Assignments Questions (1) Complete
Assignments Questions (1) Complete
1. What are the basic components of Data communication. What are the characteristics
of Data Communication System
Data communication involves a combination of hardware and software components that work
together to enable the transmission and reception of data between devices or systems. The key
components of data communication include:
1. **Sender or Transmitter**:
The sender is the device or system that initiates the data communication process by encoding the
data into a suitable format for transmission. It converts the original information (message) into a
format that can be transmitted over the communication channel.
2. **Receiver**:
The receiver is the device or system that receives the transmitted data, decodes it back into its
original form, and makes it usable for the intended recipient. The receiver's task is to interpret the
received signals and extract the meaningful information.
3. **Message**:
The message is the data or information that needs to be communicated. It can be in various
formats, such as text, images, audio, video, or a combination of these.
4. **Transmission Medium**:
The transmission medium is the physical path through which the data travels from the sender to
the receiver. It can be wired (e.g., copper cables, fiber optics) or wireless (e.g., radio waves,
microwaves). The choice of medium affects factors like speed, distance, and susceptibility to
interference.
5. **Protocol**:
Protocols are a set of rules and conventions that govern how data is transmitted and received.
They define the format of the data, error-checking mechanisms, flow control, synchronization,
addressing, and other aspects of communication.
7. **Channel**:
The channel is the pathway through which the encoded data travels from the sender to the
receiver. It can refer to a physical medium, such as a cable or wireless airwaves, as well as logical
channels within a network.
9. **Multiplexing**:
Multiplexing is the technique of combining multiple signals or data streams into a single channel
for transmission. It optimizes the efficient use of available resources, enabling multiple
communications to occur simultaneously.
1. **Message:** The information being transmitted is called the message. It can be in various
formats such as text, numbers, images, audio, or video.
2. **Sender and Receiver:** Data communication involves at least one sender who initiates the
transmission and one receiver who receives the transmitted data. In some cases, there may be
multiple senders and receivers.
3. **Transmission Medium:** The medium through which data is transmitted can be wired (e.g.,
copper cables, fiber optics) or wireless (e.g., radio waves, microwaves, infrared). The choice of
medium affects factors like speed, distance, and susceptibility to interference.
4. **Protocol:** Protocols are rules and conventions that govern how data is transmitted and
received. They define the format of the data, error-checking mechanisms, flow control, and other
aspects of communication.
5. **Data Rate (Bandwidth):** Data rate refers to the speed at which data is transmitted, usually
measured in bits per second (bps) or higher units like kilobits per second (Kbps) or megabits per
second (Mbps).
6. **Synchronization: ** Synchronization ensures that the sender and receiver are in harmony
during data transmission. Timing mechanisms are used to ensure proper alignment of data bits.
7. **Error Detection and Correction:** Communication channels can introduce errors in the
transmitted data due to noise and other factors. Error detection and correction techniques, such as
checksums and parity bits, help ensure data integrity.
9. **Flow Control:** Flow control mechanisms manage the pace of data transmission to avoid
overwhelming the receiver. This is crucial when data rates differ between sender and receiver.
10. **Multiplexing:** Multiplexing allows multiple signals or data streams to share the same
communication channel, optimizing the efficient use of available resources.
12. **Security and Privacy:** Data communication may involve sensitive information, and ensuring
data security and privacy is critical. Encryption and authentication mechanisms are used to protect
data from unauthorized access.
3. Calculate the number of physical cables required for Mesh Topology if numbers of
nodes in network is: a)10 b) 15
In a mesh topology, every node is connected to every other node in the network, forming an
interconnected web. The formula to calculate the number of physical cables required in a mesh
topology is given by:
3. **Transport Layer:**
The Transport Layer is similar to the Transport layer in the OSI model. It ensures end-to-end
communication and data delivery reliability. The two main protocols at this layer are the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). TCP provides reliable,
connection-oriented communication with error recovery and flow control, while UDP offers
connectionless, faster data transmission.
4. **Application Layer:**
The Application Layer is analogous to the top three layers of the OSI model combined (Session,
Presentation, and Application layers). It provides application-specific communication services and
interfaces for end-user applications to access network services. A wide range of protocols operate
at this layer, including HTTP (for web browsing), FTP (for file transfer), SMTP (for email), DNS (for
domain name resolution), and more.
The TCP/IP model is widely used in internet communication and serves as the foundation for the
modern internet. While it has fewer layers compared to the OSI model, it efficiently encapsulates
the necessary functions for data transmission, networking, and application communication on the
global scale.
6. What are the different types of Networks? Explain any two.
There are various types of networks, each designed to serve specific purposes and accommodate
different scales of communication. Here are some common types of networks:
1. **Simplex Communication**:
Simplex communication is a unidirectional flow of data, where information can only travel in one
direction, from sender to receiver. In this mode, one device is solely responsible for transmitting
data, while the other device can only receive. There is no feedback or acknowledgment from the
receiving end.
2. **Half-Duplex Communication**:
Half-duplex communication allows data to flow in both directions, but not simultaneously.
Devices can alternate between transmitting and receiving, but they cannot do both at the same
time. While one device sends, the other listens, and vice versa.
3. **Full-Duplex Communication**:
Full-duplex communication enables simultaneous two-way data flow, allowing devices to both
send and receive data simultaneously. This mode requires separate channels for transmitting and
receiving to avoid collisions.
In summary:
- **Simplex** communication allows data to flow in one direction only (sender to receiver) without
feedback.
- **Half-duplex** communication permits data flow in both directions, but not simultaneously.
Devices alternate between transmitting and receiving.
- **Full-duplex** communication enables simultaneous two-way data flow, requiring separate
channels for sending and receiving.
The choice of data flow direction depends on the specific communication needs and the
capabilities of the devices involved. Simplex is useful for scenarios where only one-way
communication is required, while half-duplex and full-duplex modes facilitate interactive and real-
time communication.
8. What is Protocol? Explain the elements of protocol.
**Protocol:**
A protocol in the context of communication refers to a set of rules and conventions that govern
how data is exchanged between devices or systems. It defines the format, timing, sequencing, and
error control of messages during communication. Protocols ensure that communicating entities
understand each other and can effectively exchange information.
**Elements of Protocol:**
1. **Syntax:**
- **Definition:** Syntax refers to the structure or format of the data exchanged between devices.
- **Role:** It defines the order and arrangement of bits within a message. The syntax ensures
that both the sender and receiver understand how to interpret the data.
2. **Semantics:**
- **Definition:** Semantics deals with the meaning of the data exchanged in a communication
process.
- **Role:** It ensures that the sender and receiver attribute the same meaning to the exchanged
information. Semantics defines the interpretation of the bits, allowing meaningful communication.
3. **Timing:**
- **Definition:** Timing specifies when data should be sent and how long it should be held.
- **Role:** It ensures that communication is synchronized between sender and receiver. Proper
timing is crucial for the accurate reception and interpretation of messages.
4. **Error Control:**
- **Definition:** Error control mechanisms identify and manage errors that may occur during
data transmission.
- **Role:** Error control ensures the integrity and reliability of the communication. It includes
error detection and correction techniques to handle data errors that may occur due to noise or
other issues.
5. **Flow Control:**
- **Definition:** Flow control manages the rate of data transmission between sender and
receiver to avoid congestion.
- **Role:** It prevents the sender from overwhelming the receiver with data. Flow control
mechanisms regulate the pace of data exchange, ensuring efficient communication.
7. **Session Management:**
- **Definition:** Session management involves establishing, maintaining, and terminating
connections between communicating entities.
- **Role:** It ensures that communication occurs within a defined session or period. Session
management includes procedures for opening, maintaining, and closing connections.
In summary, the elements of a protocol collectively define the rules and conventions necessary for
successful communication between devices or systems. Each element plays a crucial role in
ensuring accurate, meaningful, and reliable data exchange.
The OSI model's layered architecture allows for modular design, ease of troubleshooting, and the
ability to develop and replace individual layers independently. While the OSI model serves as a
reference framework, real-world networking protocols and technologies often don't strictly adhere
to its layers, and variations exist, such as the TCP/IP model commonly used in internet
communication.
10. How does the data transfer take place in Layered tasks? Explain with flow chart and
example.
11. What is network topology? Explain the different network topologies.
Network topology refers to the arrangement of devices and connections in a computer network.
Different topologies define how data flows within a network and how devices are interconnected.
Here are some common types of network topologies:
1. **Bus Topology**:
In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a central cable (the "bus"). Data is transmitted in
both directions along the bus, and devices listen for the data intended for them. While it's simple
and cost-effective, the failure of the main cable can disrupt the entire network.
2. **Star Topology**:
In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub or switch. Data traffic is directed
through the hub, which allows for easy addition and removal of devices. If the hub fails, however,
the entire network may be affected.
3. **Ring Topology**:
In a ring topology, devices are connected in a circular chain. Each device is connected to exactly
two other devices, forming a closed loop. Data travels in one direction around the ring. While it's
simple, adding or removing devices can disrupt the entire network.
4. **Mesh Topology**:
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to every other device, forming a network of
interconnected links. It offers high redundancy and fault tolerance, but it can be complex and
expensive to implement, especially as the number of devices increases.
- **Fully Connected Mesh**: Every device is directly connected to every other device.
- **Partially Connected Mesh**: Only some devices are directly connected to others.
5. **Tree Topology**:
A tree topology combines characteristics of star and bus topologies. It has a central root node
that connects to various branch nodes, creating a hierarchical structure. It's efficient and scalable
but can be affected if the root node or connections fail.
6. **Hybrid Topology**:
A hybrid topology combines two or more different types of topologies. This allows for
customization to meet specific network requirements. It can be complex to design and manage due
to the combination of different structures.
Each topology has its advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of topology depends on
factors such as network size, reliability requirements, scalability, cost, and ease of maintenance.
Guided media, also known as wired media or bounded media, refers to the physical pathways
through which signals are transmitted in a communication network. These pathways provide a
controlled environment for signal propagation, offering reliability and reduced susceptibility to
external interference. Guided media typically involve the use of cables or wires and include the
following types:
2. **Coaxial Cable:**
Coaxial cables have a central conductor surrounded by insulation, a metallic shield, and an outer
insulating layer. They are often used for cable television (CATV), broadband internet, and other
high-frequency applications. Coaxial cables provide better shielding and higher bandwidth
compared to twisted pair cables.
Unguided media, also referred to as wireless media or unbounded media, involve the transmission
of signals through free space without the use of physical cables. These media rely on various forms
of electromagnetic waves for signal propagation, and they are more susceptible to external
interference. Unguided media offer flexibility and mobility and include the following types:
1. **Radio Waves:**
Radio waves are used for wireless communication, including radio broadcasts, Wi-Fi networks,
Bluetooth connections, and cellular communication. They have relatively low frequencies and can
travel long distances, making them suitable for various applications.
2. **Microwaves:**
Microwaves have higher frequencies than radio waves and are used in applications such as
satellite communication, point-to-point wireless links, and radar systems. They have a shorter
range compared to radio waves but offer higher data transmission rates.
Both guided and unguided media have their strengths and weaknesses, and the choice between
them depends on factors such as distance, data rate requirements, environmental conditions, and
the specific application's needs.
13. List several transmission media for networking. Explain any two media in brief.
A transmission medium, also known as a communication medium or channel, is the physical
pathway or medium through which signals travel to transmit data between devices or systems in a
communication network. It serves as the conduit for carrying electromagnetic signals, allowing data
to be transmitted from a sender to a receiver. Transmission mediums can be guided (wired) or
unguided (wireless), each with its own characteristics and applications.
- **Twisted Pair Cable:** Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together. It's
commonly used for telephone lines and Ethernet connections.
- **Coaxial Cable:** Has a central conductor surrounded by insulation, a metallic shield, and an
outer insulating layer. Used in cable television (CATV) and high-frequency applications.
- **Fiber Optic Cable:** Transmits data using light signals through glass or plastic fibers. Offers
high bandwidth, long distances, and immunity to electromagnetic interference.
- **Radio Waves:** Used for wireless communication, including radio broadcasts, Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, and cellular networks.
- **Microwaves:** Have higher frequencies than radio waves and are used in applications such as
satellite communication and point-to-point wireless links.
- **Infrared Waves:** Used for short-range communication between devices, such as remote
controls and infrared data transmission.
- **Visible Light Communication (VLC):** Uses visible light for communication, often utilizing LED
lights to transmit data.
The choice of transmission medium depends on factors such as the distance between devices, data
rate requirements, potential interference sources, and the specific application's needs. Wired
media are often preferred for high-reliability, high-bandwidth, and secure connections, while
wireless media provide mobility and flexibility, making them suitable for mobile devices and
applications requiring remote communication.
14. Compare the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models.
2. **Audio Signals:**
In audio processing, composite signals can be created by combining multiple audio frequencies.
For example, music is a composite signal composed of various frequencies from different musical
instruments and vocals. In stereophonic (stereo) audio, two separate audio channels (left and right)
are combined to create a more immersive listening experience.
4. **Wireless Communication:**
In wireless communication systems, composite signals can be formed by combining multiple
modulated carrier waves to carry various streams of data. For instance, in cellular communication,
multiple users' signals can be multiplexed together to form a composite signal for transmission.
5. **Signal Analysis:**
In signal processing and analysis, composite signals can be analyzed to extract information about
their component frequencies, amplitudes, and phases. Techniques such as Fourier analysis can help
break down a composite signal into its constituent frequencies.
Composite signals are prevalent in various technologies due to their ability to efficiently carry
multiple types of information within a single waveform. The process of combining component
signals allows for more streamlined transmission and reception, making composite signals an
essential concept in modern communication and technology.
2. What is Shannon capacity for Noisy Channel?
The Shannon Capacity, also known as the Shannon Channel Capacity, represents the maximum rate
at which information can be transmitted reliably over a noisy communication channel. It was
introduced by Claude Shannon, a pioneer in the field of information theory. The Shannon Capacity
is given by the Shannon-Hartley theorem, which provides a formula for calculating the theoretical
maximum data rate.
Key points:
2. **Signal Power (S):** The average power of the signal being transmitted.
3. **Noise Power (N):** The average power of the background noise in the channel.
4. **Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR):** The ratio \( \frac{S}{N} \), which represents the quality of the
communication channel.
The formula \( \log_2(1 + \frac{S}{N}) \) calculates the capacity in bits per second that can be
reliably transmitted over the channel.
In practical communication systems, achieving the Shannon Capacity is challenging due to various
factors such as channel impairments, interference, and hardware limitations. However, the
theorem provides a benchmark for evaluating the performance of communication systems and
helps guide the design of efficient and reliable communication channels.
3. What is Attenuation. What is Baud Rate.
Attenuation:
Attenuation refers to the reduction in signal strength or intensity as a signal travels over a
transmission medium. It is a common phenomenon in communication systems, particularly in
wired and wireless communication. Attenuation can occur due to various factors such as resistance,
distance, and the characteristics of the transmission medium.
In wired communication, such as in copper-based cables (e.g., twisted pair, coaxial cable),
attenuation is influenced by the resistance of the conductors. As a signal travels along the cable,
some of its energy is converted to heat due to the resistance of the conductors, leading to a
decrease in signal strength. The longer the transmission distance, the more pronounced the
attenuation becomes.
In wireless communication, free-space path loss contributes to attenuation. As a radio signal travels
through the air or other media, it encounters obstacles, absorbs energy, and undergoes scattering,
leading to a reduction in signal strength.
Attenuation is typically expressed in decibels (dB).
Baud Rate:
Baud rate, also known as symbol rate, is a measure of the number of symbols or signal changes
transmitted per second in a communication system.
1. **Continuous Representation:**
- Analog signals are continuous and can take any value within a given range. There are no discrete
steps or gaps between values. This continuous representation allows for an infinite number of
possible signal levels.
2. **Infinite Resolution:**
- Due to their continuous nature, analog signals theoretically have infinite resolution. This means
that, in principle, an analog signal can represent an infinite number of distinct values. However, in
practical applications, there are limitations imposed by factors such as noise and the precision of
measuring instruments.
3. **Infinite Amplitude:**
- Analog signals can have an infinite range of amplitudes. The amplitude represents the strength
or intensity of the signal and can vary continuously. Theoretically, there is no upper limit to the
amplitude of an analog signal.
4. **Real-world Representation:**
- Analog signals are often used to represent physical quantities in the real world, such as voltage,
temperature, pressure, or sound. The variations in these physical quantities are reflected in the
continuous variations of the analog signal.
5. **Affected by Noise:**
- Analog signals are susceptible to noise, interference, and distortion during transmission or
processing. Noise can introduce unwanted variations or errors in the signal, and mitigating noise is
a significant consideration in analog signal processing.
6. **Continuous Time:**
- Analog signals operate in continuous time, meaning they exist and vary continuously over time.
The values of the signal at any given point in time can be measured without any discrete intervals.
7. **Infinite Bandwidth:**
- Analog signals theoretically have infinite bandwidth since they can represent an infinite range of
frequencies. However, in practical applications, the bandwidth may be limited by factors such as
the physical characteristics of the transmission medium.
8. **Waveform Shape:**
- Analog signals are often represented by various waveform shapes, such as sine waves, square
waves, or triangular waves. The specific waveform depends on the nature of the signal and the
information it carries.
9. **Signal Degradation: **
- Analog signals may experience degradation as they travel over long distances or through various
components in a system. Factors like attenuation, distortion, and interference can affect the quality
of the analog signal.
Understanding these features is crucial in the analysis, design, and processing of analog signals in
various applications, including telecommunications, audio processing, and control systems.
5. A system sends a signal that can assume 8 different voltage levels. It sends 400 of these
signals per second. What are the baud and bit rates?
The baud rate and bit rate are related, but they are not always the same, especially in cases where
each symbol represents multiple bits (as in higher-order modulation schemes). The relationship
between baud rate ( B), bit rate (R), and modulation scheme is given by:
where:
R is the bit rate in bits per second (bps),
B is the baud rate in symbols per second (baud),
M is the number of symbols per baud (modulation order).
In this case, the signal can assume 8 different voltage levels, and it sends 400 signals per
second.
Given:
7. Explain the three factors on which achievable data rate limits are dependent.
The achievable data rate limits in a communication system are primarily dependent on
three fundamental factors: channel bandwidth, signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and the
modulation technique employed.
**Channel Bandwidth:**
SNR is a measure of the desired signal strength relative to the unwanted noise present in
the communication channel. It is typically expressed in decibels (dB) and represents the
ability of the signal to be distinguished from the background noise. A higher SNR indicates a
cleaner signal and allows for more accurate data transmission, enabling higher data rates.
**Modulation Technique:**
In summary, the achievable data rate limits in a communication system are fundamentally
governed by the interplay of channel bandwidth, SNR, and the chosen modulation
technique. Optimizing these factors allows for maximizing the data transmission capacity of
the communication system.
8. Draw Unipolar RZ, Polar NRZ, AMI, Split phase Manchester waveforms of line codes for data
stream: 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0.
9. Draw and explain ADM transmitter.
Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM) is a variation of delta modulation where the step size,
which represents the quantization level, is dynamically adjusted based on the characteristics
of the input signal. This adaptive adjustment helps in achieving better performance,
especially in scenarios where the input signal has varying amplitudes or dynamic ranges.
The transmitter of Adaptive Delta Modulation (ADM) consists of the following main components:
Summer: The summer adds the current sample of the analog input signal to the previous
predicted value, generating the current prediction error.
Quantizer: The quantizer compares the current prediction error to a set of reference levels
and generates a digital bit indicating whether the error is positive or negative.
Step Size Control Unit: The step size control unit dynamically adjusts the step size based on
the recent error history. A larger error indicates a need for a larger step size, while a
smaller error suggests a smaller step size.
Delay Unit: The delay unit stores the previous predicted value for use in the next iteration
of the ADM process.
1. The current sample of the analog input signal is input to the summer, along with the
previous predicted value.
2. The summer generates the current prediction error, which is the difference between the
current sample and the previous predicted value.
3. The quantizer compares the current prediction error to a set of reference levels and
generates a digital bit indicating whether the error is positive or negative.
4. The digital bit is transmitted to the receiver.
5. The step size control unit dynamically adjusts the step size based on the recent error
history.
6. The adjusted step size is used to generate the next predicted value, which is stored in the
delay unit.
7. The process repeats for the next sample of the analog input signal.
10. For the Bit sequence = 11010001. Draw the resulting waveform if the sequence is
transmitted using:
1. Unipolar RZ 2. Polar NRZ 3. AMI 4. Split Phase Manchester
11. Discuss the selection criteria of Line codes.
The selection of line codes in digital transmission is crucial to ensure reliable and efficient data
communication over communication channels. Different line codes have varying characteristics
that make them suitable for different scenarios. The choice of line code depends on several criteria,
including:
3. **DC Component:**
The presence of a DC component in a line code can lead to issues in signal transmission and
synchronization. Codes with a balanced distribution of positive and negative voltage levels are
preferred to minimize the DC component. Bipolar codes, such as Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI),
have no DC component.
4. **Synchronization:**
Synchronization is essential for proper data recovery at the receiver. Line codes that facilitate
clock recovery and bit synchronization are preferred. Codes with regular signal transitions, like
Manchester encoding, help the receiver maintain synchronization.
5. Euclidean distance
The appropriate line code is chosen by considering these criteria and evaluating how well a
particular code meets the requirements of the communication system in terms of data rate, noise
immunity, error detection, and other factors.
12. What is PCM Describe with the help of diagram.
PCM, or Pulse Code Modulation, is a digital representation technique used to convert analog
signals into digital format. It involves sampling the analog signal at regular intervals and quantizing
the sampled values to discrete levels. This process allows for accurate representation and
transmission of the original analog signal in digital form. Here's how PCM works:
14. What are the drawbacks of delta modulation? Clarify how to overcome the drawbacks of
delta modulation.
Delta modulation is a simple form of analog-to-digital modulation that samples and quantizes the
difference between consecutive samples of an analog signal. While it is a straightforward
technique, it has some drawbacks, and several methods have been proposed to overcome these
limitations:
1. **Granular Noise:**
- Delta modulation is susceptible to granular noise, especially in the presence of small signals or
slowly varying signals. Granular noise results from the quantization of small differences between
consecutive samples.
These techniques serve different purposes and are chosen based on factors such as bandwidth
requirements, signal quality, and the specific application's needs. Each technique has its
advantages and limitations, and the choice depends on the requirements of the communication
system.
- **Definition:**
- Frequency modulation (FM) is a modulation technique used in analog signal transmission. In FM,
the frequency of the carrier signal is varied in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the
modulating signal.
- As the amplitude of the modulating signal changes, the frequency of the carrier signal changes,
resulting in a frequency-modulated signal.
- **Key Characteristics:**
- FM is known for its resilience to amplitude variations and noise.
- It is commonly used in radio broadcasting, two-way radio communication, and audio signal
transmission.
- **Definition:**
- Phase modulation (PM) is a modulation technique in which the phase of the carrier signal is
varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
- When the amplitude of the modulating signal changes, the phase of the carrier signal is
modulated accordingly, producing a phase-modulated signal.
- **Key Characteristics:**
- PM is closely related to FM, and in many practical systems, the terms FM and PM are used
interchangeably.
- It is utilized in various communication systems, including satellite communication and certain
digital modulation schemes.
- **Key Characteristics:**
- AM is susceptible to noise and interference but is relatively straightforward to implement.
- It is historically used in broadcast radio, especially for long-distance transmission.
In summary, frequency modulation (FM) involves varying the frequency of the carrier signal, phase
modulation (PM) involves varying the phase, and amplitude modulation (AM) involves varying the
amplitude. Each modulation technique has its own set of characteristics and applications, and the
choice of modulation depends on the requirements of the communication system.
1. **Wavelengths (Colors):**
- In WDM, each signal is assigned a specific wavelength, often referred to as a "color." The term
"wavelength" is used because each color corresponds to a specific frequency of light in the
electromagnetic spectrum.
2. **Multiplexing:**
- WDM employs multiplexing to combine multiple signals onto a single optical fiber. The
multiplexing process can be either Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) or Coarse
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (CWDM), depending on the channel spacing.
4. **De-multiplexing:**
- At the receiving end, a de-multiplexer separates the combined signals back into their individual
wavelengths. This process allows each signal to be directed to its intended destination.
5. **Advantages of WDM:**
- **Increased Bandwidth:** WDM significantly increases the data-carrying capacity of optical
fibers by allowing multiple signals to be transmitted simultaneously.
- **Efficiency:** WDM enables efficient use of the available bandwidth, reducing the need for
laying additional fiber optic cables.
- **Scalability:** As bandwidth requirements grow, additional wavelengths can be added to the
network without significant infrastructure changes.
6. **Applications of WDM:**
- Wavelength Division Multiplexing is widely used in long-haul optical communication networks,
metropolitan area networks (MANs), and even in some local area networks (LANs).
- It is a key technology in supporting high-speed data transmission for telecommunications,
internet services, and other data-intensive applications.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing plays a crucial role in meeting the ever-increasing demand for
bandwidth in modern communication networks. Its ability to utilize multiple wavelengths on a
single fiber optic link enhances the efficiency and capacity of optical communication systems.
4. What is PN sequence.
A Pseudo-Random Noise (PN) sequence, also known as a pseudorandom binary sequence (PRBS),
is a sequence of binary values that appears random but is generated by a deterministic
algorithm. Unlike truly random sequences, which are generated by natural processes and are
inherently unpredictable, PN sequences are deterministic and repeat after a certain period.
These sequences have properties that make them valuable in various applications, including
communications, cryptography, and testing.
1. **Deterministic Generation:**
- A PN sequence is generated by a pseudorandom number generator (PRNG), which is a
mathematical algorithm. The sequence is entirely determined by the initial conditions of the
generator.
2. **Repeatability:**
- Despite appearing random, PN sequences are predictable and repeat after a certain period
known as the period of the sequence. The length of the period depends on the properties of
the PRNG.
3. **Balanced Properties:**
- PN sequences exhibit a balanced distribution of 0s and 1s, making them suitable for various
applications where a balanced and seemingly random sequence is needed.
**Applications of PN Sequences:**
2. **Cryptography:**
- PN sequences find applications in cryptography for generating keystreams used in stream
ciphers. The periodic and seemingly random properties of PN sequences contribute to the
security of cryptographic systems.
3. **Testing and Measurement:**
- In testing and measurement applications, PN sequences are employed for pseudorandom
testing. They help stimulate and analyze systems in a controlled and repeatable manner.
Overall, the deterministic yet seemingly random nature of PN sequences makes them
valuable in a range of technological applications, where controlled randomness, repeatability,
and specific correlation properties are beneficial.
**Bandwidth Comparison:**
- **DSB-AM and DSB-SC AM:**
- The bandwidth is twice that of the modulating signal.
- Bandwidth efficiency is moderate.
- **SSB-AM:**
- The bandwidth is equal to that of the modulating signal.
- Bandwidth efficiency is higher compared to DSB-AM.
- **VSB-AM:**
- The bandwidth is less than twice that of the modulating signal but more than SSB-AM.
- Bandwidth efficiency is higher than DSB-AM but not as high as SSB-AM.
**Comparison:**
- **Bandwidth Efficiency:**
- SSB-AM is the most bandwidth-efficient, followed by VSB-AM.
- DSB-AM and DSB-SC AM are less bandwidth-efficient.
- **Carrier Suppression:**
- DSB-AM transmits the carrier and both sidebands.
- DSB-SC AM suppresses the carrier but transmits both sidebands.
- SSB-AM and VSB-AM suppress one sideband and the carrier.
- **Applications:**
- DSB-AM and DSB-SC AM are used in applications where the carrier needs to be retained.
- SSB-AM and VSB-AM are used in applications where bandwidth efficiency is critical, such as in
certain forms of radio and television broadcasting.
The choice of the AM system depends on factors like bandwidth requirements, power efficiency,
and the characteristics of the communication channel. Each type of AM system has its advantages
and trade-offs, making them suitable for different applications.
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) is a digital modulation technique where the amplitude of a carrier
signal is varied to represent binary data. In ASK, the amplitude of the carrier is changed between
two discrete levels to denote binary 0 and 1.
**Principle of ASK:**
- The basic idea of ASK is to encode digital information by changing the amplitude of the carrier
signal.
- A carrier signal with a fixed frequency is used, and the amplitude is modified based on the digital
input.
**ASK Modulation:**
Let's consider a simple example of binary ASK modulation, where two levels of amplitude represent
binary 0 and 1:
**Advantages of ASK:**
- Simplicity in implementation.
- Easy to demodulate.
**Disadvantages of ASK:**
- Susceptible to noise and interference.
- Limited data rate compared to other modulation techniques.
ASK is commonly used in applications where simplicity is a priority, such as low-cost wireless
communication systems or short-range communication links. However, in situations where noise
resilience and higher data rates are critical, more advanced modulation techniques like Phase Shift
Keying (PSK) or Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) may be preferred.
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) is a digital modulation scheme where the phase of the carrier
signal is shifted to represent binary data. In BPSK, there are two possible phases for the carrier
signal: 0 degrees and 180 degrees. The phase is changed to one of these values to represent binary
0 or 1, respectively.
A BPSK generator typically consists of several key components to generate the modulated signal.
Here is an explanation of the basic elements of a BPSK generator:
1. **Carrier Oscillator:**
- The carrier oscillator generates the sinusoidal carrier signal at the desired frequency. For BPSK,
the carrier frequency is chosen based on system requirements.
3. **Phase Shifter:**
- The phase shifter is a crucial component in a BPSK generator. It modulates the phase of the
carrier signal based on the binary data. In BPSK, the phase is shifted between 0 degrees and 180
degrees.
4. **Multiplier (Modulator):**
- The multiplier combines the carrier signal and the phase-shifted signal. It multiplies the
instantaneous values of the carrier signal and the phase-shifted signal at each time instance.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is a digital modulation scheme where the carrier frequency is varied to
represent different digital symbols. In FSK, two or more discrete frequencies are used to represent
binary 0s and 1s. A simple FSK system consists of a transmitter and a receiver.
**FSK Transmitter:**
4. **Frequency Mixer:**
- The frequency mixer combines the carrier signal with the modulating signal, resulting in a signal
whose frequency shifts between f1 and f2 based on the binary input data.
5. **Antenna/Transmission Medium:**
- The modulated FSK signal is transmitted through the antenna or the transmission medium.
**FSK Receiver:**
1. **Received Signal:**
- The FSK signal is received by the antenna or the receiver.
2. **Frequency Demodulator:**
- The frequency demodulator detects the frequency of the received signal and determines
whether it corresponds to the mark frequency (f1) or the space frequency (f2).
3. **Decision Circuit:**
- The decision circuit interprets the detected frequencies and makes decisions regarding the
binary values based on the demodulated frequencies.
FSK is commonly used in various communication systems, including data modems, wireless
communication, and certain types of RFID systems. The choice of mark and space frequencies, as
well as the carrier frequency, depends on the specific requirements of the communication system.
2. **Unique Codes:**
- Each user in a CDMA system is assigned a unique spreading code. This code is used to modulate
the user's signal before transmission. The use of unique codes enables the receiver to distinguish
between different users, even if their signals overlap in the frequency domain.
3. **Simultaneous Transmission:**
- CDMA allows multiple users to transmit simultaneously in the same frequency band. Each user's
signal is distinguished by its unique spreading code, and all signals coexist within the same
frequency band without causing interference.
4. **Orthogonal Codes:**
- CDMA codes are designed to be orthogonal, meaning that the correlation between different
codes is minimal. This property allows multiple signals to be distinguished even if they share the
same frequency band.
5. **Soft Handoff:**
- CDMA systems support soft handoff, which allows a mobile device to communicate with
multiple base stations simultaneously. This enhances the system's reliability and provides seamless
connectivity during handovers between different cells.
7. **Interference Mitigation:**
- CDMA is resilient to interference because signals that use different spreading codes are treated
as separate entities. Interference from other users appears as background noise, and advanced
receiver techniques, such as rake receivers, are used to recover the original signal.
8. **CDMA Standards:**
- CDMA is a family of standards, and two major CDMA standards are CDMA2000 and WCDMA
(Wideband CDMA), used in 3G cellular networks.
CDMA has played a significant role in the evolution of mobile communication technologies, offering
advantages such as increased capacity, improved call quality, and efficient use of the frequency
spectrum. It continues to be a fundamental technology in 3G and 4G wireless networks, with its
principles influencing the development of future communication systems.
1. **Signal Amplification:**
- **Need:** In some cases, the strength (amplitude) of an analog signal may need to be increased
to ensure proper signal quality throughout a transmission or processing system.
- **Example:** A weak audio signal from a microphone may require amplification before being
transmitted over a long-distance communication channel.
2. **Signal Attenuation:**
- **Need:** Analog signals can experience attenuation (reduction in amplitude) over long-
distance transmissions due to factors like resistance and cable characteristics.
- **Example:** In cable TV distribution, analog signals may undergo attenuation as they travel
through coaxial cables. Amplifiers are used to boost the signal strength periodically.
3. **Filtering and Bandwidth Limitation:**
- **Need:** Analog signals may need to be filtered or have their bandwidth limited to eliminate
unwanted noise or interference.
- **Example:** In audio processing, a low-pass filter may be applied to limit the bandwidth of an
analog signal, removing high-frequency noise.
5. **Frequency Translation:**
- **Need:** Shifting the frequency of an analog signal can be necessary for various reasons, such
as compatibility or avoiding interference.
- **Example:** In a satellite communication system, signals may be translated to a different
frequency band for transmission to the satellite and then translated back to the original frequency
at the receiving end.
6. **Waveform Generation:**
- **Need:** Analog-to-analog conversion is used in generating specific waveforms or signals for
testing or experimental purposes.
- **Example:** Generating sinusoidal waveforms for testing electronic circuits or simulating
specific signal patterns in laboratory experiments.
7. **Format Conversion:**
- **Need:** Incompatibility between different analog signal formats may require conversion.
- **Example:** Analog video signals in different formats (e.g., NTSC, PAL, SECAM) may need to be
converted to a common format for display on a monitor.
8. **Multiplexing:**
- **Need:** Combining multiple analog signals into a single composite signal for efficient
transmission or storage.
- **Example:** In telecommunications, multiple analog voice signals may be multiplexed onto a
single carrier for simultaneous transmission over the same communication channel.
11. What is Multiplexing and Explain different types of Multiplexing (Any two).
**Multiplexing:**
**Types of Multiplexing:**
- **Description:**
- TDM allocates specific time slots in a repeating sequence to each input signal. Signals take
turns using the entire channel for a short duration.
- TDM is commonly used in digital communication systems, where each input signal is sampled
and transmitted in its allocated time slot.
- **Example:**
- In digital telephony, multiple voice signals are digitized and transmitted in sequential time slots
using TDM.
Multiplexing is a key technology that optimizes the use of communication channels, whether they
are wired or wireless. The choice of multiplexing technique depends on the specific requirements
and characteristics of the communication system.
12. Explain in details TDM and statistical TDM. Mention advantages & disadvantages.
**Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):**
**Description of TDM:**
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a multiplexing technique where different signals or data
streams are allocated non-overlapping time slots within a fixed time frame. Each input signal is
given its dedicated time slot, and the signals are transmitted sequentially over the communication
channel. TDM is commonly used in digital communication systems.
**Advantages of TDM:**
1. **Fairness:** Each input signal is allocated a fixed and equal portion of the overall transmission
time, ensuring fairness in access to the communication channel.
2. **Synchronization:** TDM naturally provides synchronization between the transmitter and
receiver, making it easier to demultiplex the signals at the receiving end.
3. **Efficiency:** TDM is efficient for transmitting bursts of data from multiple sources, and it
maximizes the use of the communication channel.
**Disadvantages of TDM:**
1. **Fixed Allocation:** TDM assigns fixed time slots to each input signal, which can be inefficient if
some signals don't have data to transmit during their allocated time slot.
2. **Limited Flexibility:** Adding or removing signals in a TDM system may require adjustments to
the overall time frame, and the system may need to be synchronized.
3. **Delay Variation:** TDM introduces fixed delays between the transmission of different signals,
leading to delay variations for different data streams.
---
**Description of AM:**
Amplitude Modulation (AM) is a modulation technique used in analog communication systems. In
AM, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of
the modulating signal (baseband signal). The resulting modulated signal contains the original
carrier frequency and two sidebands, one above and one below the carrier frequency.
**Advantages of AM:**
1. Simplicity of implementation.
2. Compatibility with existing receivers.
3. Suitable for long-wave and medium-wave broadcasting.
**Disadvantages of AM:**
1. Susceptible to noise and interference.
2. Limited bandwidth efficiency.
---
**Description of FM:**
Frequency Modulation (FM) is another modulation technique used in analog communication
systems. In FM, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied in proportion to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal. Unlike AM, FM produces sidebands at an infinite number of
frequencies around the carrier.
**Advantages of FM:**
1. Resistance to amplitude variations and noise.
2. Better audio quality compared to AM.
3. Wider bandwidth allows for higher-fidelity transmission.
**Disadvantages of FM:**
1. Requires a larger bandwidth compared to AM.
2. More complex circuitry and implementation.
3. Limited coverage in long-distance broadcasting.
---
**Description of PM:**
Phase Modulation (PM) is a modulation technique where the phase of the carrier signal is varied in
proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal. PM and FM are closely
related, and in many cases, the terms are used interchangeably. In PM, the instantaneous
frequency is directly proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal.
**Advantages of PM:**
1. Similar resistance to noise as FM.
2. Suitable for certain types of communication systems and signal processing applications.
**Disadvantages of PM:**
1. Less common in practical applications compared to FM.
2. More complex to implement than AM.
In summary, AM, FM, and PM are modulation techniques that vary different properties of the
carrier signal in response to the modulating signal. AM varies amplitude, FM varies frequency, and
PM varies phase. Each modulation technique has its advantages and disadvantages, making them
suitable for different applications and scenarios.
14. What is spread spectrum technique? How are they classified? Draw and explain model
of spread spectrum in communication system.
**Spread Spectrum Technique:**
Spread Spectrum is a modulation technique that spreads the signal energy over a wide
frequency band, making it resistant to interference and intentional jamming. It is commonly
used in wireless communication systems for secure and reliable data transmission. Spread
Spectrum techniques include Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) and Frequency
Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS).
1. **Transmitter:**
- **Source Coder:** Converts the information signal into a digital form.
- **Spread Spectrum Modulator:** Modulates the digital signal using a spreading code
(DSSS) or by hopping between frequencies (FHSS).
- **RF (Radio Frequency) Section:** Converts the modulated signal to the desired carrier
frequency.
2. **Channel:**
- The channel represents the medium through which the spread spectrum signal is
transmitted. It could be air for wireless communication or a cable for wired communication.
3. **Receiver:**
- **RF Section:** Converts the received signal to an intermediate frequency.
- **Spread Spectrum Demodulator:** Demodulates the spread spectrum signal using the
spreading code (DSSS) or by following the hopping sequence (FHSS).
- **Source Decoder:** Decodes the received digital signal to obtain the original
information.
4. **Key Components:**
- **Spreading Code Generator:** Generates the spreading code used for modulation and
demodulation.
- **Synchronization Unit:** Ensures that the transmitter and receiver are synchronized in
time, frequency, or both.
- **Spread Spectrum Clock Generator:** Provides the clocking for spreading code
generation and synchronization.
Spread Spectrum techniques are widely used in applications where robustness against
interference, security, and reliability are critical, such as in military communication, wireless
LANs, and certain cellular communication systems.
**Description of ASK:**
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) is a digital modulation technique in which the amplitude of the carrier
signal is varied to represent binary data. The carrier signal alternates between two amplitudes
corresponding to the binary values 0 and 1.
**Waveform of ASK:**
The waveform of ASK consists of two levels representing the binary states. Let's consider a binary
'0' represented by a lower amplitude and a binary '1' represented by a higher amplitude.
**Description of FSK:**
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is a digital modulation technique in which the frequency of the carrier
signal is varied to represent binary data. The carrier signal alternates between two distinct
frequencies, each corresponding to a binary state.
**Waveform of FSK:**
The waveform of FSK consists of two frequency levels representing the binary states. Let's consider
a binary '0' represented by a lower frequency and a binary '1' represented by a higher frequency.
**Description of PSK:**
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is a digital modulation technique in which the phase of the carrier signal is
varied to represent binary data. The carrier signal alternates between two or more phase states,
each corresponding to a binary state.
**Waveform of PSK:**
The waveform of PSK consists of different phase levels representing the binary states. Let's
consider Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) with two phase states, where a binary '0' is represented
by one phase, and a binary '1' is represented by the opposite phase.
These waveforms represent the basic concepts of ASK, FSK, and PSK. The actual implementation
and characteristics depend on the specific modulation parameters and schemes used in practical
communication systems.
16. Explain ASK, FSK and PSK with suitable waveform.
Sure, let's delve into more details about Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK),
and Phase Shift Keying (PSK) along with their suitable waveforms.
**Description of ASK:**
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) is a digital modulation technique in which the amplitude of the carrier
signal is varied to represent binary data. The binary '1' and '0' are represented by two different
amplitudes of the carrier signal.
**Waveform of ASK:**
Consider a carrier signal with two different amplitudes for '1' and '0':
**Description of FSK:**
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) is a digital modulation technique where the frequency of the carrier
signal is varied to represent binary data. The binary '1' and '0' are represented by two different
frequencies of the carrier signal.
**Waveform of FSK:**
Consider a carrier signal with two different frequencies for '1' and '0':
**Description of PSK:**
Phase Shift Keying (PSK) is a digital modulation technique where the phase of the carrier signal is
varied to represent binary data. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) is a common form of PSK where
the carrier signal alternates between two phase states.
**Waveform of BPSK:**
Consider a carrier signal with two different phase states for '1' and '0':
These illustrations represent the fundamental concepts of ASK, FSK, and PSK. In practical
applications, variations like Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) and higher-order PSK are
used for more efficient use of the channel bandwidth.
2. **Burst Error:**
- **Definition:** A burst error involves the simultaneous alteration of multiple adjacent
bits within the data.
- **Cause:** Burst errors often occur due to factors like signal fading, interference, or
issues with the transmission medium that affect consecutive bits.
- **Detection and Correction:** Traditional error correction methods may struggle with
burst errors. Specialized codes like Reed-Solomon codes are effective in detecting and
correcting burst errors.
3. **Random Error:**
- **Definition:** Random errors affect individual, isolated bits in the transmitted data
without a specific pattern.
- **Cause:** Random errors are typically caused by background noise, thermal noise, or
other unpredictable factors.
- **Detection and Correction:** Error detection codes, such as cyclic redundancy
checks (CRC), are commonly used to identify random errors. However, correction of
random errors may not always be possible, and retransmission of the corrupted data may
be required.
5. **Content Error:**
- **Definition:** Content errors involve changes to the actual information or payload
within the data packet.
- **Cause:** Content errors can occur due to various reasons, including transmission
errors, data corruption, or malicious activities.
- **Detection and Correction:** Content errors are often detected using checksums,
cryptographic hashes, or more advanced integrity verification methods. Correction may
involve retransmission or the use of error-correcting codes.
CRC is a type of error-checking code used for error detection in data transmission. It involves
appending a checksum (a remainder of a polynomial division) to the data. The receiver performs
the same polynomial division and compares the result with the received checksum. If they match,
no error is detected; otherwise, an error is presumed.
There are different framing algorithms, and two common types are variable-length framing and
fixed-length framing.
In variable-length framing, the length of each frame can vary. The challenge is to accurately
identify the start and end of each frame. Common techniques for variable-length framing include:
- **Delimiter-Based Framing:**
- Delimiters (special characters or bit patterns) mark the beginning and end of each frame.
- Example: In HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control), a frame starts and ends with a specific bit
sequence (01111110).
- **Length Indicator:**
- A length indicator precedes each frame, indicating the number of data bytes following it.
- Example: In Ethernet, a 2-byte field indicates the frame length.
- **Header/Trailer-Based Framing:**
- A header at the beginning and/or a trailer at the end of each frame includes information about
the frame, such as its length.
- Example: Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) uses a header and trailer with length information.
In fixed-length framing, each frame has a predetermined, constant size. The advantage is that the
receiver can easily identify the boundaries of frames without using special markers. However, it
may lead to inefficient use of bandwidth if the data size varies. Common techniques for fixed-
length framing include:
- **Byte Count:**
- A fixed number of bytes make up each frame, and the receiver knows the size in advance.
- Example: Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) uses fixed-length cells.
- **Time-Based Framing:**
- Frames are transmitted at regular intervals, with each frame having a predefined time duration.
- Example: Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) allocates fixed time slots to each channel.
- **Bit Stuffing:**
- In bit-stuffing, extra bits are inserted into the data to maintain a consistent frame length.
- Example: High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) and Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) use bit stuffing
to ensure frame synchronization.
The choice between variable and fixed-length framing depends on the requirements of the
specific communication system and the characteristics of the data being transmitted.
Hamming weight is the number of non-zero bits in a binary string. It is often used to
measure the error rate of a data transmission system. The higher the Hamming weight of a
codeword, the more likely it is that the codeword contains errors.
Hamming weight of X = 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1:
To calculate the Hamming weight of a codeword, simply count the number of non-zero
bits. In the case of X = 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1, there are four non-zero bits, so the Hamming
weight is:
Hamming weight (X) = 4
Therefore, the Hamming weight of the codeword X = 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 is 4.
5. What is hamming distance and hamming weight. Find out hamming distance between
X and Y,
X=11110100 Y= 01011110
Hamming distance and Hamming weight are two important concepts in error-detecting and error-
correcting codes.
Hamming distance is the number of positions at which corresponding bits in two binary strings are
different. It is a measure of the minimum number of bit changes required to convert one binary
string to another.
Hamming weight is the number of non-zero bits in a binary string. It is a measure of the "density"
of 1s in a binary string.
To find the Hamming distance between two binary strings, count the number of positions at which
corresponding bits are different. For example, the Hamming distance between the binary strings
11010110 and 01101001 is 3.
To find the Hamming weight of a binary string, count the number of non-zero bits. For example, the
Hamming weight of the binary string 11010110 is 5.
Now, let's find the Hamming distance between the binary strings X = 11110100 and Y = 01011110:
X = 11110100
Y = 01011110
X XOR Y = 10101010
11110100 5
01011110 5
X XOR Y 4
6. With block diagram explain error detection and correction in block coding.
**Block Coding:**
Block coding is a method used in data communication and storage to detect and correct errors
that can occur during transmission or storage. It involves dividing data into fixed-size blocks and
adding additional bits, known as parity or redundancy bits, to each block. These extra bits are
used to detect and, in some cases, correct errors that may occur during data transmission or
storage.
1. **Message Division:**
- The original message is divided into fixed-size blocks. Let's say our message is a sequence of
bits: 1011010011.
4. **Transmission or Storage:**
- The encoded blocks are then sent over a communication channel or stored in a storage
medium.
2. **Parity Check:**
- The decoder calculates parity bits based on the received data bits.
3. **Error Detection:**
- The decoder checks whether the calculated parity bits match the received parity bits. If they
match, it indicates that the block is likely error-free. If they don't match, an error is detected in
that block.
Let's consider a specific example using a block coding scheme called Hamming Code. In Hamming
Code, additional parity bits are added to the data bits to detect and correct errors. Suppose you
want to transmit the 4-bit message "1101." Using Hamming Code (7, 4), the encoding would look
like this:
During transmission, if a bit error occurs, the decoder can use the parity bits to detect and correct
the error. The specifics of the correction process depend on the block coding scheme being used.
Block coding is valuable in ensuring data integrity in various applications, such as data
transmission over networks or storage on storage devices. Different coding schemes offer various
levels of error detection and correction capabilities, depending on the specific requirements of
the application.
7. A bit word 1011 is to be transmitted. Construct the even parity seven-bit hamming code for
the data.
**Redundancy** in the context of error detection and correction refers to the intentional addition
of extra bits or information to the original data for the purpose of identifying and correcting errors
that may occur during transmission or storage. The idea is to provide more information than strictly
necessary to represent the original data, allowing for the detection and, in some cases, correction
of errors that might occur in the communication process.
**Parity Bits:**
- In simple parity checking, an additional parity bit is added to the data, making the total number
of bits either even (even parity) or odd (odd parity).
- If the received data has the wrong parity, it indicates that an odd number of bits have changed,
and an error is detected.
**Checksums:**
- Checksums involve adding a sum or checksum value to the data, calculated based on the values
of the individual bits.
- The receiver recalculates the checksum and compares it with the received checksum. A
mismatch indicates the presence of errors.
**Hamming Code:**
- Hamming codes add redundant bits at specific positions to allow for the correction of single-bit
errors.
- The positions of the redundant bits are chosen in a way that the bits' values help identify and
correct the erroneous bit.
**Reed-Solomon Code:**
- Reed-Solomon codes are used in applications like CDs and DVDs.
- They add redundant symbols to the data, enabling the correction of both burst errors and
random errors.
1. **Stop-and-Wait ARQ:**
- In the simplest form of ARQ, known as Stop-and-Wait, the sender sends a frame and waits for an
acknowledgment (ACK) from the receiver.
- If the sender receives an ACK, it sends the next frame. If the ACK is not received within a timeout
period, the sender assumes that the frame was lost or corrupted and retransmits it.
- Suitable for low-error-rate channels.
2. **Go-Back-N ARQ:**
- In Go-Back-N ARQ, the sender can transmit multiple frames without waiting for individual
acknowledgments.
- The receiver sends cumulative acknowledgments, indicating the highest correctly received
frame. If a frame is lost or corrupted, all subsequent frames are discarded.
- The sender retransmits the discarded frames starting from the last acknowledged frame.
- Efficient for high-speed, reliable channels.
10. Explain with suitable example generation of Hamming codes for 7 bit codeword (Even Parity).
11. What is meant by parity check? Explain two-dimensional parity check method in detail.
Parity Check:
Parity check is a simple method used for error detection in data communication. The basic idea
involves adding an extra bit (parity bit) to a set of bits to make the total number of 1s either even
(even parity) or odd (odd parity). During transmission, the receiver checks whether the received
data has the correct parity. If the parity is incorrect, an error is detected.
The two-dimensional parity check method is an error detection technique used in data
communication and storage systems to detect errors in two-dimensional arrays of data. It
is an extension of the traditional parity check method, which checks for errors in one-
dimensional data streams. In the two-dimensional version, data is organized into a grid or
matrix, and additional parity bits are used to check the integrity of both rows and columns
of the matrix. This provides a more robust way of detecting errors, especially in systems
where data is arranged in a grid-like structure.
12. What is HDLC? Explain with the help of frame format. Describe all fields in detail.
High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) is a data link layer protocol that provides a reliable and error-
free data transmission service between two nodes over a synchronous or asynchronous serial link.
It is widely used in various communication systems, including point-to-point links, LANs, and WANs.
HDLC Frame Format:
An HDLC frame consists of six main fields:
1. Flag: An 8-bit flag field with a fixed pattern of 01111110 that marks the beginning and end
of the frame.
2. Address Field: An 8-bit or 16-bit field that identifies the destination and source stations.
3. Control Field: An 8-bit field that contains control information for the frame, such as frame
type, sequence number, and acknowledgment status.
4. Information Field: An optional field that carries the user data being transmitted. The length
of this field can vary depending on the application and the underlying data link layer
protocol.
5. FCS (Frame Check Sequence): A 16-bit field that contains a cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
used to detect errors in the transmitted data.
6. Flag: An additional 8-bit flag field with the same pattern as the first flag to mark the end of
the frame.
Detailed Description of Fields:
1. Flag: The flag field provides a synchronization mechanism for frame identification and
alignment. Its fixed pattern ensures that the receiver can easily identify the beginning and
end of a frame.
2. Address Field: The address field specifies the destination and source stations involved in
the communication. This information is crucial for routing the frame to the correct
recipient.
3. Control Field: The control field contains various control bits that provide essential
information for frame management and error handling. These bits include:
o Frame Type: Indicates the type of frame, such as I-frame (information frame), S-
frame (supervisory frame), or U-frame (unnumbered frame).
o Sequence Number: Used for frame sequencing and acknowledgment mechanisms.
o Acknowledgment Status: Indicates whether an acknowledgment has been received
for a previously transmitted frame.
4. Information Field: The information field carries the user data being transmitted. The length
of this field depends on the specific application and the underlying data link layer protocol.
5. FCS (Frame Check Sequence): The FCS field contains a CRC value calculated over the entire
frame, excluding the flags. The receiver recalculates the CRC and compares it to the
received CRC to detect any errors that may have occurred during transmission.
6. Flag: The second flag field serves as a redundant frame delimiter, ensuring that the receiver
can accurately identify the end of the frame.
In summary, the HDLC frame format provides a structured and efficient mechanism for reliable
data transmission over serial links. The combination of flags, address, control, information, FCS, and
additional flag fields ensures data integrity and facilitates error detection and correction.
1. **Encapsulation:**
- PPP encapsulates higher-layer network protocols, allowing them to be transmitted over a point-
to-point link.
2. **Error Detection:**
- PPP includes a Frame Check Sequence (FCS) for error detection. The FCS is a cyclic redundancy
check (CRC) value that helps ensure the integrity of transmitted frames.
3. **Multilink Support:**
- PPP supports the bundling of multiple physical links into a single logical link. This is known as
Multilink PPP (MLPPP) and is used to increase bandwidth and redundancy.
4. **Authentication:**
- PPP provides various authentication methods, including Password Authentication Protocol (PAP)
and Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP), to ensure secure connections.
1. Flag: A flag field that marks the beginning and end of the frame.
2. Address and Control Field: A field that contains protocol information, such as address
information and control flags.
3. Payload: The data to be transmitted, encapsulated as a network layer protocol packet.
1. Link Establishment: When two devices initiate a connection, they exchange control
messages to negotiate parameters, such as link speed and authentication protocols.
2. Link Termination: When the connection is no longer needed, one of the devices sends a
termination message, and the link is closed.
Applications of PPP:
Dial-up Connections: PPP is widely used for dial-up internet connections, providing access
to the internet through phone lines.
DSL Connections: DSL connections, which utilize phone lines to provide high-speed internet
access, also use PPP for data transmission.
Leased Lines: PPP is commonly employed over leased lines, providing dedicated and
reliable connections between two sites.
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs): PPP can be used to establish secure VPN connections,
allowing remote users to connect to a private network over the public internet.
14. If the 7-bit hamming codeword received by a receiver is 1 0 1 1 0 1 1. Assuming the even
parity state whether the received codeword is correct or wrong, locate the bit in error.
4. Client-Server Network:
Definition: A model where one central computer (the server) provides resources or
services to other computers (clients).
Example: A file server in an office network that stores and shares files with multiple
client computers.
5. Peer-to-Peer Network:
Definition: Each computer in the network has equal status, and they can share
resources directly with each other.
Example: A small home network where computers can share files and printers
without a dedicated server.
6. Virtual Private Network (VPN):
Definition: A secure private network that uses the public internet to connect remote sites
or users.
Example: An employee connecting to their company's network securely from a remote
location using a VPN.
These are just a few examples, and there are many other specialized types of networks and
network topologies used in different scenarios.
The choice of channel allocation scheme depends on factors such as network architecture,
communication requirements, and available resources. Different schemes offer varying levels of
efficiency, flexibility, and resilience to interference.
3. List the Layer in which 802.4 Token bus and 802.3 CSMA/CD works. What are the types of
CSMA.
The IEEE 802.4 Token Bus and 802.3 CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection) are network protocols that operate at different layers of the OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) model.
Types of CSMA:
1. Non-Persistent CSMA:
In non-persistent CSMA, a station waits for the channel to become idle before
transmitting. If the channel is busy, it waits for a random amount of time and then
checks again.
2. 1-Persistent CSMA:
In 1-persistent CSMA, if the channel is busy, the station continues to sense the
channel until it becomes idle. Once the channel is idle, the station transmits
immediately.
3. p-Persistent CSMA:
In p-persistent CSMA, the station senses the channel, and if it is busy, it waits for a
random amount of time before trying again. The probability of transmitting is
based on the value of 'p.' If p=1, it becomes 1-persistent CSMA.
These CSMA variations are strategies used by devices to share the communication medium, and
their effectiveness depends on the network characteristics and requirements. The CSMA/CD
protocol, in particular, was widely used in traditional Ethernet networks but has become less
common with the prevalence of full-duplex communication and switched Ethernet.
4. What are the different methods of controlled access protocol? What is channel allocation?
List the types of channel allocation.
Controlled access protocols are a category of network protocols that govern how stations access
the communication channel. These protocols are designed to control and coordinate access to the
channel to avoid collisions and ensure efficient data transmission. There are several methods of
controlled access protocols, and channel allocation is a key concept in this context.
1. Reservation-based Protocols:
Stations reserve the right to use the channel for a specified duration in advance.
Example: Reservation ALOHA, where stations request a reservation before
transmitting data.
2. Polling Protocols:
A central controller (master) polls individual stations, allowing them to transmit in
turn.
Example: Polling in a token ring network, where a token circulates, and only the
station holding the token can transmit.
3. Token Passing Protocols:
Stations take turns using a shared token, and only the station with the token can
transmit.
Example: IEEE 802.4 Token Bus, where a token circulates, and a station must
possess the token to send data.
Channel Allocation:
Channel allocation refers to the process of assigning communication channels to different users,
devices, or communication links in a network. It helps manage the use of available communication
resources efficiently. The three main types of channel allocation are:
These channel allocation techniques are essential for optimizing the use of available
communication resources and managing interference in different types of networks.
These three categories provide different approaches to managing access to the communication
channel, each with its advantages and disadvantages depending on
Fast Ethernet, standardized as IEEE 802.3u, is an enhancement of the original Ethernet standard. It
supports data transfer rates of 100 megabits per second (Mbps), which is ten times faster than the
original Ethernet speed of 10 Mbps. The most common physical medium for Fast Ethernet is
twisted pair cables, and it is backward compatible with traditional Ethernet, allowing devices with
different speeds to coexist on the same network.
Fast Ethernet was introduced to address the increasing demand for higher bandwidth in local area
networks (LANs). It offers improved performance for applications such as file transfers, video
streaming, and multimedia communication. Fast Ethernet operates in full-duplex mode, allowing
devices to transmit and receive simultaneously, further enhancing its efficiency.
Gigabit Ethernet:
To achieve gigabit speeds, Gigabit Ethernet often requires higher-quality cabling, such as Category
5e (Cat5e), Category 6 (Cat6), or Category 6a (Cat6a). It operates in full-duplex mode and
incorporates features like auto-negotiation, allowing devices to automatically select the highest
common speed during initial communication.
Both Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet have played crucial roles in meeting the evolving needs of
network environments. While Fast Ethernet provided a significant speed boost over traditional
Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet further pushed the boundaries, enabling faster and more reliable
communication in modern networks. The choice between Fast and Gigabit Ethernet depends on
the specific performance requirements of the network and the types of applications it supports.
Gigabit Ethernet, with its higher throughput, is particularly well-suited for scenarios where large
data transfers and low latency are critical.
CDMA Structure:
In summary, CDMA is a multiple access technique that allows multiple users to share the same
frequency band by assigning unique codes to each user. This enables efficient and secure
communication in wireless networks, making CDMA a key technology in modern cellular systems.
Here is an explanation of the key fields in the traditional Ethernet frame format:
1. **Preamble (7 bytes):**
- The preamble is a sequence of alternating 1s and 0s used for synchronization and signaling the
start of a frame.
- It helps receivers synchronize their clocks with the incoming data.
The traditional Ethernet frame format is well-established and has been widely used in Ethernet
networks. It provides a structured way to transmit and receive data reliably within a local area
network (LAN). However, it's important to note that with advancements in technology and the
evolution of Ethernet standards, variations of the frame format have been introduced, especially in
higher-speed networks.
1. **Preamble (7 bytes):**
- The preamble consists of a 56-bit (7-byte) pattern of alternating 1s and 0s.
- Its purpose is to help synchronize the clocks of the sending and receiving devices.
5. **Transmission:**
- Once the RTS/CTS exchange is complete, the sender transmits its data frame.
- The receiver acknowledges the successful reception of the data frame with an ACK frame.
6. **Collision Avoidance:**
- The use of RTS/CTS frames and the virtual carrier sense mechanism helps avoid collisions by
reducing the chances of two devices transmitting simultaneously.
4. **Exponential Backoff:**
- If a device detects a collision or experiences a failed transmission, it may initiate an exponential
backoff period before attempting to transmit again.
- This random backoff helps distribute retransmission attempts and further avoids collisions.
13. Discuss CSMA/CD random access technique. How is collision detection is achieved in this
technique?
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) is a random access protocol used
in Ethernet networks to manage access to a shared communication channel. Unlike CSMA/CA (used
in wireless networks), which relies on collision avoidance, CSMA/CD focuses on detecting and
managing collisions when they occur. While CSMA/CD was prevalent in traditional Ethernet
networks, it's important to note that it is not widely used in modern Ethernet networks, especially
those operating in full-duplex mode.
2. **Transmission:**
- The device begins transmitting its data frame.
4. **Jam Signal:**
- Upon detecting a collision, the device sends out a "jam" signal to alert other devices on the
network that a collision has occurred.
5. **Exponential Backoff:**
- After sending the jam signal, the devices involved in the collision initiate a random backoff
period during which they wait before attempting to retransmit.
- The random backoff helps prevent immediate retransmission attempts, reducing the chances of
another collision.
6. **Retransmission:**
- After the backoff period, the devices involved in the collision attempt to retransmit their data
frames.
- If the channel is clear, they can proceed with the retransmission.
1. **Continuous Listening:**
- Devices that are transmitting continuously listen to the channel.
- If they detect that the signal being transmitted does not match what they are sending (indicating
a collision), they stop transmitting and initiate collision recovery procedures.
2. **Jam Signal:**
- The device that detects the collision sends a jam signal, which is essentially a burst of noise that
serves as an alert to other devices about the collision.
3. **Collision Window:**
- The collision detection window is the time it takes for a device to recognize that a collision has
occurred after it starts transmitting.
- The collision detection window is limited by factors such as signal propagation time and the time
it takes for devices to recognize the collision.
4. **Exponential Backoff:**
- To avoid repeated collisions, devices involved in the collision enter a random backoff period.
- The random backoff introduces a level of randomness to the retransmission process, reducing
the likelihood of collisions repeating in subsequent transmission attempts.
15. Discuss pure and slotted ALOHA with transmission format. Comment on the efficiency of
each random technique.
**Pure ALOHA:**
**Transmission Format:**
1. When a station has data to transmit, it waits for the next available time slot.
2. At the beginning of the time slot, the station transmits its entire frame.
3. After transmission, the station waits for an acknowledgment (ACK).
4. If an ACK is received within a specified time window, the transmission is considered successful.
5. If no ACK is received or a collision is detected, the station waits for a random amount of time and
then retries the transmission.
**Efficiency:**
- Pure ALOHA has a higher probability of collisions, especially as the network load increases.
- The efficiency of Pure ALOHA is approximately 18.4%. This means that only about 18.4% of the
time slots are successfully utilized for data transmission, while the rest are wasted due to collisions
and idle slots.
**Slotted ALOHA:**
0**Transmission Format:**
1. Time is divided into discrete slots, and each slot corresponds to the time it takes to transmit one
frame.
2. Stations can only transmit at the beginning of a time slot.
3. If a station has data to transmit, it waits for the next time slot to start and transmits its frame.
4. After transmission, the station waits for an acknowledgment.
5. If an ACK is received, the transmission is successful. If not, the station waits for the next time slot
to retry.
**Efficiency:**
- Slotted ALOHA improves efficiency compared to Pure ALOHA by reducing the chances of
collisions.
- The efficiency of Slotted ALOHA is approximately 36.8%. This is double the efficiency of Pure
ALOHA.
- The improvement is due to the synchronization of time slots, which helps in reducing idle slots
and collisions.
- **Overview:**
- Reservation protocols are a type of controlled access protocol used in computer networks to
manage access to the communication channel.
- The basic idea is that stations must make a reservation before transmitting data.
- **How it Works:**
1. **Reservation Phase:**
- Stations contend for the right to transmit by sending reservation packets to a central authority
or using a contention period.
- The central authority grants time slots or permission to stations based on the reservation
packets received.
2. **Data Transmission:**
- Stations that have successfully reserved a time slot can then transmit their data during the
allocated time.
- **Advantages:**
- It helps in avoiding collisions and ensures a more organized and efficient use of the channel.
- Suitable for scenarios where a predictable schedule is desirable.
- **Disadvantages:**
- Overhead during the reservation phase may reduce overall channel efficiency.
- Complexity in managing reservations.
- **Overview:**
- Polling protocols are another type of controlled access protocol that involves a central controller
managing access to the communication channel.
- **How it Works:**
1. **Centralized Control:**
- A central controller (e.g., a master station) polls individual stations to determine if they have
data to transmit.
- The controller cycles through the stations in a predefined order.
2. **Data Transmission:**
- When a station is polled and has data to send, it transmits its data to the central controller.
3. **Acknowledgment:**
- The central controller acknowledges successful transmissions or may request retransmission in
case of errors.
- **Advantages:**
- Efficient use of the channel as the central controller manages access.
- Fairness in providing access to all stations.
- **Disadvantages:**
- Potential for increased latency, especially if there are many stations to poll.
- Single point of failure: If the central controller fails, the entire system may be affected.
Both reservation and polling protocols are examples of controlled access methods, providing a
more deterministic and organized approach to channel access compared to random access
methods like ALOHA. The choice between these methods depends on the specific requirements
and characteristics of the network.