Section A: ACTIVITIES

ACT| VIT Y A2
AIM
To measure resistance, voltage (ac/dc),
circuit using multimeter. current (ac) and check continuity of a given

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

A multimeter with test leads,
three carbon resistors, a battery eliminator with
and 6 V, a step-down transformer with output tappings of 2
of 6 V and 12 V, a resistance box, a v,+V
bridge, a plug key, a microammeter, tappings metre
connecting wires.
THEORY

MULTIMETER
A multimeter is a widely used
electrical instrument
potential differences or resistances over several ranges.designed
to measure directly the currents,
It is also known as AVO (ampere, volt and
ohm) meter.
Construction. A multimeter essentially consists of a sensitive moving coil
galvanometer.
galvanometer's dial is calibrated in several ranges of amperes, volts and ohms. The

Ohms

0 0
5 02 0

16
(
50 Ohms A830L

DC
AC
Y
10
20 30

EBCE

V 200 gi 20oy
Analog Multimeter
2
200 20

200%

104
K [Q COM VmA
x100K

COM V/Q
AX

Fig. 3Analog multimeter Fig. 4 Digital multimeter

To use multimeter as an ammeter, shunt resistances of different values are connected in parallel
with the galvanometer coil, so as to give suitable values of current in uA, mA or A.
To use multimeter as a voltmeter, resistances of different values are connected in series with the
galvanometer coil, so as to give suitabie values of potential differences in mV or V.
When the multimeter is set in resistance measuring mode, a battery of 3 V and a number of
resistors get automatically connected inside it. This battery sends current through the externally

95
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XI|

connectei resistor whose resistance is being measured. The coil of the multimeter
proportional to this direct current. The zeros of current and voltage scales are located on a shows
left whilethe zero of resistance scale is located on the extreme right. This is because when the
in the multimeter circuit is zero, current and hence deflection in the coil are maximum.the
defelxectrteiomne
moves to the extrenne right where the zero of resistance scale is located. As the external The resispoitanncteetro
be measured increases, the current through the coil decreases and asmaller
deflection therespristoaduced.
To make ac measuren1c..ts with a multimeter, ajunction diode rectifier is connected is
in
nce
meter cirquit. The rectifier converts ac into dc which produces a suitable deflection in the galvano-
Some multimeters have single rotatory wafer switch which has enough wafers to select
a
functions (ohmmneter, milliammeter, dc voltmeter or ac voltmeter) and the
ga
appropriate
lv an ome
dif t
ferente r .
meterrange
each function. Some multimeters have twO rotatory switches, one switch selects the for
and the other selects the range. function
When the two probes of the multimeter are shorted, the multimeter should show zero
resistance. If
it does not show this, its pointer is brought to zero by using 'zero Adj knob on the multim
Colour Code of Resistors.A colour code is used to indicate the resistance value ofa carbon resiskos 3.
percentage accuracy. The colour code used throughout the world is shown in Table A3.
Table A3 : Resistor colour code
Colour Letter as an
Number Multiplier Colour
aid to memory Tolerance
Black B 100 Gold 5%
Brown B 1 10 Silver 10%
Red R 2 102 No fourth band 20%
3 103
Orange
Yellow Y 4 l04

Green 5 105
Blue B 6 106
Violet V 7 l07

Grey G 108

White W l09

How to remember colour code :

BBROY of Great Britain had Very Good Wife
0 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Aset of coloured co-axial rings or bands is printed on the resistor which revealstthefollowinggttacts:
1. The first band indicates the first
significant figure. Firstsignificant figure
2. The second band indicates the second Secondsigniticantfigurt
significant figure.
3. The third band indicates the power of ten Decimalmultiplier
with which
the above two significant figures must be Tolerance

to get the resistance value in ohms.

multiplied
4. The fourth band indicates the tolerance or
possible
variation in percent of the indicated value. If the
fourth band is absent, it implies a tolerance of + 20%. Fig. 5

96
 Section A: ACTIVITIES
Illustration

In Fig. 6, the colours of the four

bands are uellow. violet. brown and gold;the
resistance value is
Yellow Violet Brown Gold
Violet - Brown
Yellow. Gold
4 7 1 ± 5%
R=47x 10 Q5%.
WORKING DIAGRAMS
Fig. 6
Carbon resistor
6V dc
6V ac
R

Black Red
probe Red Black
probe Black Red
probe probe probe probe
Multimeter
leads
(a) Multimeter as ohm meter (b) Multimeter asa dc voltmeter (c) Multimeter as an ac voltmeter
6V ac 10 kQ
R.B.
Metre bridge
R

OuA
Black Red *A
probe probe Open
key
(d) Multimeter as an ac ammeter (e) Multimeter for checking continuity of a circuit.
Fi. " Different uses of a multimeter.
PROCEDURE
(a) Measurement of resistance
1. Mark the given carbon resistors as R, R,
and Rg:
2. Note the colours of 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th ring of
each carbon resistor and record them in the
observation table.
3. Using the colour code table for carbon resistors,
determine the values of R,, R, and R, in
ohms and write their tolerance limits.
4. To measure resistance with the multimneter, plug in the black and
red probes in common (-)
and positive (+) terminals respectively. Set the multimeter in resistance mode and select an
appropriate range. Directly touch the metallic ends of the two probes and adjust the zero
adjustment knob so that the meter shows full scale deflection and reads zero ohm.
NOTE The zero adjustment has to be made each time when we select a resistance scale of
different range.
97
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XI

5. Separate the ends of the probes and connect them to the two ends of the
carbon
shown in Fig. 7(a). Note the reading of the pointer on the resistance scale. In case the resistor Rasis
too small, do the activity again by choosing a resistance scale of smaller range.
6. Repeat step 5 for the measurement of resistances R, and Rz. Record the ereading in
(b)
tabular form.
Measurement of dc voltage
observations a

7. Take a battery eliminator having variable dc output in steps of2 V.

8. Set the selector switch of the multimeter to measure dc voltage. Select a range of 0-10 y
9. Insert the black probe in common () socket and red probe in positive (+) socket of the
10. Switch on the battery eliminator and set its tapping at the minimum value, say 2 V.
11. Touch and press the metallic end of the red probe with the positive terminal of
multimeter.
eliminator and that of black probe with its negative terminal. Note the reading.
the battery
12. Repeat steps 10 and 11 for tappings of 4 Vand 6 Vof the battery eliminator and note
reading for dc voltage in each case. the
(c) Measurement of ac voltage
13. Take a step-down transformer having tappings of 6 V and 12 V.
14. Select the selector switch of the multimeter to measure ac voltage. Select a range of 0-10v
15. Insert the black probe in common (-) socket and red probe in positive (+) socket of the multimete.
16. Energise the transformer by connecting its input leads to ac mains. Select an output voltage of
6V on it. Connect the leads of the multimeter to the output terminals of the transtormer,Note
the ac voltage on the nultimeter scale.
17. Repeat the activity selecting a range of 0-50 V on the multimeter and setting the output of the
step-down transformer at 12 V. Record the observations in a tabular form.
(d) Measurement of ac current
18. Take a step-down transformer with its tapping at 6 V.
19. Select the switch of the multimeter to measure ac current and select a range of 0-250 mA.
20. Insert the black probe in comnmon(-) socket and red probe in positive (+) socket of the multimeter.
21. Energise the transformer and connect the transformer, a resistance box and the multimeter in series.
Introduce a resistance of 6 k2 from the resistance box and note the current in the multimeter.
22. Repeat the activity for resistances of 8 k2 and 10 kQ from the resistance box and record the
values of current on the multimeter scale.
(e)To check continuity of metre bridge circuit
23. Insert the black probe in common (-) socket and red probe in red (+) socket.
multimeter
24. Set the multimeter in resistance mode and select arange of MQ. The cell within the
automatically gets connected.
Set up an electrical circuit resistance R, a
25. consisting of a metre bridge, an auxiliary battery, a
microammeter, and a plug key K.
points
26. Keeping the plug out of the key K, touch and press the metallic ends of the two probes at
A and Bof the circuit, full scale deflection indicates the continuity.
D. Full
27. Similarly check the continuity between points Band Cand then between points Cand resistance)
scale deflection (very low resistance) indicates continuity while zero deflection (high
indicates adiscontinuity in the circuit.
NOTE While checking the continuity, the battery of the circuit should be in switched off mode.

98
 Section A: ACTIVITIES
OBSERVATIONS
la) Measurement of resistance
Bange of resistance scale selected on the multimeter panel =0 to 2.
Least count of the scale =

Table A4 : Measurement of resistance with multimeter

Colour code of rings Resistance value and Resistance measured
Resistance tolerance as by multimeter
Difference
1st 2nd 3rd 4th per colour code (2)
(2)
R Yellow Violet Brown Gold 47 x 10 QI 5%
R
R&
(6) Measurement of dc voltage
Range of voltage scale selected on the multimeter panel =0 to V.
Least count of the scale =

Table A5 : Measurement of dc voltage with multimeter

Output voltage marked Voltages measured by Difference
S.No. on battery eliminator multimeter
Vo (volt) V (volt) (Volt)
1 2 V
2 4 V
3 6V

(c) Measurement of ac voltage

V
Range of ac voltage selected on multimeter panel = 0 to
Least count of the scale V.

Table A6 : Measurement of ac voltage with multimeter

Output voltage marked on Voltages measured by Difference
S.No. step-down transformer multimeter V-V
V, (volt) V(volt) (Volt)
1 6V
2. 12 V

(d) Measurement of ac current

panel =0 to mA.
Kange of ac current scale selected on the multimeter
Least count of the scale = mA.
multimeter
Table A7: Measurement of ac current with
Current measured by multimeter
S.No. Resistance inserted from the resistance box I(mA)
R (k2)
1. 6 kQ
2 8kS2
3 10 k2
99
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XI|

(e) To check continuity between different points of a circuit

to
Kange of resistance scale selected on the multimeter penal=0 MQ.
Least count of the scale =

Table A8 : Checking continuity of the circuit between different points

Checking continuity Resistance reading Nature of resistance
S.No.
between pionts in multimeter Nature of circuit
Very low/High
1 Aand B
Very low/High
Continuous/Discontinuous
2 B and C

Very low/High
Continuous/Discontinuous
3. Cand D
Continuous/Discontinuous
RESULT
1. Within the allowed limits of tolerance, the values of resistance measured by the mulin
are equal to the corresponding decoded values.
2. The values of dc/ac voltages measured by the multimeter are equal to the marked va
indicated by the battery eliminator/step-down transformer.
3. The values of ac have been correctly measured by the multimeter.
4. As the multimeter shows zero resistance between different pairs of points on the given one
circuit, the circuit is continuous between those pairs of points.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Instructions manual of the multimeter should be read thoroughly before handling it.
2. For measuring voltage, current and resistance, an appropriate selection of function swit
and range switch should be made.
3. Red arnd black probes should be connected to the proper polarities for measuring dc voltzag:
and current.
4. Whenever the meter is used as ohm meter or switched to a new range, short-circuit its t
probes and set the pointer at zero with the zero adjustment knob.
5. Never use an ohm meter to measure resistance in an energised circuit.
6. Before using the meter for resistance measurement, check that the instrumnent c 2

functioning properly.
7. If range of voltage, current or resistance to be measured is not known, start with
range and then go decreasing the range till easily observable deflection is obtainedin
multimeter.

SoURCES OF ERROR
1. The scale used for measuring
voltage/current may not be proper. be
acurat
2. Zero adjustment done for measuring resistance with analog may noot
multimeter

100
 ACTI VIIY A3
AIM

To assemble a household circuit

and apower source.
comprising three bulbs, three on/off switches, a fuse

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Three bulbs (40 W, 220 V each), three on/off switches, a
socket, a plug, a fuse of 1.0 A, flexible
connecting wires, main switch.
THEORY
1. A household circuit works on ac mains of 220 V, 50 Hz. From the
mains we get two supplies
of different current ratings :
() Light line of 5 A for low power appliances like light bulbs, ceiling fans, fluorescent tubes
etc.

(ii) Power line of 15 Afor heavy duty appliances like room heater, air conditioner, gevsers.
hot plates, etc.

101
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

appliances, then the

consumed by different
2. If P. P,, P . are the powers
consumed in the household circuit is :
P=P +P +P + total power
p
the mains of V volts will be l=
Current drawn from V
To protect the appliances from damage due to excessive currents, afuse of rating 10 to 20P,
higher than the normally drawn current is connected in series with the live wire from the

source of power.
and neutral wires.
3. Different appliances are connected in parallel between live Each appiance
4. 1s provided with a separate switch in its live wire.
Earth wire is a safety measure which ensures any leakage of current to the metallic body of
and the e
an appliance keeps its potential equal tothat of the earth wire(zero volt)
not get a severe electric shock.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
ooo)
Live
wire
Fuse Socket
To
mains
Earth
B B Neutral wire
wire

Fig. 8 Circuit diagram for household appliances.

PROCEDURE
1. As shown in Fig. 8, connect the three bulbs B,, B, and B, separately in series combination
with on/off switches S,,S, and S, respectively.
2. Connect these three bulb-switch combinations in parallel across the live and neutral wires.
3. Connect a fuse F of proper rating in the live wire of the circuit.
4. Connect a three way socket at the end of live and neutral wires. Connect a wire from its
earth pin.
5. Insert the plug in the socket fitted on the main electric board.
6. By pressing the switches S,,S, and S, one by one, check that each bulb is switched on and
offindependently of the other.
7. Press the three switches
simultaneously and note what happens.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Each bulb functions independently of the
other through a separate switch.
2. The three bulbs can function
simultaneously with the installed fuse safely.
PRECAUTIONS
1. The rating of the required fuse must be determined carefully by calculating the maximum
current drawn by the circuit.
2. Never use safety fuse of much higher rating than the current normally drawn from/by
circuit.
3. The safety fuse and the on/off
switches must be connected in live wire.
4. Take care while working with mains.

102
 A CTIVITY A4
AIM
law circuit used
Toassemble the components of a given electrical circuit (say Ohm's
to measure resistance)

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

key,
Aresistor, an ammeter (0-1.5 A), a voltmeter (0-5 V), abattery/battery eliminator, one-way
rheostat, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
THEORY
components in the
For assembling the components of any circuit, it is advisable to connect the
following order.
1. Sourceof power (battery/battery eliminator).
2. Plug key (near the battery).
3. Resistors, bulbs, inductors or any other load (to be connected end to end).

103
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XI

4. instruments ammeter, voltmeter, metre bridge, potentiometer, etc

Measuring
connected in series and voltmeter in parallel
towards the positive terminal of the battery.
ith the load with positive
endsAmmetof erbothis
CIRCuIT DIAGRAM
Battery Plug key Rh
HH Rheostat

Fig. 9 Assembing the components

for measurement of resistance by 0hm's la

PROCEDURE
1. Draw the circuit diagram required for the given activity and arrange the components
accordingly on the work table as shown in Fig. 9.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with a piece of sand paper.
3. Connect the battery, ammeter A, resistance R, rheostat Rh and plug key Kall in series and
voltmeter V
in parallel with resistor R. See that the positive ends of ammeter and voltmeter
are connected towards the positive terminal of the battery.
4. Insert the plug in the key K. See that the ammeter and voltmeter show deflections on the
right hand (positive) side. Adjust the rheostat so that the deflections are within scale.
5. The deflections in ammeter and voltmeter verify the continuity of the assembled circuit.
CONCLUSION
The components of the given electrical circuit have been correctly assembled.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Before making the connections, clearn the ends of the connecting wires with a piece of sand paper
2. Make neat and tight connections.
3. The ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter in parallel with the resistot.
positive
4. The positive ends of both ammeter and voltmeter should be connected to the
terminal of the battery.
 LAB

ACTIVIT Y
A6
AIM circuit comprising at least a battery.
the diagram of given open Mark the components that are nat
To draw ammeter and voltmeter.
resistor/rheostat, key, circuit diagram.
circuit and
proper order and correct the
connected in
key, resistor, rheostat
REQUIRED
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL battery, plug ammeter,
comprising at least a
A given open circuit wires and a piece of sand
paper.
voltmeter ; and connecting

THEORY
functional or open type.
Electrical circuits can be either circuit is functional only if all the
components a
electrical
Functional electrical circuit. An that all circuit components/devices are in workine
assuming
connected in proper order, key, all components satisfy the property of continuity.
condition and key is closed. With closed is a break in some part of the circuit. ThËs
open circuit means there
Open electrical circuit. An fault such as broken wire.
break may be either deliberate such as a key left in open position or a
aloose connection. This circuit shows discontinuity for one or
some burnt out components or
more components.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS
Some open circuit diagrams
are given in Fig. 12.
Students are advised to
A A
mark the components
which are not connected in ww
Rh
RH
proper order. Then draw
correct circuit diagrams K E
and assemble the circuit (b)
(a
accordingly by connecting
components in proper
order in each case.

K
A Rh

Rh

(c) (d)

Fig. 12 Some open circuits.

108
 Section A: ACTIVITIES
PROCEDURE

1 Draw the givern circuit

diagram (see Fig. 12(b)] in your notebook.
In the above diagram, mark the
components which have not been connected in proper otd
3 Make a list of all components in the observation table
and mark a () in appropriate couu
against each component.
A Now draw the correct circuit diagram.
5. Assermble and connect the electrical components in accordance with the
corrected circuit
diagram.
6. Insert a plug in the key and note the deflections in ammeter and voltmeter. Deflections in
these meters towards right hand side verify that the corrected circuit is functional.
OBSERVATIONS

Table A10: For checking order of connections of circuit components.

Mark a () in appropriate column

S.No. Circuit component Correct connection Incorrect connection

1. Battery
2. Resistor

3. Rheostat
4. Key
5 Ammeter

6 Voltmeter

For example, in given circuit diagram of Fig. 12(b), voltmeter has beern wrongly connected. To
measure resistance R, it must be connected in parallel with R. Now students should draw the
correct circuit diagram.
RESULT
The circuit assembled by connecting components in proper order is functionally correct as
verified by passing current through it.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Before making the connections, ends of the connecting wires must be cleaned properly with
a piece of sand paper.
voltmeter in parallel
2. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and the
with it.
to the positive
3. The positive terminals of ammeter and voltmeter should be connected
terminal of the battery.
and the other variable
t Rheostat should be connected in the circuit using its one end terminal
terminal.
only at the time of
D. The plug key should be kept open throughout. It should be closed
checking the continuity of the circuit.

109
 ACT IVIT Y B4
AIM
ahserve refraction and lateral
glass slab. deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a
L4PPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
rotangular glass slab (preterably of larger size), a
cello-tapedrawing pins, drawing board, white paper sheet,
alpins, protractor, ruler, sharp pencil and eraser.
THEORY

Eieure 5shows the path ABCD of a ray suffering

PORS. It is seen that refraction through a rectangular glass slab
Angle of incidence i= Angle of
emergence e
A

Air
B (i-n) Glass

Fig. 5 Refraction through a glass slab.

Thus the emergent ray CD is parallel to the incident ray AB But the emergent ray gets laterally
displaced with respect to the incident ray. The perpendicular distance between the incident and
emergent rays, when liglht is incident obliquely on arefracting slab with parallel faces,is called laterial shift
or lateral displacement.
It is given by
t cOS i
d= -sin(i-r) =t sini 1 (u-sin?
COS r

Clearly, d max
=t sin 90°= t
ne lateral shift produced by aglass slab increases with
() the increase in thickness t of glass slab,
of incidence i, and
(1) the increase in the value of angle
of the glass slab.
(") the increase in refractive index u

189
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

RAY DIAGRAMS
Ai N, A

i-40
/= 40° 40e
B,
B,

R D

(b) (c)

60

(d) e)

Fig. 6Lateral displacements for different i and t.

PROCEDURE
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of cello-tape or drawing pins.
2. Place the glass slab breadthwise on the white sheet [Fig. 6(a)]. Mark its boundary PQRS with a
sharp pencil.
3. Remove the glass slab. Take a point B, on face AB Draw normal B, N, on PQ. With the help of a
protractor, draw an incident ray A, B, making an angle of incidence of 40° with the normal B,N
4. Again, place the glass slab within its boundary PQRS. Fix two alpins P, and P, verticaly on
the incident ray A, B,, about 8 to 10 cm apart.
5. Looking into the slab from the opposite face SP, position the eve in suchaway that the tero
pins P, and P, appear to be one behind the other. Now fix pins P. and P. vertically in
with pins P and P, as viewed through the slab.
6. Remove the alpins and encircle the pin-pricks. Remove the slab and complete the patn
ray of light A, B, C,D. Draw perperndicular C, E, on A, B, produced and measure thelength
of C, E. This gives a measure of lateral displacement d.
7. Place the glass slab lengthwise as shown in Fig. 6(b). Repeat the experiment againforthe same
angle of incidence of 40°. Measure the lateral displacement.
the
8. Place the glass slab thicknesswise as shown in Fig. 6(c). Repeat the experiment againfor
eame angle of incidence of 40°. Measure the lateral
displacement. twit
By placing the glass slab lengthwise as shown in Figs. 6(d) arnd (e), repeat the experiment
9. for angles of incidence of 50 and 60°. Measure the lateral displacement in each case.

190
 Section B: ACTIVITIES
Measure the length,
10. breadth and thickness of the glass slab using
observations in atabular form a ruler. Record all your
O8SERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Least COunt of the protractor =
degrees
Least
cOunt of the ruler mm =
cm ; Length of the glass slab, t, =
Breadthn of the glass slab, Cm :
Cm

Thickness of the glass slab, t Cm

Variation of lateral displacement with angle of
TableB3: incidence i and thickness t of glass slab
Thickr.ess of glass Angle of incidence Angle of
siab traversed Lateral
S
emergence Difference i~e d
NO.
(cm i(degrees) e (degrees) (degrees) displacement Ratio
t
d (cm)
40°
1. d,
40° :
d, t

3
40°
d
50° ta
4
5 60° d,
d
RESULT
1. As differencei~eis small, so i =e. When light refracts through a glass slab, the
is parallel to the direction of incident ray. emergent ray
2. Within the limits of experimental error, from observations 1, 2 and 3 we see that the ratio
d|t =constant. The lateral displacement of the emergent ray is directly
thickness of the glass slab (for constant ). proportional to the
3. From observations 2, 4 and 5, we note the lateral displacement of the
emnergent ray increases
with the increase in the angle of incidernce i(for constant t).

PRECAUTIONS
1. The boundary of the glass slab should be marked with a sharp pencil.
2. Alpins should be fixed vertically and about 8 to 10 cm apart.
3. The feet of the alpins and not their heads should be adjusted in the same straight line.
. Just after removing an alpin, encircle the pin-prick with a sharp pencil.
5. The angle of inidence should lie between 30° and 60.
 LAB MANUAL PI

ACTIVITY

thin slit.
AIM
ightdueto a
of
To observe diftfaction
a glass
MATLRIAL REQUIRED
(electric
bulb/laser pencil), plate anda plece
APPARATUS AND
source of ight
cello-tape,
Two razor blades, a
black paper. the corners of small
bending of light aroundshadow. obstace
THEORY phenomenon of geometrical
Itisthe'spreadingintothe region of the order of Diffraction
eftect
1. Diffraction of light.
consequent
or apertures and its the size ofthe
obstacle/apertureis of
interference.of light
wavelength
of ligh
highly pronounced if Diffraction arises due
to the
theirsharp
waves from
single slit. blades with edges held parala
2. Diffraction due to a same wavefront.Two razor fine single slit. The diffraction
different parts of the other (separation ) form a surrounded on both sides by patiem
to, quite close
to each central bright band, bright bands (with laser pendl)
oloured
consists of a
due to a single slit and alternate dark and
bulb)
bands (with electric
decreasing intensity.

DIAGRAM

-Glassplate

-Black paper

one glass plate and a piece of black paper.

Fig. 8 Afine slit made by using two razor blades,

PROCEDURE

Tomake afine slit using razor blades

cello-tape. Usinga razor blade, au
1. Take a glass plate and fix a black paper on its top with a
out anarrow slit in the central part of the black paper.
2. With the help of cello-tape, fix the two razor blades. With their sharp edges paralel
formedin
narrow slit is
quite close to each other over the slit cut in the black paper. Thus a
between the edges of the two razor blades.
To observe diffraction pattern due to single slit behindtheslit
3. Hold a clear electric bulb with straight filament at a distance of about 4 m through
between the sharp edges of the razor blades. Switch on the bulb, observe the lamp
bothsidesby
the slit. Adiffraction pattern is seen with a central bright band, surrounded on
coloured bands.

194
 Section B: ACTIVITIES
4. Place the slit about 0.5 m from the wall and
theelectric bulb at a distance of about 15 -20 cm
behind the slit. Observe the light falling on the wall. Again a
seen on the wave. coloured diffraction pattern is
5. Repeat steps 2 and 3 using a laser pencil instead of electric bulb. A
on the wall consisting a central bright band and alternate dark diffraction pattern is seen
and bright bands of
decreasing intensity.
CONCLUSION
Light waves incident on a fine aperture bend around its corners and show the phenomenon of
diffraction.
PRECAUTIONS

1. The edges of the two blades should be held parallel and quite close to each other.
2. The electric bulb should be held at a distance more than 2 m form the slit.
AIM
ACT IVIT Y
B6(a)
To study the nature and size of the image formed by a convex lens on a screen by
using a candle and screen (for different distances of the candle from the lens).

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens of small focal length, a candle, a cardboard
screen/ground glass screen, metre scale and a match box.

195
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

THEORY
The
objectposition,
nature and size of image formed by a convex lens depends on the
with respect to the lens. Following ray diagrams show the various
possibleposcases.
ition of th.
Object
at o

2F B 2F
B B 2F
A

(a) Object at infinity. (b) Object beyond 2F.

B
B'
2 2F
2F B
2F B F

(c) Object at 2F. (d) Object between F and 2F.

B
2F
2F
2F B' F B 2F

To infinity
(e) Object at F. () Object between F and optical centre.
Fig. 9 The position, nature and size of the image A'B'
formed by a convex lens for different positions of object AB.
WORKING DIAGRAMS
Screen L

-Image Image
F
2F 2 2

Object
Object
(a)
(b)
Fia, 10 Real images of a lighted carndle for a
convex lens : (a) u <vand (b) u> v.
PROCEDURE
1. Determine the rough focal lerngth of the convex lens by obtaining a sharp image ofthe
Sun/distant object on a plain walland measuring the distance between the lens and the
with a metre scale.
2. Mount the convex lens Lin the clamp of the central upright and make its plane verticalso
that its principal axis becomes parallel to the length of the optical
bench.
196
 Section B: ACTIVITIES

Mark points F and 2F with a chalk piece on the optical bench on both sides of the lens, at
distances equal to rough focal and twice the rough focal length from the lens L, respectively.
4. Mount the lighted candle in the clamp of the left upright so that the tip of the flame
the principal axis of the convex lens. In this position. the height of the tip of lies On
the flame
becomes equal to the height of the optical centre of the lens.
5. Holdthe screen vertically in the right upright so that its centre lies at
the same height as that
of the opticalcentre of the lens.
6. Place the candle upright far away (*2 m) from the lens. Shift
lens till a sharp image of the candle's flame is obtained on the screen slowly towards the
the candle and the screen uprights from the lens. The the screen. Note the distances ot
screen will be nearly at the focus of the
convex lens. The image be real, inverted and very
small in size.
7. Shift the candle towards the lens to a position little
the screen slowly away from the lens tilla sharp image beyond 2F on the optical bench. Move
is
positions of the candle and screen uprights. The image will be obtained on the screen. Note the
real, inverted and smaller in size.
8. Repeat the experiment by placing the candle at 2 F and adjust the
which willbe almost at the same distance from the lens as screen to get a sharp image
the candle. The image willbe real,
inverted and of same size as that of candle's flame.
9. Place the candle between 2 F and F and obtain the image as
will be real, inverted and magnified. before. It will lie beyond 2 F and
10. Place the candle at the focus F of the lens. Only a diffused image is
infinity. obtained, being formed at
11. Place the candle between the focus F and
the lens L It will be seen that the image cannot
obtained on the screen, being virtual and on the same side as the be
object.
OBSERVATIONS
Rough focal length of the convex lens, f = Cm.
Position of 2 Ffrom the lens =2 f= Cm

Table B9 : Nature and position of image formed by a convex lens

Position of the candle flame Position of the image
S. Nature of the image
Side Distance Position Side
No. of the
Distance Position
from the relative to of the from the relative to Real or Erect or Diminished or
lens lens the lens lens lens the lens virtual inverted magnified
1 Left Several At o Right Cm At F Real Inverted
metres
Diminished
2. Left Cm
Beyond 2F Right Cm Between Real Inverted Diminished
F and 2F
3. Left
Cm At 2F Right At 2F Real Inverted
Cm
Same size as of
4 the object
Left Cm Between Right Cm Beyond 2F Real Inverted Magnified
5 Fand 2F
Left Cm At F Right Several At o Real Inverted Highly magni
6. Left metres fied and blurred
Cm WithinF Left Not Between Virtual | Erect Magnified
measurable o and 2F
for virtual
image

197
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

CONCLUSIONS
1. As the object moves from infinity towards the focus of the lens, the size of the image
increases and the image moves away from the focus. In all these positions the image is real
and inverted and is formed on the other side of the lens.
2. When the object is at the focus, the image is real, inverted and blurred being highly
magnified.
3. When the object is at a distance less than the focal length, the image is virtual, erect and
magnified. It is formed on the same side as the object.
PRECAUTIONS
1. The experiment must be performed at a shaded place free from the air droughts.
2. The candle flame should be as high as the optical centre of the lens.
3. The principal axis of the lens should be horizontal and parallel to the optical bench.
4. The uprights holding thelens, screen and candle should be rigid and mounted vertically.
5. The aperture of the lens must be small for getting a distinct image.
6. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the image formed on the screen.
 ACTVIT Y
B6(6)
AIM

To study the nature and size of the imageformed by a concave mirror using a candle
and a screen (for different distances of the candle from the mirror).

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

An optical bench with three uprights, a concave mirror (f 25 cm), a candle, a match box, a
screen and a metre scale.

198
 Section B: ACTIVITIES
/THEORY
The position, nature and size of the image formed by a concave mirror depends on the position of
the object relative to the mirror. Following ray
diagrams show the various possible cases.

M
M

B D
B
P

A
M M'

(a)
(b)
M M
A

B F
B'
CB' P

A'
A'
(c) M (d)
A
M M

A
D
B p
P
F B B
Toinfinity
M
(e) () Virtual image cannot be
obtained on a screen

Fig. 11 The position, nature and size of the image A'B' formed by a concave mirror for different positions of object AB.

WORKING DIAGRAMS
M

P C

M M'
2f -2f
()
(a)

mirOr (a) u>V; and (b) u<v.

Fig. 12 Real images of a lighted candle formed by a concave
199
 LAB MANUAL PHYSICS-XII

PROCEDURE
1. Find the concave mirror by getting an
sharp
rough focal length of the given
or a tree on a plain wall and
image of a distant object like a building inverthteend, clear ana
the distance between the mirror and the wall.
2. Hold the mirror with its face vertical in a clamp
concave
mounted on an
upright
me
so
asuing
principal axis is horizontal. With a piece of chalk, mark the approximate positions of that i
Jenghfocusand
and centre of curvature Con the optical bench, at distances equal to rough focal
twice the rough focal length, respectively.
3. Mount the sCreen on another upright and place it near the focus Fso that the
the screen lies just below the principal axis of the mirror. Look
mirror
object, say a building or a tree, as formed by the concave the
for
on the
the
screen of aimageupper
edge of
It wil distant
that asharp image of the distant object is obtained when screenis near the be seen focus F.Noe
Whether the image is erect or inverted, diminished or enlarged.
4. Hold alighted candle on an upright sothat its flame lies just above the
mirror. Place the upright beyond the centre of curvature C. Slowly move the Screen
principal
axis of the
the candle till a sharp image is formed on the screen. Note the position of candle. andtowards
on the optical bench. Observe the nature and size of the image. scree
5. Repeatstep 4 when the candle is kept (i) at C, (ii) between Cand F(i) at F, and ()
between F and the mirror. It will be seen that when the object is around C, the sCreen ha
finally
also to be adjusted around Cto get the sharpest image. When the object lies between Cand
F, the screen has to be placed beyond Ctoget the best image. When the object is at E.he
screen has to be taken quite away from the mirror to obtain a reasonably well-definei
image. When the object lies between F and pole P, an erect and magnified image is formed
behind the mirror which cannot be taken on the screen.
6. Record all your observations in a tabular form.
OBSERVATIONS
Rough focal length of the concave mirror, f= Cm

Approximate radius of curvature of the concave mirror, R=2 f= Cm

Table B10:Nature and position of image formed by a concave miror

Position of the candle flame Position of the image Nature of the image
Position Position with Diminished or
S.No. Distance from relative
Distance from the Real or Erect or
mirror respect to the magniied
the miror to the mirror virtual inverted
miror
1 Several metres At infinity Cm At F Real Inverted Diminished

2 Cm Beyond C Cm Between F Real Inverted Diminished

and C
At C Same size as
3 Cm Cm AroundC Real Inverted
of the object
4 Cm
Between F Cm
Beyond C Real InvertedMagnified
and C
5 cm At F Several metres At infinity Real InvertedHighly
magnified
andblurred

CIm
Within F Not measurable Between o Virtual Erect
Magnified
6.
for virtual image and 2F

200