By:

Jem Boy B. Cabrella, Ph.D.

October 29, 2016
 Tattao, Luis A. (2007). Basic Concepts in
Statistics: (Worktext). Manila: Rex Book Store.
 Sirug, Winston S. (2011). Basic Probability
and Statistics: A Step by Step Approach.
Manila: Mindshapers Co., Inc.
 Walpole, R. (1997). Introduction to
Statistics. (3rd Ed.). Prentice Hall
International, Inc.
 Asaad, A. (2008). Statistics Made Simple for
Researchers. Manila: Rex Book Store, Inc.
 The science that deals with the
body of principles and procedures
for the collection, organization,
summarization, presentation, and
analysis of numerical data (Asaad,
2008)
o Descriptive Statistics – is the totality of
methods and treatments employed in the
collection, description, and analysis of
numerical data (Tattao, 2007).
o Inferential Statistics – is the logical process
from sample analysis to a generalization or
conclusion about a population. It is also
called statistical inference or inductive
statistics (Tattao, 2007).
 Comprises those methods
concerned with collecting and
describing a set of data so as to
yield meaningful information
(Walpole, 1997)
 Examples: construction of tables,
charts, graphs, measures of central
tendency, measures of location, and
measures of variability
 Comprises those methods concerned
with the analysis of a subset of data
leading to predictions or inferences
about the entire set of data (Walpole,
1997)
 Examples: tests on hypothesis testing:
t-test, z-test, Chi-square, ANOVA,
Pearson r, Linear Regression Analysis
A population consists of all the members of the
group about which we want to draw a
conclusion
A sample is a portion, or part, of the
population of interest selected for analysis.
Population Sample

L B D N G A
F E H J T M N Q K C M
R S W Q V O R W P D
P C I K
Parameter is a numerical index describing a
characteristic of a population.

Examples: population mean, population SD

Statistic is a numerical index describing a

characteristic of a sample.

Examples: sample mean, sample SD

There are two main sources of data:

Primary data are data that come from an original

source, and are intended to answer specific
research questions, can be taken by interview,
mail-in questionnaire, survey, or experimentation

Secondary data are data that are taken from

previously recorded data, such as information in
research conducted, industry financial statements,
business periodicals, and government reports. It
can also be taken electronically (e.g. via internet
websites, CD, etc.)
1. Data already published by governmental,
industrial, or individual sources (e.g. NSO, daily
newspaper, etc.)
2. Data obtained from an experiment like those
in the experimental study
3. Data obtained from a conducted survey
4. Data obtained through an observational
study
1. Data are needed to provide the necessary input
to a survey.
2. Data are needed to provide the necessary input
to a study.
3. Data are needed to measure performance of an
ongoing service or production process.
4. Data are needed to evaluate conformance to
standards.
5. Data are needed to assist in formulating
alternative courses of action in a decision
making process.
6. Data are needed to satisfy our curiosity.
A constant is a characteristic of objects,
people, or events that do not vary.
Example: the temperature at which water
freezes (0 degree Celsius)

A variable is a characteristic of objects,

people, or events that can take of different
values.
Example: weight, gender, hair color
Sampling refers to the process of selecting these
individuals.

3 main reasons for drawing a sample:

1. A sample is less time consuming than a
census.
2. A sample is less costly to administer than a
census.
3. A sample is less cumbersome and more
practical to administer than a census of the
targeted population.
 Random Sampling is a process of whose
members had an equal chance of being
selected from the population; it is also
called probability sampling.

 Non-Random Sampling is a sampling

procedure where samples in a deliberate
manner where little or no attention to
randomization; it is also called non-
probability sampling.
A simple random sample is one which every
individual or item from a population has an equal
chance of selection as every other individual or
item.

 n = sample size; N = population size

 Every item or person in the frame is
1
numbered from 1 to N. The chance is .
N
 2 Basic methods: with replacement and
without replacement
 Using “fishbowl” method (lottery) and a table
of random numbers
 In a systematic sampling, the N individuals or
items in the population frame are partitioned into
k groups by dividing the size of the population by
𝑁
the desired sample size n. That is, k = ,
𝑛
where k is rounded to the nearest integer.

Example: Say we want to consider every 5th on the

list.
23 34 12 14 13 23 24 39 27
23 12 15 16 23 26 28 23
22 19 34 25 22 18 30 23
24 17 18 15 12
 In a systematic sampling, the N individuals or
items in the population frame are partitioned into
k groups by dividing the size of the population by
𝑁
the desired sample size n. That is, k = ,
𝑛
where k is rounded to the nearest integer.

Example: Say we want to consider every 5th on the

list.
123456789101112131415161718 19 2021
22 2324252627282930
Stratified sampling is a process of subdividing
the population into subgroups or strata and
drawing members at random from each
subgroup or stratum.
Field of Specialization Population
Nursing 6,000
Accountancy/Accounting 500
Tech
IT 2,000
Marketing 1,000
Education 2,500
Total 12,000
Stratified sampling is a process of subdividing
the population into subgroups or strata and
drawing members at random from each
subgroup or stratum.
Field of Sample
Population Percentage Found by
Specialization Size
Nursing 6,000 50.00%
Accountancy/ 500 4.16%
Acctng Tech
IT 2,000 16.66%
Marketing 1,000 8.33%
Education 2,500 20.33%
Total 12,000 100.00%
Cluster sampling is a process of selecting
clusters from a population which is very large
or widely spread out over a wide geographical
area.

Example: By district like Digos Occidental,

Digos Oriental and Mt. Apo; or by area like
MABAMA, etc.
Convenience sampling is a process of selecting
a group of individuals who (conveniently) are
available for study.

Example: A researcher may only include close

friends and clients to be included in the sample
population
Purposive sampling is a process of selecting based
from judgment to select a sample which the
researcher believed, based on prior information,
will provide the data they need.

The disadvantage of purposive sampling is that the

researcher’s judgment may be error.

Example: A human resource director interviews the

qualified applicants in a supervisory position.
(Note: Qualified applicants are selected by the HR
Director which is based from his own judgment.)
Quota sampling is applied when an investigator
survey collects information from an assigned num-
ber, or quota of individuals from one of several
sample units fulfilling certain prescribed criteria or
belonging to one stratum.
Advantage: They are cheaper to administer

Example: When the respondents are composed of

men aged over 30 or 20 who have bought cellular
phones in the last week. It is in the interviewer’s
discretion which men or cellular phone buyers they
are selected.
Snowball sampling is a technique in which one
or more members of a population are located
and used to lead the researchers to other
members of the population.

Example: Imagine attempting to obtain the

frame that includes all homeless people in
Metro Manila. To obtain a sample of homeless
individuals, for example, the researcher will
interview individuals on the street or at
homeless shelter.
1. Direct or Interview Method
2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method
3. Registration Method
4. Observation Method
5. Experiment Method
Interview is a face-to-face encounter between
the interviewer and the interviewee. The
interview may vary according to the preference
of either or both parties. However, this method
is time-consuming, expensive, and has limited
field coverage.
Unlike direct method, this method is utilized
questionnaires to obtain information. It can be
done by mail or hand-carried to the intended
respondents.
This method of gathering information is
governed by laws.

Example: birth certificates, death certificates,

and professional driver’s license, PRC license,
etc.
This method is used to data that are pertaining
to behaviors of an individual or a group of
individuals at the time of occurrence of a given
situation are best obtained by observation.

Limitation: Observation is made only at the

time or occurrence of the appropriate events.
This is used to determine the cause and effect
relationship of certain phenomena under
controlled conditions. This method is usually
employed by scientific researchers.
1. Textual Method. This method presents the
collected data in narrative and paragraphs form.
2. Tabular Method. This method presents the
collected data in table which are orderly
arranged in rows and columns for an easier and
more comprehensive comparison of figures.
3. Graphical Method. This method presents the
collected data in visual or pictorial form to get a
clear view of data (e.g. histogram, pie chart,
pareto chart, pictograph, etc.)