a Boolean expression. For example, the expressions (xj) and ((x) - x2) + (x5 +2) are written x} and (x) - a2) + (23 + a2), respectively ABoolean expression that contains n distinct Boolean variables is usually referred to as a Boolean expression in n variables. istorical Notes Bell Laboratories in 1948, Shannon's he worked in the area of artificial intel: Shannon (1916-2001) ‘Theorem was introduced, giving the _ ligence and in 1956 he devised a conv Shannon was a grad- maximum rate at which errorfree bits plex chess program using the MANIAC uuate of the University could be wansmitted overanoisy chan- computer. He worked at MIT until his of Michigan and later nel. Thishelped to establish more reli- retirement in 1978 receivedamathematiesPh.D.from MIT able communication, in 1940. It was his Master's thesis Shannon continued to work at Bell ‘work on relay circuits at MIT that led Laboratories until 1972. In 1952, he (o his contribution to computers and devised an experiment illustrating the tclecommunication. While working at capabilities of telephone relays. Later,772 Chapter 12 SCTEEE REMARK 12.1.7 > ee ce ee) DEFINITION 12.1.9 > We denote Boolean expressions on B by a. expression in n distinctvariables mi, x2, .., xn.then we denote it by (x1, 22...) Let B= (0,1) be a owo-element Boolean algebra with operations +, -, and ’. Letar(s1, 22...) be a Boolean expression on B. If we assign 0 or I to each x; in @, then we find a value of « in B corresponding to this assignment, (xia) +24, Suppose x; = 0 and x» = 1. Then a(0, 1) 0. Hence, the value of a(x, 32) is @ when x = O and x Let a(, m) V=04 In a Boolean expression in which parentheses are not used to specify the order of operations, we assume that the product, , is evaluated before the sum, +. For example, a) + 4x = (1m) Hag andy apy = 4 + (ay). In Chapter 1, we used auth tables to show the truth values of a statement formula for different assignments of truth values to the statement variables. We can do the same for Boolean expressions. Corresponding to a Boolean expres- sion (xj, x2,...,%), We can constructits truth table showing the values of a(x, x, 1%) forall possible assignments 0 oF 1 to x;. The following example illustrates this. In this example, we construct the truth table for the Boolean expression a(x, x, 3s) = (1 +) - (a1 + Gy: 22)) as follows. (Because a is a Boolean expression in. three variables, x), x», and x, and each of these variables can have the value 0 or 1, there are a total of eight different values that can be assigned to these variables.) a |e || ote | Tray | fifo} a rfofif a | rfofof 4 Oa pte ate parted O;1)o} ot ofolil o | ofofo| o |r| According to the definition of a Boolean expression, | and 0 are Boolean expressions. Also, corresponding to every Boolean expression a we can construct, its truth table. Therefore, we: can also construct the truth tables for the Boolean expressions | and 0. The truth tables for 1 and 0 satisfy the following: The truth value of 1 isalways 1 for any assignment of values 0, | to the variables MMos ‘The truth value of 0 is always 0 for any assignment of values 0, | to the variables MRM ‘Two Boolean expressions o(,%, .-.,%,) and Bla, %,-.-,%4) are said to be equal if they assume the same value for every assignment of values 0, 1 to the variables, MyBookBoolean Algebra and Combinatorial Circuits 773 Consider the Boolean expressions a(x), ) = (x) +4)’ and B(xj,m) = x) +n this example, we show that a and i are equal. To verify this we construct the following truth table of a(s1, 2»), which is stm | te)! | | te we assign the value 1 to x) and the value 0 to x, then, a(1,0) = (1+ 0)’ = V' =0, Similarly, a(1, 1) = 0,a(0, 1) = 0, and a(0, 0) = 1. Also, there are only four | possible assignments of values 1 and 0 t0 x, and 3 [Similan ene ruth eble for Bos) It follows that a(1, 1) = B(1,1),a(1, 0) = B(1,0),@0,1) = BO, 1), and @(0,0) = (0,0). Hence, a and f are equal REMARK 12.1.11 > Ifcvo Boolean expressions a and f are equal, then we write a = B. The following theorem lists various properties of Boolean variables. Theorem 12.1.12: Let x, 11, m, and ay be Boolean variables. Then the following assertion holds: (i) Commutative laws: += m+m and y-m=m-m Gi) Associative laws: (% +22) +35 = 4 + (+m) and Gia) 8 = a G8) (Gil) Distributive laws: xy «(xp + x9) = (3 +2) + (a1 a9) and 21+ (8) = (+9) +8) Gv) Hdempotent aus: x-+ =x and x () Identity laws: x-+0-= x and x-1 (94) Inverse lous: xx! = 1 and x+x Dominance laws: x+1=1 and x-0=0 (sii) Absorption laws: xy + mm =m and x -( +22) (ix) DeMorgan's laus: (xy +m)! = +, and (x1) (%) Double complementation law: ()’ = we the others as exercises. Proof: We only prove (i), (ii), and (vi) and I (i) Leter(s,2) = a + mpand Am, 22) = ae + x1, We prove that for any assign- ment of values 0 or I to» and xy, the value of a is the same as that of f. We verify it by the following truth table:774 Chapter 12 From the table we find thata(1, 1) = B(1,1),@(1,0) = 6(1,0),a(0, 1) = B(O,1), and a(0,0) = £40,0). Hence, a = 8 Similarly, we can prove ay =m = mm (ii) Let amas m9) = (ar 4) = m9 and lays, a4) = a + a4). Consider the following truth table: (ae) | Gye) Hence, a(b4, bly) = (br, by, ds) for any assignment of values by, by, by © {0,1} tom, 9, and 19, respectively. Hence, @ = f.. This proves that (x + %9) = (32-3) (vii) Leta(x) = x Land f = 1. Consider the following truth table: xla=xt1/f=1 ce o} a |i ‘This implies har = B. Similarly, x-0= 0. Convention: ‘To avoid using so many parentheses in writing Boolean expressions we aclopt the following convention: If'a Boolean expression contains only one of or + several times, sometimes we omit the parentheses. For example, (x1 +x) + xis written x) - ay + xy and (x + 22 (35 + xg) + xy) is written x1 + ay + xy + xg + oe Theorem 12.1.13: Let a,f,y be Boolean expressions in the Boolean variables x1... %9. Then, () Commutative laws: «+8 =B+a and a: (i) Associative laws: (a+) by = a+ (B+Y) (a-B)-y =a-(B-y) Gil) Distributive laws: a (B+ y) = (@-B)+ (ay) and a+ y)=@+B)-@+y) Gv) Mempotent lows: aa =a and a-@ =a (0) Mentity aus: @+0=a and @-l=a (i) Inverse laws: ata’ =1 and aa! = (i) Dominance laws: a-+1=1 and a+0DEFINITION 12.1.14 > [STEETEEEET Boolean Algebra and Combinatorial Circuits 775 Absorption laws: a+ (a+) =a and a+(a+B)=a (ix) DeMorgan’s laws: (a + BY =a'-f" and (a-B)' =a! +" (x) Double complementation law: (a') Proof: We only prove a +f = f +a and leave the others as exercises. Now @ + is a Boolean expression in the Boolean variables 3), 32... %n Because each x; isa Boolean variable, we can assign the values 0, 1 to the va ables 2.2... Let 6, by, ..++0e be an arbitrary assignment of the values 10 2,2 «+, Za Fespectively, where 2; is 0 or 1. For this assignment, suppose the v: ues of @ and # are a and 6, respectively. Now a+b = 6-+a when a,b € (0,1). Hence, (+ B)(by, Bas +1 Bn) = (B+ a)(0yy bay +5 By). This implies that e+ Brae Let a be a Boolean expression. A Boolean expression f is said to be a dual of @ if B is obtained from a by replacing each occurrence of a Boolean sum by a Boolean product, replacing each occurrence of a Boolean product by a Boolean, sum, replacing each occurrence of I by 0, and replacing each occurrence of 0 by 1. If Bisa dual ofa, then we write B= a Consider the Boolean expressiona = (x + 1) - xj +3. Thena’ = ((x1 -0) +8) + % Let x, «1, a, and 2 be Boolean variables. From Theorem 12.1.12, it follows that () if =m +m and f= +m, thena =f andalso a! = pi; (i) fa = (x +m) + xy and 6 = m1 + (ay +98), then a =f and also a# Gil) if = my «(xy + a9) and f = m1 - m+ m1 +49, then a = Band alsoa® (wy) xtx=xand (xt x)= x4 () x4+0= xand (x +0)" (i) x41 Land (x+ 14 (il) toy =m and (x) +4 -m)4 = (iii) (ay + ay)! = x} x and ((m + 0) Oy ast In general, we can prove that if @ = f for any two Boolean expressions a and , then a = 64, This result is known as the duality prineiple. Next, we introduce the notion of Boolean functions and establish the relation- ship between Boolean expressions and Boolean functions. Let n be a positive integer and B be a two-element Boolean algebra. Then B* denotes the set ofall n-tuples over B, Le, BY = (by, bays by) |B: € BY. A function / on B in n variables is a function f : BY B. The n variables are emphasized by writing f(a, m,-..,%9), where each x31 = i < misavariable on Bs ice., each x, is a Boolean variable. Let a(x), 2,4) = a1 + 24-35 be a Boolean expression in three variables. We can define the function f : BY + B corresponding to @ as follows: For all (by, bs, by) € BY define Say Bay ba) = b+ bas776 Chapter 12 DEFINITION 12.1.16 > For example, f01,0,1) =140-1=140=1, f10,0,1) = 040 f01,1,0) = Let B be a twoelement Boolean algebra and let a(x, 9...) be a Boolean expression. Then the corresponding function f isa function fy: B" > B defined. Dy fal bis is +++ Bn) = (by. bay. «+ bn) for each ntuple (by, by... 0) © B®. Let er(x1, 2,85) = (x) +) - 34 be a Boolean expression in three variables. Then the corresponding Boolean :unction f : B* > Bis defined by fal. bs for all (by, bs, 6s) € B°. We can describe the funetion f(x), 22,35) by the following. table: by) = er ba, Bs) = (, + ba) Bs [ta loa Gites | 66a, m 9) 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 | 1 fa 1 1 | oo 0 0 1 1 loa 0 rf 0 | 0 0 0 0 0 0 0} oo | o794 Ex Chapter 12 Some Key Results 1. Ina Boolean algebra (B, i) +.) the following properties hold: ‘The elements 0 and 1 are unique. (ii) Each a € Bhasa unique complement a! € B. Gill) Foreacha¢ B(a' =a. (iv) 0 = Land I’ =0, W) a@ta=aanda-a=aforevery ac B. (i) a41= Land c-0=0forevery a€ B. (il) a-(a+ 6) = cand a+ (a-6) =a forall a,b € B. Ina Boolean algebra (B,+,+/) the following hold: For all a,4,¢ € B, () Wb+a=ctaandb+a'=cta,,then b= c, Also, ifb-a=c-a and b- a’ = ¢-« then b= ¢ (i) a+ (O40) = Boolean Algebra and Combinatorial Circuits 795. Consider the Boolean expression a(x) = x’; Le., a(x) is the complement of x. Now a(0) = 1 and a(1) = 0. This Boolean operation, i.e., complement, can be implemented using a device called the NOT gate, or the inverter. The symbol used for a NOT gate is shown in Figure 12.1. FIGURE 12.1 NOT (inverter) gate Aswe can see, in Figure 12.1, the NOT gate has one input, shown by n arrow to its left and labeled by the variable x, and its output is shown by the arrow to its, right and labeled by x. Now consider the Boolean expression a(x, )) = 39; ie., is the Boolean prod uct of x and y. We know that (1, 1) = I, a(1,0) = 0, a(0, 1) = 0, and @(0,0) = This Boolean operation, i.e., Boolean product, can be implemented using a device called an AND gate. The symbol used for an AND gate is shown in Figure 12.2. - FIGURE 12.2 AND gate Aswe can see, in Figure 12., there are two inputs, shown by two arrows to the left and labeled by x and y, and its output is shown by an arrow to its right and labeled by the Boolean expression sy. Next consider the Boolean expres sum of x and y, We know that a(, 1) This Boolean operation, i.e, Booleat called an OR gate. The symbol used for an OR gate is shown in Figure 12. n a(x.) = x+y; ie. a is the Boolean +@(1,0) = 1, a(0,1) = land a0, 0) m, can be implemented using the device 3. FIGURE 12.3 OR gate Aswe can see, in Figure 12.3, there are two inputs, shown by two arrows to the left and labeled by x and y, and its output is shown by an arrow to its right and labeled by the Boolean expression x + y In circuitry theory, NOT, AND, and OR gates are the basic gates. As we will see, we can design any circuit using these gates, The circuits that we will design depend only on the inputs, not on the output. In other words, these circu no memory, Also these circuits are called combinatorial circuits. have ‘The symbols NOT gate, AND gate, and OR gate are also considered as basic circuit symbols, which are used to build general circuits. Hence, we also use the word circuit instead of symbol. Associated with each of the gates NOT, AND, and OR is a table called an input-output table, which is described Consider the NOT gate that represents the Boolean expression x, We say that the function of this basic circuit is the following: When it receives the input 1, it changes it to 0 as output, and when it receives the input 0, the output is 1. We can describe this in the following table xt796 Chapter 12 This table is called the input-output table for the NOT gate, The AND gate is used (@ represent the Boolean expression xy. The input- ‘output table for the AND gate is the following. AND gate | Input x | Inputy | Output sy 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 ‘This table shows that when the AND gate receives the inputs 1 for x and 1 for ys then the output is 1. Simikatly, when the AND gate receives the inputs I for x and 0 for y, then the output is 0, and so on. Similarly, the input put table corresponding to the OR gate is as follows: OR gate | Input x Output x+y REMARK 12.3.2» The symbols used for the different gates are the standard symbols established by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Consider the Boolean expression x13» -+-%9, 1 > 2 In the AND gate that rep- resents this Boolean expression, we are allowed to use 1 arrows on the left of the AND gate. Therefore, the symbol used to represent the Boolean expression syxgs++%y is as shown in Figure 124, FIGURE 12.4 AND gate with m inputs Similarly, for the Boolean expression x ++ +--+ a we use the symbol shown in Figure 12.5. FIGURE 12.5. OR gate with inputs We now extend these symbolic representations of Boolean expressions from basic Boolean expressions to arbitrary Boolean expressions. For this, we first con- sider the Boolean expressions xy, sy, x” +), + Y, 'y', ‘The circuits for the expressions x’y and ay’ are shown (b), respectively. gures 12.6(a) andBoolean Algebra and Combinatorial Circuits 797 ® ) FIGURE 12.6 Circuits for x’y and 3’ ‘The circuits for the expressions x’ + yand x + y’are shown in Figures 12.7(a) and (b), respectively. RED Sp De @ © FIGURE 12.7. Circuits for ¥ + y and x + y The circuit for the expression »’y / is shown in Figure 12.8, FIGURE 12.8 Circuit for x’y The circuit for x’ +y' is shown in Figure 12.9. FIGURE 12.9 Circltfor x+y It follows that we can gradually build and represent any Boolean expression by gradually building a combinatorial circuit or circuit Leta be a Boolean expression, Then its cireuit diagram is defined as follows: 1. Ifaris x, then its circuit diagram is given by a NOT gate. 2 avis x + y, then its circuit diagram is given by an OR gate. 3. fais 2y, then its circuit diagram is given by an AND gate 4, Ifa is f, then its circuit diagram is as shown in Figure 12.10, po pee FIGURE 12.10 Circuit for In this circuit, there isa on the right representing f line on the left for the expr Ifo is Bx, then its circuit diagram is as shown in Figure 12.11 In this circuit, there are two lines on the left, one for the expression 6 and one for the variable x, and there isa line on the right for the expres- sion Bx.798 Chapter 12 PT) ae role FIGURE 12.11 Greuit for 8x 6. Ifa is f+, then its circuit diagram is as shown in Figure 12.12. FIGURE 12.12 Circuit for f+ é In this circuit, there are two lines on the lefi, one for the expression B and one for the variable x, and there isa line on the right for the expression Bre 7. aris By, then its circuit diagram is as shown in Figure 12.13. =< FIGURE 12.13, Circuit for By In this circuit, there are two lines on the left for the expressions # and y,and there isa line on the right for the expression By, 8. Ifaris A + y, then its circuit diagram is as shown in Figure 12.14. FIGURE 12.14 Cicuitfor + y In this circuit, there are two lines on the left for the expressions f and y,and there is a line on the right for the expression + y. In this example, we show how to draw the circuit for the Boolean expression a=W +H'y Let § = ay' and y = x'y. The circuit diagram for B + y is shown in Figure 3] Des FIGURE 12.15 Circuit for Bty We now work backward and draw the circuits for 6 and y, which are then combined with the circuit in Figure 12.15. The circuit for a = x +x'y is shown in Figure 12.16, FIGURE 12.16 Circuit forx’y + ay810 Chapter 12 This implies that a NOT gate can be implemented using a NAND gate (see Figure 12.36(a)). Next, ay (oY C9) Gy’ = (6x11)! = CLIC. This implies that an AND gate can be implemented using NAND gates (see Figure 12.36(b)). Also, (+09 ly = G19 1019) This implies that an OR gate can implemented using NAND gates (see Figure 12.366), — Dee PR Seo Le © Los Penis s+ FIGURE 12.36 Implementation of NOT, AND, and OR gates using NAND gates Tt now follows that any circuit which is designed by using NOT, AND, and OR gates can also be designed using only NAND gates. In a similar manner, we can show that any circuit which is designed by using NOT, AND, and OR gates ca: also be designed using only NOR gates (see Exercise 13, page 823) Karnaugh Maps and Minimization of Boolean Expressions In the preceding section, we remarked that before a circuit is designed to imple- ment a Boolean expression, the Boolean expression is minimized. To a sumofproduct Boolean expression, ie., a Boolean expression in DNF, we can e the properties of Boolean algebra. However, it can sometimes be quite com- plicated to do this, For example, let us consider the following sum-of-product: setayztxyst xe t xy! tay! Now set ayetayet rete tye Saget (y's + ay's) Fayed xe tay tay'Y ecane tua aya t xyst vy t xy + (aye +972)Boolean Algebra and Combinatorial Circuits 811 agetayet xy tx yet x)! + ay + =ortayrteyitep tye tay! Deca # 42% 1 ayetayetryet yt x wt xp! tay’ decane ates a agetayet vyet eye t (xy + xy!) tay! + ay Hence, Gleatly, tediow ae tay tryst yet eet set rt xyrtxyet xy tay! because ? + (092 + 9/2) + (xy + x92) + xy +9) saxtvetyyt ay Siete) teytay txt aye tayat yet eet ey toy? 2+) +x x0! +9) + xy + +xytay the expression z+ x’y + ay requires fewer logic gates than the expression aye + ays tx'y'2+ x’p2 + xy + 9/2'. Aswe can see, directly applying the proper- ties of Boolean algebra to minimize a sum-of;product Boolean expression is very Letusnext describe the Karnaugh map, or Kmap for short, to minimize asum- ofproduct Boolean expression. We begin with sum-of;product forms involving wo variables, say x and 5. Let a(x, 3) be a sum-of product Boolean expression, To minimize a, we use a rectangular array of two rows and two columns in wh labeled as follows, ich rows and columns are x ‘Maurice Karnaugh (b. 1924) Maurice Karnaugh invented the Kar- naugh map while studying for his Ph.D. in physics at Yale University in 1950, By 1952, Karnaugh had attained his degree and begun working at Bell Laboratories where he remained un- ‘il 1966, His 1953 publication, “The Map Method for Synthesis of Combi national Logic Circuits,” was a major contribution to computer science. This paper describing the Karnaugh map is ‘essentially a development to the under standing of Boolean functions through, ‘weo-dimensional diagrams, Karnaugh’s contribution to the understanding of Boolean logic gained him a strong reputation in digital techniques and_telecommunications, Beween 1966 and 1993, he was a researcher for IBM, and between 1980 and 1999 he was a professor of data processing at New York University812 Chapter 12 Each square, called a cell, corresponds to a minterm as follows: Ifa minterm ay, ay', xy, 9"x’y is presenti a(x, 9}, then we place a J in the cell corresponding to the minterm. If a minterm is not present, then the cell is left empty. The resulting array is called the K-map corresponding to the expression @(x,3) REMARK 12.3.22 > Note that the minterms in the adjacent cells differ in one of the variables x oF y. For example, the minterms wy and xy in the adjacent cells (frst row) differ in the variable x. Similarly, the mincerms xy and ay’ in the adjacent cels (first column) differ in the variable y. We say that ina K-map wvo cells are adjacent if their minterms differ in only one variable, EEE (‘The K-map corresponding tothe sum-otproduct a9) 239 +9429 yf 1 y 1 Gi) ‘The K-map corresponding to the sum-of-product a(x, 3) = x'y + ay is So the next obvious question is, how do we use the K-map to simplify the ex: pression? To simplify a sum-oproduct Boolean expression in the corresponding K-map, ifpossible, we group the I's in the adjacent cells in a1 x 2,2 x 1, or 2x2 block. Here, by a 1 x 2 block. we mean two adjacent cells in a row, Similarly, by adjacent cells ina 2 x 1 block, we mean wo adjacent cells in a column, and by adjacent cells in a 2 x 2 block, we mean four adjacent cells in two rows and two columns, Aswe will see, when writing the minimized sum-of;product Boolean expression inal x 2or2 x 1 block, we cat eliminate one of the variables, and in a2 x 2block, we can eliminate both of the variables. Moreover, a1 in acell can be paired in moreBoolean Algebra and Combinatorial Circuits 813 than one block, and this is due to the fact that in a Boolean algebra a+ a= a. Ifa 1 cannot be paired, we put a circle around it. The diagrams in Figure 12.37 illustrate K-maps, a| oo tJ tte © 0 ® FIGURE 12.37 _K-maps with two variables | 1 \ y Next, we discuss how to write the minimized form of the sum-ofproduct Boolean expression involving two variables using a K-map. Consider the K-map in Figure 12.37(a).. In this figure, the 1's are in the horizontal adjacent cells. The colurnns are labeled x and x’. Because x +x = 1 \we can eliminate both x and x’. The expression corresponding to this K-map is y. Note that the original Boolean expression corresponding to this K-map is x) + x'y and aytx'y=(xtx)y=1-y =p. As in Figure 12.37(a), the minimized Boolean expression corresponding to the K-map in Figure 12,37(b) is y. In the K-map in Figure 12.37(c), the 1’s are paired vertically. ‘This would allow us to eliminate y and y’. Therefore, the Boolean expression corresponding, to this K-map is x. Note that the original Boolean expression corresponding to this K-map is xy +39 and ay + ay =x) ty) =¥-1 =x As in Figure 12,37(c), the minimized Boolean expression corresponding to the K-map in Figure 12.37(€) is x’ Sonsider the K-map in Figure 12.87(e). Note that the 1 corresponding to the cell x’) is paired with the I's of the cells corresponding to xy and xy. This is allowed because in a Boolean algebra a+ a= Now the expression corresponding to the row of 1's is y and the expression corresponding o the column of I'sisx’, Hence, the minimized Boolean expression corresponding to the K-map in Figure 12.37(e) is x + The Boolean expression corresponding to the K-map in Figure 12.37(0 can- not be further simplified, so the Boolean expression is xy In the K-map in Figure 12.37(g), both of the I's are circled. They cannot be combined. The minimized Boolean expression corresponding to this K-map is yt xy, K-maps and Minimization of Boolean Expressions Involving Three Variables Let a(x,y,2) be a sum-ofproduct Boolean expression such that each minterm consists of three variables x,7,2. To define the K-map for a(x, 952), we consider the following table.814 Chapter 12 REMARK 12.3.24> REMARK 12.3.25 > Note that the columns are labeled! 39,29’, »’y',and x’y so that the adjacent columns differ in only variable x or variable y. For example, the adjacent columns xy and 29’ differ in y, and the adjacent columns x'y’ and xy differ in x. Moreover, notice that the first column, xy, nd the last column, x's, also differ in one variable, x Inthe K-mnap of three variables, x,y, and s, we label the columnsas 3), xy¥'7, and x'y. However, we can also start the labeling with, say x’y’. The important thing is that we label the columns se that the adjacent columns differ in one variable and the firstand last columns ako differ in one variable Note that the minterms in the adjacent cells differ in one of the variables x, y, or =, For example, the minternis xy and x’y’: in the adjacent cells (first row and. second and third column) differ in the variable x. Similarly, the minterms xy and x'y/zin the adjacent cells ‘third column) differ in the variable z. ILfollows that the cells containing the minterms xyz and ay’2 are adjacent. Asbefore, we say that in a K-map two cellsare adjacent if their minterms differ in only one variable. [As in the case of K-maps of two variables, in the K-map of a sum-of product Boolean expression of three variables, if a minterm is present in the expression wwe place a 1 in the corresponcling cell. For example, consider the sum-of- product. Boolean expression a(x, art aystayd + xy2t a2 ts K-map is |__| 1 _} The K-mnap corresponding to xyz + xy'2 + x'y'2 + x/y2 + aye! +x’ is To simplify a sum-of product Boolean expression in three variables, in the corresponding K-map we group I'sin 1x 1,1 2,1%4,2% 1,2 2and 2x4Boolean Algebra and Combinatorial Circuits 815, locks, If there isa 1 in a1 x 1 block, it means it cannot be paired with any other cell, In blocks of 1 x 2and 2 x 1, we can eliminate one variable. In blocks of 2 x 2 and 1 x 4 we can eliminate two variables, and in a block of 2 4 we can eliminate all the variables. The following example illustrates these situations, Consider the K-maps in Figure 12.38, fas Ra ea | ) FIGURE 12.38. K-maps with three variables block (first row and first two columns). For this block the columns of the adjacent cells are labeled xy and xy, so the variable they differ in is ). Thus, we can eliminate y, Now corresponding to this block, the row is labeled :, Thus, the expression corresponding to this 1 x 2blockis.x2, Note that the expression corresponding to these adjacent cells is xy: +xy'2 and gihyteayty)=el=n | Consider the second 1x2 block (first row and second and third columns). For this block the columns of the adjacent cells are labeled | ay‘ and x’y, So the variable they differ in is x. Thus, we can eliminate x. Now (i) Consider the K-map in Figure 12.98(a). Let us first consider the first 1 x 2 | | | | | corresponding to this block, the row is labeled 2. Thus, the expression cor | responding to this 1 x 2 block is y'z. Note that x2 + x/y'2 = (x + x')y' lyz= yz. | ‘The Boolean expression corresponding to the | that hasa circle around itis x’y2. Hence, the minimized Boolean expression corresponding to the | K-map of Figure 12.38(a) is xz + y/=+ x’ (ii) Consider the K-map in Figure 12.38(b). There is a 2 x 2 block (second | and third columns), Here the adjacent cells are labeled xy’ and x’y,,so the | variable they differ in is x. So we can eliminate x. Now the adjacent rows for this block are labeled z and «', so we can also eliminate :. Hence, the | Boolean expression corresponding to this 2 x 2 block is’. Note that xy’2+ x¥tt aye $2 = HE +2)trV E+ =a tx Sete) ay iii) Consider the K-map in Figure 12.98(c). First let us consider the 2 x 2 block (first and last columns). Here the adjacent cells are labeled ay and x’, $0 the variable they differ in isx. So we can eliminate x. Now the adjacent rows, for this block are labeled = and z,, so we can also eliminate z, Hence, the Boolean expression corresponding to this 2 2 block isp. ‘Asin part (i), the Boolean expression corresponding to the I x 2 block is ws, Hence, the minimized Boolean expression corresponding to the K-map in Figure 12.38(¢) is y+ x=.316 Chapter 12 (iv) Im the K-map in Figure 12.38(4), there are four 1x 1 blocks, We cannot simplify the expressions corresponding to these cells. Hence, the mini- mized Boolean expression is yz + xyz +x9'2 +2’) K-maps and Minimization of Boolean Expressions Involving Four Variables Let a(x), 12) be a sum-ofproduct Boolean expression such that each minterm consists of four variables, x,y,2, and w. To define the K-map for a(x, y, 2,2) we consider the following table. yxy xy sw | ayaw | ayfsw ] x’y'zw ] ay'e | | ‘amt | yea! Al spew! | y's! J x'yzu! | aye {oof peal aye'w! xyew | ayy | i Note that the rows are labeled 21, 0',2'u/, and 2'w so that the adjacent rows differ in only one of the variables = or w. Similarly, as before, columns are labeled ay, 7, xy’, and x’yso that the adjacent columns differ in only one of the variables x oF y Asbefore, we say that ina K-map two cellsare adjacent if their minterms differ in only one variable The K-map corresponding te the Boolean expression xyzw + xy/z'w + x’yew 4 wl + x'yau + xy + yew is To simplify a sum-of;product Boolean expression in four variables, in the cor- responding K-map we group I’sin 1x 1, 1x2, 1x 4.2% 1,.2%2,2%4,4x1, 4 2,and4 x 4 blocks. Ifthere isa 1 ina 1 x 1 block, it means it cannot be paired with any other cell. In I x 2und 2x 1 blocks, we can eliminate one variable. In 2% 2,1 x 4, and 4 x 1 blocks we can eliminate two variables, In 2x 4and 4x 2eee) | | of product Boolean expression. However, we have not yet outlined how to beg grouping squares that contain 1's. Before outlining the steps, let us consider the K-map in Figure 12.40(a) Boolean Algebra and Combinatorial Circuits 817 blocks we can eliminate three variables. In a4 x 4 block we can eliminate all the variables. The following example illustrates these situations Consider the K-map in Figure 12.39, “TT ‘J t Bw rlada = | @ FIGURE 12.39 K-maps with four variables (i) Consider the K-map in Figure 12.99(a). This K-map has one 2 x 4 block From the columns, we can eliminate both x and y. The rows are labeled 220 and 2w’, so they differ in w. Thus, from rows, we can eliminate w. Hence, the minimized Boolean expression corresponding to this K-map is =. ¢ 12.89(b), there are two 2 x 2 blocks and one I x 1 Gi) Corresponding to the 1 x I block, the Boolean expression is x’ yz’. Consider the first 2 x 2 block (first and last rows and first and second columns). From the columns we can eliminate y, and from the rows we can, eliminate s. Hence, the minimized Boolean expression corresponding to this block is x Consider the second 2 x 2block (third and fourth rowsand second and, fourth columns). Here, we can eliminate xand w. The minimized Boolean expression corresponding to this block is yz Tt now follows that the minimized sum-of product Boolean expression corresponding to this K-map is x’ yu! + 3 + 92. The preceding examples show how to use K-maps to obtain a minimized sun wl oa fa | @ FIGURE 12.40 K-maps818 Chapter 12 SiToeeeeey) Suppose we start grouping the I's in the second row (see Figure 12.40(a)). Then, when we group the 1’sin the first and the third rows, we see that the I's in the second row are again used (see Figure 12.40(b)). In fact, if we have grouped. the 1's in the first row followed by grouping the I's in the third row, then the I's, in the second row would have been consumed by these groupings. To avoid these types of redundancies, we group the squares containing I’s as described in the list below. (Remember, the I's must be grouped in 1x 1, 1 x 2, 1x 4,2 1,2 x 22x 4,4 x 1,4 x 20rd x 4blocks. Of course, these blocks must exist, For example, blocks of size 2 x 4 or 4 x 2 do not exist for sumofproduct Boolean expressions involving only two variables) 1, Firstmark the I's thi them. ;nnot be paired with any other 1, Puta circle around 2. Next, from the remaining 1's, find the 1’s that can be combined into two square blocks, ie., 1 x 2 0r2 x 1 blocks, and in only one way. ‘Next, from the remaining I's, find the 1I’s that can be combined into four square blocks, ic., 2 2, 1x 4, or4 x 1 blocks, and in only one way, 4, Next, from the remaining I's, find the 1's that can be combined into eight square blocks, ie., 2 x or 4 x 2 blocks, and in only one way 5. Next, from the remaining 1's, find the I's that can be combined into 16 square blocks, ie., a4 4 block, (Note that this could happen only for Boolean expressions involving four variables.) 6. Finally, look at the remaining 1's, ie., the 1’s that have not been grouped with any other I. Fi d the largest blocks that include them. Consider the K-map in Figure 12.41 6) FIGURE 12.41 K-maps In Figure 12.41(a), we identity the 1 that cannot be paired with any other 1 and puta circle around it Among the remaining I's we identify the 1's that can be ‘grouped in I x 2or2 x 1 blocks and in only one way. For this, we first look at the 1 in the first row and third column and group it with the 1 in the first row and second column, Similarly, the ! in the second row and second column is grouped asshown. Notice that the | in the first row and second column has two choices for grouping. That is why we did not consider this 1 in the second step. After making these groupings, no more 1's are left. The minimized sum-of;product Boolean expression is x'y2! +9’ + ay @ Workep-Out Exercises Exercise 1 ‘onsiruct the circuit by using NOT, OR, and (a) (x + y)(849°) (b) x2 +9 AND gates corresponding to each of the given Boolean ex- pressions,Boolean Algebra and Combinatorial Circuits 819 Solution: (a) The cireuit for (x + y)(x +9) isshown [reer pieen Figure 12.42. FIGURE 1 12 Creuit diagram {b) The cireuit for x(y/-+ 2) + y isshown in Figure 12.43, FIGURE 12.43 Crit diagram of xy +2) +y Exercise 2: Draw the circuit diagram for 5 = Gy’ + »'y)2 Solution: Suppose a = ay +¥'.8 = Gy +29). We first draw the cireuit for fz Next we draw the circuit diagram . Now we draw the circuit diagram for a = ay +5. From these diagrams we obtain the eireut diagram for 8 = (x + 9's (see Figure 1244 below). Exercise 3: Draw the circuit diagram for 5 = sy + + ye Solution: The circuit diagram for 6= ay tty: is Shown in Figure 12.6, pO oe (7 ,. ererr) —— 4 Exercise 4: Write the Boolean expressions that represent the circuits in Figure 12.46, Circuit diagram of (y+ ¥'9's =o ED (a) =a AS- ©) FIGURE 12.46 Circuits Solution: (a) First we write down the outputs through each gate (see Figure 12.47) FIGURE 12.47 Circuit ciagrams of (x + =)y' ‘The required Boolean expression would be the output through the last gate ofthe circuit, Hence the Boolean expression that represents the given elreut is (x + 2). (b) First we write down the outputs through each gate (see Figure 12.48). FIGURE 12.48 Circuit diagrams of y= + x52 weer ion would be the ouput reuit. Hence the Boolean ay tye ‘The required Boolean expr through the last gate ofthe: ‘expression that represents the given cireui820 Chapter 12 Exercise 5: Conserctthe inputoutput table forthe in Figure 129, an FIGURE 12.49 Circuit Solution: ‘The required Boolean expression would be the ‘ouput through the last yate ofthe citcuit, Hence the Bool ‘ean expression that represents the given circuits (9) + = “The inputoutput table for this circuits the Following, (oy te 1 ° ' 1 1 1 1 1 Exercise 6: Find circuit that represents the following, inputouput table. Owpur Solution: The Boolean expression that represents this tae ble isay + xy’, Hence the circuit that represents this Boolean, expression is showin in Figure 12.50, =D or we FIGURE 12.50 Circuit Exercise 7: Show thatthe circuitsin Figure 12.51 areequ alent =) @ Do o y FIGURE 12.51 Circuits Solution: The Boolean expression for the first circuit is w'+24 22+), and the Boolean expression for the second sleeuitisx+y Now wititetysxG ty tyt: xtyte became Y +251 Hence, the given two circuits are equivalent. Exercise & Find the minimized sumofproduct Boolean expression corresponding to the K-maps in Figure 12.52. ree ele 7 n (a) o) FIGURE 12.52 Solution: (i) Consider the K. Ke block. First consider the I x 2blockin the first row and the second and third columns. In this block, the columns ofthe adjacent cellsare labeled 2y' and x’y, ‘0 they differ in x. We can eliminate x. The Boolean expression corresponding to this black is y's, ‘Consider the I x 2 block in the second row and the first and last columns. Here the columns are ki- beled ay and 2's, so they differ in x. We can eliminate xx, and the Boolean expression corresponding to this 1 2block is 2. Now consider the 2x2 block. The rows are labeled + and 2, s0 we can eliminate 2, because 242’ = 1. Similarly, the columns are labeled ay and wap in Figure 12.52¢a). In this here are «wo 1x2 blocks and one 2x2Boolean Algebra and Combinatorial Circuits 821 25/,s0 we can eliminate y. Thus, the Boolean expres sion corresponding to this block i x Ik follows that the Boolean expression corre sponding to the K-map in Figure 12.52(a) is + very. i) “Asin part (i), we ean show that the Boolean expres sion corresponding to the 2 x 2 block is. Consider the 1 4 block, Here wecan eliminate both x and y to get the corresponding Boolean ex- pression, =. Henee, the minimized suum-ofproduet Boolean expression corresponding 0 Figure 12,52(b) isy+ = Exercise 9: Use a K-map to find the minimized sumo product Boolean expressions ofthe Boolean expressions txt er! ty wbx ye (a) aye tam! +m (b) ge tam + xiyead + xe! Solution: The K-maps of these Boolean expressions are shown in Figures 12.58(a) and (b). respectively. Section Review yy 8 {4 | | | « T T yoy wo =| i | Ta | ww 1 | | oH | te | Gp LILI | ®) FIGURE 12.53 K-maps Figure 12.58(a) shows the grouping of 1's. The mint mized sumofproduct Boolean expression is x: + (b) Figure 12.58(b) shows the grouping of 1’s. The min mized sum-ofproduct Boolean expression is xy’ + +evwtystx'y Key Terms NOT gate equivalent circuits, inverter simpler cireuit AND gate minimization problem OR gate NAND gate combinatorial circuits, Scheffer stroke inputoutput table NOR gate Some Key Definitions 1. Two combi worial cireuits, G, and Cs, having single output are said to be equivalent if whe: puUs, they give the same output. Peirce arrow half adder full adder Karnaugh map (K: adjacent cells vq and a ever the circuits receive the 2 One circuit is said to be simpler than another circuit if the first circuit s fewer gates than the second circuit. 3. Ahalfadder is a circuit that accepts as input two binary digits, x and y, and produces as output the binary sum ¢s of x and y. Hei e es is a tworbit binary number, where s is called the sum bit and c is called the carry bit. A full adder is a circuit that accepts as iny produces as output the bin: t three bits, a, 5, and d, and sum es of a, b, and d822 Chapter 12 Key Result 1. Two combinatorial circuits, C; and ©, having inputs x ,,. gle outputare equ EXERCISES veyand a alent if and only if the Boolean expression representing ‘equal to the Boolean expression representing C: 1, Construct the circuit by using NOT , OR, and AND «gates corresponding to each of the given Boolean ex pressions. a aytey 6 tty 2. For the circuits in Figures 12.54(a)-(e), write the asso- ciated Boolean expression. @ = a boot ortyyy Y Cc FIGURE 12.54 Various circuits Dena a circuit by using NOT, OR, and AND gates comesponding to ach of the given Boolean expressions in Exercises 3-6, 3. ay +x. Ax +9 ty) 5. x94 (38) 6 (Cane + (oy +829) Fer each o the Boolean expressions in Exercises 7-10, find the output Jor the given inp, 7. (et yx! +») for x 8. ays w'y'x + y2for x= 0,90, and: 9. + y42) fore = Ly=Oand:=1 10, ayy + xy'2 + mfor x= 0, y= Land := 11, With the help of an inputoutput table, determine which pairs of circuits in Figure 12.55 are equivalent. 6, o. land: je =p > © FIGURE 12.55. Ciraits12 With the help of Boolean algebra, determine which pairs of circuits in Figure 12.56 are equivalent ) FIGURE 12.56. Circuits [Ex] PROGRAMMING EXERCISES Boolean Algebra and Combinatorial Circuits 823 18, Show that any circuit which is designed by using NOT AND, and OR gates can also be designed using only NOR gates by showing that NOT, AND, and OR gates ‘can be implemented using NOR gates (Use K-maps to minimize the Boolean expressions in Exercies 14-22. ua 1s. 16. 17. Is, 19. 20, sx yew de’ w+ x'yn0+x'y 1. Write a program that takes as input the values of two Boolean variables, say x and y, and a Boolean operator or The program outputs the value of the cor- responding expression. For example, if x=0,y=1, and the Boolean operator is +, then the program out ps 2. Write a program that takes as input the values of a Boolean function of up to four variables. The pro- gram outputs the DNE, i¢., the sum-ofproduct form, «af the Boolean function. Write a program that takes as input the values of a Boolean function of up to four variables. The program outputs the CNF of the Boolean function 4. Write a program that takes a Boolean expresion of up to four variables in the sum-of-produet form. The program then ousputs th corresponding K-map. 5. Write @ program hat takes as input the values of a Boolean function of up to fourvariables. The program then outputs the corresponding K-map.