GROUP ASSIGNMENT OF HISTORY

WOLAITA SODO UNIVERSITY

COLLEgE Of bUSINESS AND ECONOmICS

DEpARTmENT Of mANAgEmENT

gROUp ASSIgNmENT Of hISTORY

SECTION IIA

NAmE ID NO
1, Yohannes Bejiga ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, SS/R/137/12

2, Tariku Guta ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, SS/R/210/12

3, Yabibal G/Kidan ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, RU2573/12

4, Seble Gizachew ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, RU0801/12

5, Samuel Kasata ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, RU0790/12

6, Muluneh Waktola ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, RU0712/12

7, Workinesh Behayle ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, RU0949/12

8, Tigist Abebaw ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, SS/R/112/12

9, Samson Awoke ………………………..…….SS/R/205/12

10, Yehenew Mersha …………………………..RU0983/12

11, Zeyineba Kassaw ……………………………SS/R/195/12

12, Teserach Adane ……………………………..RU0889/12

13, Kemal Husene …………………………………RU0550/12

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

1. INTRODUTION………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1

1.2. Human evolution……………………………………………………………………………………………2

1.2.1. Paleoanthropology…………………………………………………………………………………………3

1.2.2. The process of evolution ………………………………………………………………………………….3

1.2.3. Human Evolution around east Africa……………………………………………………………….4

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1. INTRODUTION

Human evolution is the evolutionary process within the history of primates that
led to the emergence of Homo sapiens as a distinct species of the hominid
family, which includes the great apes. This process involved the gradual
development of traits such as human bipedalism and language, as well as
interbreeding with other hominins (a tribe of the African hominid subfamily),
indicating that human evolution was not linear but weblike.

The study of human evolution involves several scientific disciplines, including

physical anthropology, evolutionary anthropology, primatology, archaeology,
paleontology, neurobiology, ethology, linguistics, evolutionary psychology,
embryology, and genetics. Genetic studies show that primates diverged from
other mammals about 85 million years ago, in the Late Cretaceous period, with
their earliest fossils appearing over 55 year ago, during the Paleocene.

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1.2. Human evolution

Human evolution is the lengthy process of change by which people originated from apelike ancestors.
Scientific evidence shows that the physical and behavioral traits shared by all people originated from
apelike ancestors and evolved over a period of approximately six million years.

One of the earliest defining human traits, bipedalism -- the ability to walk on two legs -- evolved over 4
million years ago. Other important human characteristics -- such as a large and complex brain, the ability
to make and use tools, and the capacity for language -- developed more recently. Many advanced traits -
- including complex symbolic expression, art, and elaborate cultural diversity -- emerged mainly during
the past 100,000 years.

Humans are primates. Physical and genetic similarities show that the modern human species, Homo
sapiens, has a very close relationship to another group of primate species, the apes. Humans and the
great apes (large apes) of Africa -- chimpanzees (including bonobos, or so-called “pygmy chimpanzees”)
and gorillas -- share a common ancestor that lived between 8 and 6 million years ago. Humans first
evolved in Africa, and much of human evolution occurred on that continent. The fossils of early humans
who lived between 6 and 2 million years ago come entirely from Africa.

Most scientists currently recognize some 15 to 20 different species of early humans. Scientists do not all
agree, however, about how these species are related or which ones simply died out. Many early human
species -- certainly the majority of them – left no living descendants. Scientists also debate over how to
identify and classify particular species of early humans, and about what factors influenced the evolution
and extinction of each species.

Early humans first migrated out of Africa into Asia probably between 2 million and 1.8 million years ago.
They entered Europe somewhat later, between 1.5 million and 1 million years. Species of modern
humans populated many parts of the world much later. For instance, people first came to Australia
probably within the past 60,000 years and to the Americas within the past 30,000 years or so. The
beginnings of agriculture and the rise of the first civilizations occurred within the past 12,000 years.

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1.2.1. Paleoanthropology

Paleoanthropology is the scientific study of human evolution. Paleoanthropology is a subfield of

anthropology, the study of human culture, society, and biology. The field involves an understanding of
the similarities and differences between humans and other species in their genes, body form, physiology,
and behavior. Paleoanthropologists search for the roots of human physical traits and behavior. They
seek to discover how evolution has shaped the potentials, tendencies, and limitations of all people. For
many people, paleoanthropology is an exciting scientific field because it investigates the origin, over
millions of years, of the universal and defining traits of our species. However, some people find the
concept of human evolution troubling because it can seem not to fit with religious and other traditional
beliefs about how people, other living things, and the world came to be. Nevertheless, many people
have come to reconcile their beliefs with the scientific evidence.

Early human fossils and archeological remains offer the most important clues about this ancient past.
These remains include bones, tools and any other evidence (such as footprints, evidence of hearths, or
butchery marks on animal bones) left by earlier people. Usually, the remains were buried and preserved
naturally. They are then found either on the surface (exposed by rain, rivers, and wind erosion) or by
digging in the ground. By studying fossilized bones, scientists learn about the physical appearance of
earlier humans and how it changed. Bone size, shape, and markings left by muscles tell us how those
predecessors moved around, held tools, and how the size of their brains changed over a long time.
Archeological evidence refers to the things earlier people made and the places where scientists find
them. By studying this type of evidence, archeologists can understand how early humans made and used
tools and lived in their environments.

1.2.2. The process of evolution

The process of evolution involves a series of natural changes that cause species (populations of different
organisms) to arise, adapt to the environment, and become extinct. All species or organisms have
originated through the process of biological evolution. In animals that reproduce sexually, including
humans, the term species refers to a group whose adult members regularly interbreed, resulting in
fertile offspring -- that is, offspring themselves capable of reproducing. Scientists classify each species
with a unique, two-part scientific name. In this system, modern humans are classified as Homo sapiens.

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Evolution occurs when there is change in the genetic material -- the chemical molecule, DNA -- which is
inherited from the parents, and especially in the proportions of different genes in a population. Genes
represent the segments of DNA that provide the chemical code for producing proteins. Information
contained in the DNA can change by a process known as mutation. The way particular genes are
expressed – that is, how they influence the body or behavior of an organism -- can also change. Genes
affect how the body and behavior of an organism develop during its life, and this is why genetically
inherited characteristics can influence the likelihood of an organism’s survival and reproduction.

Evolution does not change any single individual. Instead, it changes the inherited means of growth and
development that typify a population (a group of individuals of the same species living in a particular
habitat). Parents pass adaptive genetic changes to their offspring, and ultimately these changes become
common throughout a population. As a result, the offspring inherit those genetic characteristics that
enhance their chances of survival and ability to give birth, which may work well until the environment
changes. Over time, genetic change can alter a species' overall way of life, such as what it eats, how it
grows, and where it can live. Human evolution took place as new genetic variations in early ancestor
populations favored new abilities to adapt to environmental change and so altered the human way of
life.

1.2.3. Human Evolution around east Africa

Human evolution accounts only a fraction of history of the globe that had been formed through gradual
natural process since about (circa/c.) 4. 5 billion years before present (B. P.) The earliest life came into
being between 3 and 1 billion years B. P. Blue green algae, small Hist.102 25 plants, fishes, birds and
other small beings emerged at c. 800 million years B. P. Primates branched of placental mammal stream
as of 200-170 million years B. P. and then some primates developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla,
chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon etc) while others evolved into Hominidae (human ancestors).
Archeological evidences suggest that East African Rift Valley is a cradle of humanity. Evidences related to
both biological and cultural evolution have been discovered in the Lower Omo and Middle Awash River
valleys both by Ethiopian and foreign scholars. A fossil named Chororapithecus dated 10 million B. P.
was unearthed in Anchar (in West Hararghe) in 2007. Ardipithicus ramiduskadabba (dated 5.8-5.2
million years BP) was discovered in Middle Awash. Ardipithicus ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.) was
discovered at Aramis in Afar in 1994.Other Australopithecines were uncovered at Belohdelie (dated back

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3.6 million years B. P.) in Middle Awash. A three years old child’s fossil termed as
Australopithecusafarensis, Selam, dated to 3.3 million years B.P was also discovered at Dikika, Mille, Afar
in 2000. Another Australopithecus afarnesis (Lucy/Dinkinesh, dated c. 3.18 million years B. P.) with 40%
complete body parts, weight 30kg, height 1.07 meters and pelvis looks like bipedal female was
discovered at Hadar in Afar in 1974 A. D. Picture 1: Fossil of Lucy Source: Bahru Zewde, A Short History
of Ethiopia and the Horn (AAU, 1998), p. 12. Hist.102 26 Fossil named Australopithecus anamensis was
discovered around Lake Turkana. An eco-fact named as Australopithecus garhi (means surprise in Afar
language) dated to 2.5 million years B.Pwas discovered at Bouri, Middle Awash, between 1996 and 1999.
The development of the human brain was to be the main feature of the next stage of human evolution,
which produced the genus Homo, believed to have emerged 2-2.5 million years B.P. Different evidences
of the genus homo have been recovered in different parts of Ethiopia and the Horn. A partial skull of a
fossil termed asHomo habilis, which is derived from Latin terms "Homo" (human being) and "Habilis"
(skillful use of hands), dated 1.9 million years B. P. has been found in the Lower Omo. A fossil named
Homo erectus (walking upright, dated 1. 6 million years B. P.) was discovered at Melka Kunture, Konso
Gardula and Gadeb with 900-1100 cc brain size. Homo erectus seems to have originated in Africa and
then spread out to the rest of the world. Skeleton of Archaic Homosapiens (knowledgeable human being,
dated 400, 000 years B.P.) named Bodo with brain size of 1300-1400cc was discovered in Middle Awash.
Fossils of Homo sapiens sapiens (100, 000 years B.P.) were discovered at Porc Epic near Dire Dawa, and
Kibish around Lower Omo (in 1967). In 2004, Kibish fossils were re-dated to 195, 000 B. P, the oldest
date in the world for modern Homo sapiens. Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997, lived
about 160, 000 years B.P. Cultural evolution is related to technological changes that brought socio-
economic transformation on human life. It can be conventionally grouped in to Stone Age, Bronze Age
and Iron Age. Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by human beings. By taking
their features, ways and period of production, stone tools can be grouped in to Mode I (Olduwan, which
was named based on the first report made at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania), Mode II (Acheulean, named
after the first report at St. Acheul, France) and Mode III (Sangoon). The Mode I stone tools are mainly
characterized by crude and mono-facial styles, and were produced by the direct percussion. Mode II
stone tools were produced by indirect percussion, by using han d-ax or hammer, and mainly
characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex features. Mode III stone tools are characterized by flexible
and finest form of production by the use of obsidian. Hist.102 27 Examples of the above types of stone
tools have been found in Ethiopia and the Horn. Fossilized animal bones (3. 4 million years B. P.) were
found with stone-tool-inflicted marks on them (the oldest evidence of stone tool in the world) at Dikika

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in 2010. Artifact findings suggest that Olduwan tools made and used by Homo habilis were discovered
near Gona (dated 2.52 million years B.P. in 1992) and at Shungura in Afar. Homo erectus produced
Acheulean tools dated back to 1.7.million years B.P, invented fire and started burial practice. Acheulian
tools (over a million years old) were found at Kella, Middle Awash in 1963. Homosapiens produced
Sangoon tools that trace back up to 300,000 years B. P. Gademotta site in central Ethiopian Rift Valley
has been dated back to 200, 000 B. P. Other vital sites such as Gorgora, Ki’one and Yabello in Ethiopia
and Midhidhishi and Gudgud in Somalia have offered noteworthy information about Stone Age
communities. The period of usage of stone tools is divided into sub-periods. The first, the Paleolithic
(Old Stone Age, from 3.4 million to 11, 000 years B. P.) was the period when human being developed
language with shelter in cave using stone, bone, wood, furs, and skin materials to prepare food and
clothing. There was sex-age labor division with able-bodied males as hunters of fauna, and children and
females as gatherers of flora. Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age /11, 000-10,000 B. P.) was transition
between Paleolithic and Neolithic (New Stone Age /10, 000-6, 000 B.P).