Internet of Things

Dr. Atri Mukhopadhyay

Assistant Professor
EEE Department
BITS Pilani Hyderabad Campus

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 Sensors and Actuators

 A sensor monitors conditions and signals when it detects

specific, pre-determined changes.
 A sensor converts physical energy like heat, sound, strain, pressure,
vibrations and motion into electrical energy.
 A sensor is a device that produces an output signal for the purpose of
sensing a physical phenomenon.
 In the broadest definition, a sensor is a device, module, machine, or
subsystem that detects events or changes in its environment and sends
the information to other electronics, frequently a computer processor.

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 Sensors and Actuators

• A sensor detects (senses) changes in the ambient conditions or in the state of another
device or a system and forwards or processes this information in a certain manner. [1]
• A device which detects or measures a physical property and records, indicates or
responds to it. [2]
A device that responds to a physical stimulus such as
•Heat, Force, Motion ,Light, Strain, Acceleration, Sound, Pressure, Magnetic field
and provides an output either for measurement of physical quantity or operating a control.

Output of a sensor is a signal which is converted to human readable form

Transducer:
Transduce or convert energy from one kind to another (both sensors and actuators). For
ex. In a sound system, A microphone (input device) converts sound waves into electrical
signals for an amplifier to amplify ( a process) and a loudspeaker (output device)
converts electrical signals again to sound waves.
Sensor + transduction element is Transducer
Transduction element + Actuator is Transducer

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 Sensors and Actuators

 An actuator receives a signal and performs an action,

often in the form of movement in a mechanism.
 An actuator is a component of a machine that is responsible for
moving and controlling a mechanism or system, for example by
opening a valve. In simple terms, it is a "mover".

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 Sensors and Actuators

 A sensor can sense a change in physical parameters,

such as temperature, pressure, light, metal, smoke and
proximity to an object.
 Sensors can also sense acceleration, orientation,
location, vibrations or smell, organic vapours or gases. A
microphone senses the voice and changes in the sound,
and is used to record voice or music.
 The circuit receives energy in form of variations through
currents, voltages, phase angles or frequencies.

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 Sensors and Actuators

 Analog sensors measure the variations in the parameters

with respect to a reference or normal condition and
provide the value of sensed parameter after appropriate
calculations.
 The change of states with respect to a reference or
normal condition senses the states in the form of 0s and
1s in digital sensors.
 A smart sensor includes the electronic circuit within itself,
and includes computing and communication capabilities.
 Microcontroller

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 Sensors and Actuators

 Types of Sensors –
 Resistive
 Wire wound around a coil whose resistance changes with
temperature
 Wire whose resistance changes with strain applied
 Resistance of a photo-conductor shows measurable drop in the
presence of light
 Gas sensor is a metal oxide coated sensor whose resistance varies
with vapour adsorption; for example, Sensor (TGS2620) of Figaro
Company.

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 Sensors and Actuators

 Types of Sensors –
 Capacitive
 Proximity sensor when the capacitance of sensing component
shows variation with proximity to a specific object, such as a metal
part or a finger.
 A level sensor capacitor shows variation with level of filler in a
container

 Diode
 Reverse saturation current Irev of a p-n junction diode is used as a
temperature sensor when that shows measurable variations within
the temperature range of the study.
 A specially made p-n diode with a window-entry for radiation at the
junction can be used as a photo sensor.

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 Sensors and Actuators

 Types of Sensors –
 Transistor-based
 A specially made BJT with a window-entry for radiation at the
junction is used as a photo sensor (phototransistor).

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 Sensors and Actuators

 The measurement of analog output from a sensor circuit

is performed as follows —
 the sensor output is given to the input of a signal conditioning-
cum-amplifying circuit (SC).
 The SC output is the input to an Analog-to-Digital Converter
(ADC).
 The ADC gives a digital output; for example, 8 or 12 bits.
 This output is read using a microcontroller.
 Microcontroller reading and computation gives the value of the
sensed parameter value and shows the physical condition
around the sensor.

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 Sensor Types

Light Light Dependent resistor

Photo diode
Temperature Thermocouple
Thermistor
Force Strain gauge
Pressure switch
Position Potentiometers, Encoders
Opto-couplers
Speed Reflective/Opto-couplers
Doppler effect sensor
Sound Carbon microphone
Piezo electric sensor
Chemical Liquid chemical sensor
Gaseous chemical sensor

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 Sensor’s Performance Characteristics
•Gives an idea of the capabilities and limitations of the sensor
•Provides quantitative estimates of sensor attributes.

Which helps to
•Properly and optimally choose a sensor for a particular
application.
•Optimize the design of the sensor system.

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 Sensor’s Performance Characteristics

Sensor selection

Form factor is used to describe the physical size and shape

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 Factors/Parameters to be considered
while choosing the right sensor

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 Factors/Parameters to be considered
while choosing the right sensor

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 Factors/Parameters to be considered
while choosing the right sensor

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 Sensorial Deviations

• Range
• Sensitivity Error
• Offset or Bias
• Non-Linearity
• Hysteresis Error
• Quantization Error
• Aliasing Error

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Other errors:
 The sensitivity of a sensor under real conditions may differ from the value
specified. This is called a sensitivity error.
 If the output signal differs from the correct value by a constant, the sensor has
an offset error or bias
 If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured property, this
is defined as drift. Long term drift over months or years is caused by physical
changes in the sensor.
 Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time
 A hysteresis error causes the sensor output value to vary depending on the
sensor’s previous input values. If a sensor's output is different depending on
whether a specific input value was reached by increasing or decreasing the
input, then the sensor has a hysteresis error. The present reading depends on
the past input values. Typically in analog sensors, magnetic sensors, heating of
metal strips.
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If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an approximation of the
measured property. This error is also called quantization error.

If the signal is monitored digitally, the sampling frequency can cause a dynamic error,
or if the input variable or added noise changes periodically at a frequency proportional
to the multiple of the sampling rate, aliasing errors may occur.

The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being
measured. For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their
environment.

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 Sensor’s performance Characteristics

The set of criteria defined for •Dynamic characteristics describe

the sensors when they measure the behavior of the sensor between
quantities that are slowly the time sensed quantity changes its
varying with time (or) mostly value and the time when the sensor
constant output attains a steady value.
•Describes the behavior of the
After sensor reaches steady system when the input is dynamic in
state value nature.(varying from instant to
instant: before reaching steady
state).

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 Static Characteristics

•Accuracy
•Precision
•Repeatability
•Tolerance
•Range
•Span
•Linearity
•Drift
•Sensitivity
•Resolution

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 Static Characteristics

•Accuracy : Correctness of the output compared to a superior system. Degree of closeness

(exactness) of the sensed value to the desired (expected) value. Expressed as a percentage of
full scale or absolute value.

•Error: Difference between the standard value and value produced by the sensor

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 Static Characteristics
Thermometer 0 to 500 ̊ C, Reading = 50 ̊ C
Error of ± 1 % FSD = True temperature of 50 ̊ C may be read as 45 ̊ C
(or) 55 ̊ C.

FSD = Full Scale Deflection

If a pressure sensor with a full scale range of 100 psi reports a pressure of
77 psi and the actual pressure is 75 psi, then the absolute error is 2 psi,
and when we divide this by the full scale and express it as a percentage
(relative error), accuracy (or error) of the sensor is 2 % .
Most industrial sensors are better than that, with specified accuracies of
+/- 0.25% or +/- 0.1% of full scale (FS). So the error of a 100 psi FS
sensor with an accuracy of +/- 0.1% FS will not exceed + 0.1 psi or - 0.1
psi at any point in the measurement range of the sensor

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 Static Characteristics

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 Static Characteristics

Range: Gives the highest and the lowest value of the physical quantity within
which the sensor can actually sense. Beyond that there is no sensing or no kind
of response.

HC-SR04 Specifications
•Working Voltage: DC 5V
•Working Current: 15mA
•Working Frequency: 40Hz
•Max Range: 4m
•Min Range: 2cm
•Measuring Angle: 15 degree
•Trigger Input Signal: 10µS TTL pulse
•Echo Output Signal Input TTL lever signal and the range in
proportion
•Dimension 45 * 20 * 15mm

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 Static Characteristics
Resolution: Smallest change the sensor can detect in the quantity that it is
sensing
( Ex. In a temperature sensor, the smallest change in temperature that can be
sensed is resolution
•The smallest incremental input quantity a sensor can read or respond to and provide a
readable output without any ambiguity. Resolution is a very important parameter. But
a sensor’s accuracy does not depend upon its resolution

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 Static Characteristics

1. A force sensor has a measuring range of 0 to 2000 N with a resolution of 0.05 % of

full scale. Determine the smallest force which can be measured by sensor.
Ans: ±1N

2. 1 A ammeter with a scale of 200 divisions has a resolution of ______

Ans: 5 mA

Resolution of an ADC: Full scale range (FSR)/ 2n where n is the

number of bits in the ADC.

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 Static Characteristics
Sensitivity: Ratio of incremental change in response of the system to incremental
change in input parameter. It can be obtained from the slope of the output
characteristics of the sensor. If a small input change results in large output change,
then highly sensitive.

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Linearity: No deviation of sensor value from the straight line curve.

In many applications, linear behavior is most desirable?

•Conversion from a scale reading to the corresponding measured value of input quantity is
most convenient
•we merely have to multiply by a fixed constant
•When the instrument is part of a larger data or control system, linear behavior of the parts
often simplifies design and analysis of the whole.

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Drift: When a sensor is kept in a particular reading condition for a sufficiently long duration of time, the
difference in measurements that it will show over a period of time is drift.

Repeatability: Sensor has good repeatability if same value is obtained repeatedly under same conditions of
sensing

Dead band: Range of input over which the sensor may be insensitive.

Selectivity: Ability of the sensor to sense the targeted measurand in presence of other interferences.
An oxygen sensor should detect only oxygen and should not respond to other gases present in the environment.
A temperature sensor does not bother about the light or pressure while sensing the temperature.

Sensor should not influence the measured property

(While measuring temperature it should not reduce or increase the temperature).

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 Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic characteristics: How well a sensor responds when the input is changing/varying.

Zero order system:

Output changes with respect to input without any delay. It does not have any energy storage elements
Ex. Potentiometers ( linear and rotary displacement measurement)
First order system:
Output approaches final value gradually. Consists of an energy storage element. Ex. thermometer
Second order system:
Complex output response. Input and output are related by second order differential equation.
Output oscillates before it reaches the final value: Mass spring damper system

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Sensor Classification:
1. Based on output: Analog and Digital
2. Based on data type: Scalar and Vector/Multimedia

Analog sensors:
1. Produce a continuous output signal or voltage which is proportional to the quantity being
measured.
2. Physical quantities are all analog as they tend to be continuous in nature.
Ex.
Temperature of a liquid measured using thermocouple( in geysers) continuously responds to
temperature changes as the liquid is heated up or cooled down.

Digital sensors:
1. Produce a discrete output signal or voltage that are digital representation of the quantity
being measured.
2. Mostly in the form of logic ‘0’ or ‘1’
3. Overcomes disadvantages of analog sensors. Comes with extra electronics for bit
conversion
Ex. PIR sensor, DS1620 digital temperature sensor
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Scalar sensors:
1. Produce output signal or voltage which is proportional to the magnitude of
the quantity being measured.
2. Physical quantities such as temperature, pressure, gas, smoke, rain fall,
colour etc., are all scalar quantities and magnitude is sufficient to convey
information. (Irrespective of sensor orientation and direction)
Vector sensors:
1. Produce output signal or voltage which is proportional to the magnitude,
direction as well as orientation of the quantity being measured.
2. Physical quantities such as sound, image, velocity, acceleration etc., are all
vector quantities and magnitude alone is not sufficient to convey
information. Ex. Accelerometer, gyroscope, Magnetic field, motion
detection
3. Accelerometer gives the component of acceleration of the body with respect
to the X,Y, Z co-ordinate axes.
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 Data Acquisition System

Analog Signal
Signal Conditioner

ADC

Digital
Communication
Processing

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 Analog vs. Digital Signal

• Analog signals:
– Continuous, expressed in decimal system
– No limitation on the maximum/minimum value
– Can not be processed by computer

• Digital signals: binary number system

– All numbers are expressed by a combination of 1
&0
– The maximum value is limited by # of bits
available
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 Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC)

Function: convert analog signals into digital

signals
– Sample & hold
– Quantization
– Coding

y(t)=f(t) yk=f(tk)

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 Sampling

• Sampling: Numerical evaluate the signal at discrete

distance in time, yk=y(kt)
• Digitized Signal: a sequence of numbers that is an
approximation to an analog signal
• Sampling time/Period: time duration between two
consecutive samples, t
• Sampling rate (Hz): 1/t
• Nyquist Frequency: 2fmax
• Sampling theory: fs > Nyquist Frequency

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 Sampling Theory

• Shannon-Nyquist sampling theorem

– The maximum frequency component a sampled
data system can accurately handle is its Nyquist
limit (i.e., Nyquist frequency).

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 Aliasing

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 Aliasing

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 Anti-aliasing Filter

• One way of avoiding the problem of aliasing is to

apply an anti-aliasing filter to the signal, prior to the
sampling stage, to remove any frequency
components above the "folding" or Nyquist
frequency (half the sampling frequency).
• An anti-aliasing filter is a low-pass filter.

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 Quantization

Definition: transformation of a continuous analog

input into a set of discrete output state
– Coding: the assignment of a digital code word or
number to each output states
– # of possible state: N=2n, n is # of bits
– Quantization resolution: Q=(Vmax-Vmin)/N
– Quantization Error:    f (tk )  f k
N

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 Digital to Analog Convertor

   f (t k )  f k
N

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 Signal Conditioning

Functions: modify the analog signal to match

the performance of the ADC
– Pre-filtering: remove undesirable high frequency
components
– Amplification: amplify the signal to match the
dynamic range of the ADC

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 Signal Conditioning

• Signal conditioning is the technique of making a signal from a sensor or transducer

suitable for processing by data acquisition equipment.

• For example, if you were measuring a voltage signal smaller than a few millivolts,
you might need to amplify it.
• If you had a signal contaminated with noise you could filter it.

• Proper signal conditioning is essential in getting an accurate measurement of your

signal. It is the first step of computerised data acquisition.

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 Types of Signal Conditioning

Amplification
• Amplification increases a voltage signal to a level suitable for digitisation by the DAQ
equipment.

• Typically a data acquisition device is calibrated for input voltages in the 0 to 10 V range. A
small voltage, such as that coming from a thermocouple or strain gauge bridge may need to
be amplified 1000 times to make it between 0 and 10 V.

• If your signal is larger than the maximum input range then you will have to divide the signal
down using a resistor network.

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 Types of Signal Conditioning

Filtering
• Filtering reduces noise errors in the signal.

• For most applications a low-pass filter is used. This allows through the lower
frequency components but attenuates the higher frequencies. The cut-off frequency
must be compatible with the frequencies present in the actual signal (as opposed to
possible contamination by noise) and the sampling rate used for the A-D
conversion.

• A low-pass filter that's used to prevent higher frequencies, in either the signal or
noise, from introducing distortion into the digitised signal is known as an anti-
aliasing filter.
• These generally have a sharper cut-off than the normal low-pass filter used to
condition a signal.
• Anti-aliasing filters are specified according to the sampling rate of the system
and there must be one filter per input signal. They are commonly used when
measuring, for example, vibration.
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 Types of Signal Conditioning

Excitation
• Many transducers, like strain gauges and RTDs (resistance temperature devices),
need a power supply.

• The signal from these transducers is either a voltage or a mA current. For many
transducers the supply will be low voltage DC, but for transducers based on
capacitance measurement an AC supply may be required.

• Excitation is commonly needed for measuring force, pressure, relative humidity,

temperature, level, light level, concentration and vibration.

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 Types of Signal Conditioning

Linearisation
• Linearisation is needed when the signals produced by a sensor don't have a
straight-line relationship with the physical measurement, as is the case when using
thermocouples to measure temperature.

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 Types of Signal Conditioning

Cold-Junction Compensation
• Thermocouples are popular temperature sensors because they are cheap, versatile
and sturdy.

• They consist of two dissimilar metals joined together, making a continuous circuit. If
one junction has a different temperature to the other, an electromotive force
(voltage) is set up. This voltage varies with the temperature difference between the
junctions. If the temperature at one junction is known, the temperature at the other
junction can be calculated.

• The system depends on knowing the temperature of one of the thermocouple

junctions - the cold junction. Housing this junction in an isothermal box keeps the
temperature constant, and a cold junction sensor in the box tells the system the
temperature.

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 Types of Signal Conditioning

Isolation
• A high transient voltage at one input may damage not only the input circuit, but an
also propagate to other equipment connected to that input.
• You can prevent this type of damage by providing isolation between inputs.

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 Types of Signal Conditioning

High Impedance
• Certain types of transducer have a very high output impedance and are not able to
supply enough current to use a normal voltage input.
• When connected to a normal amplifier, the currents drawn from the transducer
can seriously distort the input signal.
• Typically glass electrodes used to measure pH, or gas concentration probes,
are of this type.
• You should connect them to a voltage measuring circuit with a very high input
impedance.

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 Types of Signal Conditioning

RMS Signal Conditioning

• You can monitor signals from electrical power supplies when the current signal is
sensed with a current-sensing resistor, and high voltage signals are divided down
using resistive dividers.
• Software scaling functions turn your low-voltage readings back to the original
power supply voltage and current values.

• Since many power supplies provide an AC signal, a signal conditioning input which
provides a DC signal proportional to the root mean square (rms) amplitude of the
input signal would be suitable.

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 Actuators

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 Actuators

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 Actuators

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 Actuators

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 Actuators – Stepped Motor

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 Actuators – Stepped Motor

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 Actuators – Stepped Motor

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 Actuators – Stepped Motor

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 Actuators – Hydraulic and Pneumatic

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 Actuators – Hydraulic and Pneumatic

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 Actuators – Other Actuators

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 Actuators – Other Actuators

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 Actuators – Other Actuators

• Thermal Actuators

• Magnetic Actuators
• Coil Gun
Coil Gun
• Mechanical Actuators
• Rack and Pinion (uses gears, pulleys, chains and other devices)

Piezo motor using

shape memory alloys Rack and Pinion

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