Elementary Logic

- Serves as a set of rules that govern the structure

and presentation of mathematical proofs. It
allows us to determine the validity of arguments
in and out of mathematics.

Proposition - Is a statement that is, by itself, either true

or false but not both. They can be expressed in symbols
P, Q, R, or p, q, r
Conditional Statements - are statements which are in
the form “If P, then Q” P Is the hypothesis while Q is the
Types of Proposition
conclusion.
Simple - means a single idea statement
Truth Values of Statements
Compound - conveys two or more ideas

Logical Connectives

1. A statement and its negation have opposite truth

values.:

Ex: P: An even number is divisible by 2

Q: 6 is an even number p ~p
R: 6 is divisible by 2
T F
1. P => ~ Q =If an even number is divisible by 2, F T
then 6 is not an even number.
2. Q ^ R =6 is an even number and 6 is divisible by
- If a statement is TRUE, then its negation is FALSE. If the
2
statement is FALSE, then its negation is TRUE.
3. R ↔ (P V Q) =6 is divisible by 2 if and only if an
even number is divisible by 2 or 6 is an even
2. Truth values for conjunctions and disjunctions:
number

QUANTIFIERS p q p^q pvq

- Are the formal counterparts of English phrases
such as “there is…” or “there exists…” as well as T T T T
“for every…” and “for all...” The following are T F F T
the two types of quantifiers:
F T F T
Universal Quantifier
- “for all…” or “for every…” denoted by ∀ F F F F

Existential Quantifier - This conjunction is TRUE only when both statements

- “there exists” denoted by ∃ are TRUE while the disjunction is TRUE for as long as
one of the statements is TRUE.
3. Truth values for implications or conditional:

p q p=>q

T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

- The condition is TRUE if the two statements have the

same truth value. Otherwise, it follows the truth value of
the second statement.

4. Truth values for inverse, converse and

contrapositive:

p q ~p ~q
p=> ~p= q=> ~q=>
q >~q p ~p

T T F F T T T T

T F F T F T T F

F T T F T F F T

F F T T T T T T

- The conditional and contrapositive always have the

same truth values. Both inverse and converse are TRUE
when the two given statements have the same truth
values. Otherwise, they follow the truth values of the
first statement.

5. A biconditional is true when the two statements

have the same truth values. Otherwise, it is false.

RULES:
✓ Conjunction and Biconditional – Only T if
there is TT the rest is F
✓ Disjunction – only F is there is FF the rest T
✓ Conditional and Contrapositive – TT, FF is T
(true) then just copy the letters in q
✓ Converse and Inverse - TT, FF is T (true) then
just copy the letters in p
Egyptians and Babylonians Step 4 – Verification: Look back and review your
- approach in solving problems was an example of solution
“do thus and so” method. In English, the most - Check to see if your potential solution works.
important difference between“thus” and “so” is
that “so” is a conjunction (meaning “and for Example:
that reason”, “and because of that”), whereas
“thus” is an adverb (synonymous with 1. Guess and Check
consequently”). - This is the same as with trial and error method.
- In Mathematics, it is to solve a problem or You guess (a good one) an answer and check if it
perform an operation. They concluded the same will fit in or answer the problem.
method would work for any similar type of 2. Make an Orderly List
problem by observing that a specific method - Through making a list in an orderly manner,
worked for a certain type of problem. counting can be done accurately. Errors caused
Conclusion as such is known as Conjecture. by counting an entry more than once or not
being able to count it can be avoided.
- We use our senses to support our intuition; 3. Draw a Diagram
sight, smell, hearing, and touch. Intuitions are - one can clearly see or visualize what exactly the
supposed to be fast, effortless, unconscious, with scenario is. Through it, solving can be easy and
little reliance on working memory and prone to fast.
mistakes and biases. Reasoning is supposed to 4. Look for a Pattern
be slow, effortful, conscious, with a crucial - By observing repetitive shapes or figures, one
reliance on working memory and able to correct can find for a pattern. Using the pattern
the mistakes and biases of intuitions. observed, problems can be answered easily.
5. Eliminating Possibilities
Inductive Reasoning - This strategy is used so that solvers can remove
- Moves from specific to generalized conclusion possible answers until the correct answer
remains. The given information in the given
Deductive Reasoning situation helps the solver eliminate other
- Moves from generalized that is known to be true options.
to a specific conclusion 6. Working Backwards
- Makes us syllogism - works well for problems where a series of
- e.g. “today is Friday, tomorrow is Saturday.” operations is done on an unknown number and
you’re only given the result. To use this strategy,
Syllogism start with the result and apply the operations in
- an argument composed of two statements or reverse order until you find the starting number.
premises followed by a conclusion
Premises – minor or major propositions or assertions
Sir George Polya that serve as the bases for an argument
- the father of the modern emphasis in math
education on problem solving. Recreational Problems - include classic games such as
- made seminal contributions to probability, Monopoly or any number of card games requiring
combinatorial theory and conflict analysis. addition and subtraction
- famous enumeration theorem have been widely
applied.
Statistics
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving - Latin word “status” which means state.
- used by state leaders to know how much tax to
Step 1 – Preparation: Understanding the problem levy their subjects and how many soldiers are
- Learn the necessary underlying mathematical needed in an expected war.
concepts. Consider the terminology and notation
used in the problem. Data
Step 2 – Thinking Time: Devise a plan - a result of experiment, observation,
- How are you going to attack the problem? investigation and other means and often
Step 3 – Insight: Carry out the plan appears as a numerical figure and then
- Work out an idea or a new approach carefully evaluated to make it into useful knowledge.
and see if it leads to a solution.
DIVISION/ CONCEPTS OF STATISTICS 4. Discrete variables – values obtained by counting.
1. Descriptive Statistics – deals with the collection 5. Continuous variables – values obtained by
and presentation of data and collection of measuring, all of which cannot be put into a list
summarizing values to describe its group because they can have any value in some interval of
characteristics. real numbers.
- The most common summarizing values are the
measure of central tendency and variation.
2. Inferential Statistics – deals with the predictions
and inferences based on the analysis and
interpretation of the results of the information
gathered by the statistician.
- Some of the common statistical tools of
inferential statistics are the t-test, z-test,
analysis of variance, chi-square, and Pearson r.

Two Major Groupings of Data

Levels of Measurement
6. Nominal (Categorical)
- classifies elements into two or more categories
or classes, the numbers indicating that the
elements are different but not according to
order or magnitude
- e.g. gender, marital status, state of residence,
college major, SSN, Zip code, student ID
7. Ordinal (Categorical)
- a scale that ranks individual in terms of the
degree to which they possess a characteristic of
interest.
- e.g. military rank, letter grade in class, degree
held, medical condition
8. Interval (Numerical)
(number/ number of) - ordering scores from high to low
- uniform unit in the scale so that any equal
distance between two scores is of equal
magnitude.
- There is no absolute zero in this scale.
- e.g. IQ, current temperature, ratings
9. Rational (Numerical)
- in addition to being an interval scale, it also has
an absolute zero.
- e.g. weight of a package of candy, amount of
money in checking account, number of
questions correct on a quiz

Population
- defined as groups of people, animals, places,
things or ideas to which any conclusions based
on characteristics of a sample will be applied.
- The measurable quality is called a parameter
3. Variable – a numerical characteristic or attribute - The population is a complete set
associated with the population being studied. They - Contains all members of a specific group
are further classified as categorical or qualitative
and numerical or quantitative.
Sample
- a subgroup of the population.
- The measurable quality is called a statistic
- Sample is a subset if the population
- A subset that represents the entire population

Parameter
- a numerical measure that describes a
characteristic of population.
- Whole population

Statistic
- Numerical measure that is used to describe a
characteristic of a sample

Measures of Central Tendency

- To describe a whole set of data with a single
value that represents the middle or center of its
distribution is the purpose of measure of central
tendency (measures of center or central
location).
- way to describe the center of a data set.
- It lets us know what is normal or 'average' for
a set of data.
- condenses the data set down to one
representative value, which is useful when you
are working with large amounts of data.

Mean
- the sum of all the values in the observation
or a dataset divided by the total number of
observations. This is also known as the
arithmetic average.
- continuous and discrete numeric data as
well as for categorical data, as the values
cannot be summed.
- applicable to use for ratio and interval data.
 Mode
- can be found for both numerical and categorical
(non-numerical) data.
- most commonly occurring value in a
distribution.
- There can be more than one mode for the same
distribution of data, (bi-modal, or multi-modal)
- the distribution may have no mode at all (i.e. if
all values are different).

Median
- is considered as the physical middle point in a
distribution because it is located at the center
position when the values are arranged in
ascending or descending order
- the middle value.
- If it is an even number, the median value is the
mean or average of the two middle values.