SPACE

ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE
What Is the Universe?
• The universe is everything. It includes all of space, and all the matter and energy that space contains.
It even includes time itself and, of course, it includes you.

1. Big Bang Theory

2. Steady State Theory

Big Bang Theory

Big Bang Theory -NCERT

HOT INFINITE •13.7-13.8

TINY DENSE BILLION
BALL (mm) YEARS AGO

EXPLOSION

ENERGY
GENERATED
INTO MATTER

RESULTED IN
CREATION OF
THE
UNIVERSE

• The most popular argument regarding the origin of the universe is the Big Bang Theory.
• It is also called expanding universe hypothesis.
• The Big Bang Theory considers the following stages in the development of the universe :
o In the beginning, all matter forming the universe existed in one place in the form of a “tiny ball”
(singular atom) with an unimaginably small volume, infinite temperature and infinite density.
o At the Big Bang the “tiny ball” exploded violently. This led to a huge expansion. It is now
generally accepted that the event of big bang took place 13.7 billion years before the present. The
expansion continues even to the present day
o As it grew, some energy was converted into matter. There was particularly rapid expansion
within fractions of a second after the bang. Thereafter, the expansion has slowed down. Within
first three minutes from the Big Bang event, the first atom began to form.
o Within 300,000 years from the Big Bang, temperature dropped to 4,500 K and gave rise to atomic
matter. The universe became transparent.

Big Bang Theory -Further Explained

Quick Revision

What evidence is there to support the Big Bang theory?

Two major scientific discoveries provide strong support for the Big Bang theory:
• Hubble’s discovery in the 1920s of a relationship between a galaxy’s distance from Earth and its
speed .
• The discovery in the 1960s of cosmic microwave background radiation

The Expanding Universe

• He discovered that the speed at which astronomical objects move apart is proportional to their
distance from each other. In other words, the farther away objects are from Earth, the faster they
are moving away from us. This became known as Hubble’s law. The relationship Hubble
discovered was later used as evidence that the Universe is expanding.
• Note: Hubble also realised that distant objects he’d been observing lay far beyond the Milky Way.
This was the first time humans discovered that structures existed outside the Milky Way. Hubble’s
discovery provided additional evidence for what was to become known as Big Bang theory, first
proposed by Georges Lemaître in 1927. It was a major step forward for astronomy
Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR)
• It was discovered by accident in 1964 by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson as ‘noise’ in an antenna
they had built to research how radio signals could be reflected off orbiting satellites. They first
thought it was radio interference from nearby New York City, but eventually recognised it as
radiation from beyond the Milky Way.
• The cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) that Penzias and Wilson observed is leftover
heat radiation from the Big Bang. Cosmic microwave background radiation fills the entire Universe
and can be detected day and night in every part of the sky.
•

1) Which of the following is/are cited by the scientists as evidence/evidences for the
continued expansion of universe?
1. Detection of microwaves in space
2. Observation of redshift phenomenon in space
3. Movement of asteroids in space
4. Occurrence of supernova explosions in space

Code
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 only
C. 1, 3 and 4
D. None of the above

As an object (light) moves away from us, its wavelength increases & shift to the Red end of the spectrum
(Called Red Shift)
Problems With the Big Bang Theory
• It violates the first law of thermodynamics, which says you can't create or destroy matter or energy.
• Some critics say that the formation of stars and galaxies violates the law of entropy, which suggests
systems of change become less organized over time.
• The early inflationary period of the big bang appears to violate the rule that nothing can travel
faster than the speed of light.

Big Crunch Theory

Alternate Theory
• An alternative to Big Bang was Hoyle’s concept of steady state.

Steady State Theory

CONTINOUS
CONSTRUCTION
OF MATTER
UNIVERSE
ROUGHLY
EQUAL AT ANY
POINT OF TIME-
Perfect
Cosmological
Principle
CONTINOUS
DISTRUCTION
OF MATTER

• It considered the universe to be roughly the same at any point of time.

• In the steady state model, the density of matter in the expanding universe remains unchanged due
to a continuous creation of matter, thus adhering to the perfect cosmological principle, a principle
that asserts that the observable universe is basically the same at any time as well as at any place.
• A steady-state universe has no beginning or end in time; and from any point within it the view on
the grand scale--i.e., the average density and arrangement of galaxies, average distance between
galaxies, average brightness of galaxies is the same

Note:
• However, with greater evidence becoming available about the expanding universe, scientific
community at present favours argument of expanding universe - The Nobel Prize in Physics 2011
was divided, one half awarded to Saul Perlmutter, the other half jointly to Brian P. Schmidt and
Adam G. Riess "for the discovery of the accelerating expansion of the Universe through
observations of distant supernovae”
 ORIGIN OF EARTH
• Nebular Hypothesis
• Binary Theories

Concept - Gravitation

CONCEPT - CENTRIFUGAL FORCE/CENTRIPETAL FORCE

NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
QUICK REVISION

NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS – NCERT

• In essence, this theory states that the Sun, the planets, and all other objects in the Solar System
formed from nebulous material billions of years ago
• Primordial matter existed in the form of a gaseous mass called ‘nebula’ Latin ‘nebula’ means mist).
• According to this theory, the Sun and all the planets of our Solar System began as a giant cloud of
molecular gas and dust.
• Then, about 4.57 billion years ago, something happened that caused the cloud to collapse.
• From this collapse, pockets of dust and gas began to collect into denser regions.
 • Most of the denser material ended up in a ball at the centre (gravitational pull) while the rest of
the matter flattened out into ring (centrifugal force) that circled around it.
• While the ball at the centre formed the Sun, the rest of the material would form into the RINGS
eventually giving rise to planets.

Issues - Nebular Hypothesis

• Source of the origin of the nebula?
• Only limited rings come out from irregular ring detached from the nebula ?
• No bulge in the middle part of the sun indicating the probable separation of the irregular ring from
the sun
• All satellites should revolve in the direction of planets but few satellites of Saturn and Jupiter
revolve in the opposite direction
• Sun is stationary and Planets are revolving .

BINARY THEORIES – QUICK REVISION

SUN EXISTED
SINCE TIME
IMMEMORIAL

WANDERING
STAR
APPROACHED
SUN

HIGH GRAVITY OF •The Star

STAR CAUSED wandered away
SEPARATION OF at its natural
SUN’S MATERIAL
path.

THIS SEPARATED
MATERIAL FROM
SUN FORMED THE
PLANETS
 LAGRANGE ‘S POINTS

GRAVITATIONAL
PULL

ANY CELESTIAL
OBJECT GETS
ACTED UPON
TWO FORCES
AT A POINT OF
TIME

CENTRIFUGAL
FORCE

• The Lagrange’s points are points where these two forces balance out each other and form an
equilibrium.
• Satellites and space stations parked here.
• These can be used by spacecraft to reduce fuel consumption needed to remain in position.
 STELLAR EVOLUTION
Life Cycle of a Star
 Chandrashekhar Limit
Lifecycles of A Star (Quick Glance)

Chandrashekhar Limit

1.4 X MASS OF SUN

Let Try to Solve an MCQ

1) What is Chandrashekhar Limit?

A. The Farthest Distance that we have been able to find white dwarfs.
B. The largest white dwarf found.
C. A limit on the amount of mass white dwarf can have.
D. A limit on the number of white dwarf s we can expect to find.
 SOLAR SYSTEM
The Solar System
NCERT
• The difference between terrestrial and jovian planets can be attributed to the following
conditions:
o The terrestrial planets were formed in the close vicinity of the parent star where it was too warm
for gases to condense to solid particles. Jovian planets were formed at quite a distant location.
o The solar wind was most intense nearer the sun; so, it blew off lots of gas and dust from the
terrestrial planets. The solar winds were not all that intense to cause similar removal of gases
from the Jovian planets.
o The terrestrial planets are smaller and their lower gravity could not hold the escaping gases

ASTEROID BELT
 1. Apart from the stars, planets and 1. In astronomy, a Trojan is a small
satellites, there are numerous tiny celestial body that shares the
bodies which also move around orbit of a larger one.
the sun. These bodies are called 2. Trojans are one type of co-orbital
asteroids. object.
2. Asteroids are minor planets,
ASTEROID BELT

TROANS
3. In the solar system, most known
especially of the inner solar Trojans share the orbit of Jupiter
system. Larger asteroids have
also been called planetoids. 4. The term “Trojan” originally
referred to the “Trojan asteroids”
3. The asteroid belt occupies the (Jovian Trojans) that orbit close
orbit between Mars and Jupiter. to the Langrangian points of
4. Dist: 2.3 and 3.3 AU from the sun. Jupiter.
5. These are supposedly the 5. Astronomers estimate that the
remnants from the Solar Jovian Trojans are about as
System's formation that failed to numerous as the asteroids of
coalesce because of the asteroid belt.
gravitational interference of
Jupiter.
6. Asteroids range in size from
hundreds of kilometers across to
microscopic.

KUIPER BELT
 1. Beyond the gas giant Neptune Objects that originate from or orbit in
lies a region of space filled the Kuiper Belt Eris; Pluto; Sedna;
with icy bodies. Quaoar; Charon; Orcus; Varuna;
2. Known as Kuiper Belt but Ixion; Chaos; Huya;
consisting mainly of objects
KUIPER BELT

KUIPER BELT
composed primarily of ice. It

OBJECTS
extends between 30 and 50 AU
from the sun.

METEOR/METEORITE/METEOROID- Shooting Star

COMETS
UPSC PYQ

1) What is difference between asteroids and comets?

1. Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are formed of frozen gases held
together by rocky and metallic material.
2. Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are
found mostly between Venus and mercury.
3. Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

A. 1 and 2 only
B. 1 and 3 only
C. 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
 THE GOLDILOCKS ZONE
The goldilocks Zone refers to the habitable zone around a star where
the temperature is just right – not too hot and not too cold- for liquid
water to exist on a planet.
KIRKWOOD GAPS
The main asteroid belt itself is divided into thinner belts,
separated by object free zones called Kirkwood gaps. Hence
these are gaps within asteroid belt where very few or almost no
asteroids are found

EARTH GRAZER
An Earth-grazing fireball is a fireball, a very bright meteor that
enters Earth’s atmosphere and leaves again

CERES
Ceres (2.77 AU) is the largest asteroid, a protoplanet and a dwarf
planet.

UPSC PYQ

2) The term ‘Goldilocks Zone’ is often seen news in the context of

A. the limits of habitable zone above the surface of the Earth
B. regions inside the Earth where shale gas is available
C. search for the Earth-like planets in outer space
D. search for meteorites containing precious metals

Concept
Kármán Line
• The Kármán line is an attempt to define a boundary between Earth’s atmosphere and outer space.
• It is the altitude where space begins. It is around 100 km high.
Solar System

OORT CLOUD
 1. The Oort cloud named after the Dutch astronomer Jan Oort,
sometimes called the Öpik–Oort cloud, is a theoretical cloud of
predominantly icy planetesimals proposed to surround the Sun
at distances ranging from 2,000 to 200,000 AU (0.03 to 3.2 light-
OORT CLOUD

years).
2. It is believed that this cloud of particles are the remains of the
disc material which formed the Sun and the eight planets.
Astronomers have theorized that the matter composing the Oort
cloud formed close to the Sun but was scattered out into space by
the powerful gravity of the gas giant planets early in the solar
system’s evolution.
3. Objects found in the Oort Cloud are known as trans-Neptunian
objects. This applies to all objects beyond the orbit of Neptune
and includes the Kuiper Belt objects as well.
4. The Oort cloud comprises two regions. There is a spherical outer
Oort cloud, and a disc shaped inner cloud called the Hills cloud.

CONSELLATIONS
 1. A Natural Satellite is a 1. A group of stars forming a
celestial body that moves recognizable pattern that is
around the planets in the traditionally named after its
same way as the planets apparent form or identified with a
move around the sun. mythological figure.
2. Ursa Major or Big Bear is one such
SATELLITE

CONSTELLATIONS
constellation.
2. A Human-made Satellite is
an artificial body. It is 3. One of the most easily recognisable
designed by scientists to constellations is the Saptarishi ,
gather information about the Orion , Big Dipper , Great Bear ,
universe or for Cassiopeia.
communication. It is carried
by a rocket and placed in the
orbit around the earth. NOTE:
In ancient times, people used to
determine directions during the
night with the help of stars. The
North star indicates the north
direction. It is also called the Pole
Star

UPSC PYQ

3) A person stood alone in a desert on a dark night and wanted to reach his village which
was situated 5 km east of the point where he was standing. He had no instruments to
find the direction but he located the polestar.
The most convenient way now to reach his village is to walk in the
A. direction facing the polestar
B. direction opposite to the polestar
C. direction keeping the polestar to his left
D. direction keeping the polestar to his right
Why Pluto Is Not a Planet?
 SUN

FORMATION OF SUN
STRUCTURE OF THE SUN

Photosphere
• The photosphere is the deepest layer of the Sun that we can observe directly.
• The temperature in the photosphere varies between about 6500 K at the bottom and 4000 K at the
top.
Chromosphere
• Above the solar surface (the photosphere).
• The temperature in the chromosphere varies between about 4000 K at the bottom (the socalled
temperature minimum) and 8000 K at the top (6700- and 14,000-degrees F, 3700 and 7700 degrees
C).
• So, in this layer (and higher layers) it actually gets hotter if you go further away from the Sun.

Transition Region
• The transition region is a very narrow (60 miles / 100 km) layer between the chromosphere and the
corona where the temperature rises abruptly from about 8000 to about 500,000 K.

Corona
• The corona is the outermost layer of the Sun.
• The temperature in the corona is 500,000 K or more.
• The corona cannot be seen with the naked eye except during a total solar eclipse, or with the use
of a coronagraph.
• The corona does not have an upper limit.

SUN SPOTS

• Sunspots (some as large as 50,000 km in diameter) are areas that appear dark on the surface of the
Sun (photosphere).
• They appear dark because they are cooler than other parts of the Sun’s surface.

Why Sunspots are relatively cool?

• They form in areas where magnetic fields are particularly strong. These magnetic fields are so
strong that they keep some of the heat within the Sun from reaching the surface. However, the
temperature of a sunspot is still very hot —around 6,500 degrees Fahrenheit.
SUN SPOTS (QUICK REVISION)

SOLAR FLARES

Solar Prominence
Aurora
 • The magnetic field lines near sunspots often tangle, cross, and reorganize. This can cause a sudden
explosion of energy called a solar flare.
• Effects
• Solar flares release a lot of radiation into space. Solar flares, when powerful enough, can disrupt
satellite and radio transmission on the Earth, and more severe ones can cause ‘geomagnetic
storms’ that can damage transformers in power grids.

Solar Winds

• The solar wind is a stream of energised, charged

particles, primarily electrons and protons, flowing
outward from the Sun at speeds as high as 900 km/s
and at a temperature of 1 million degrees (Celsius).
• It is made of plasma (ionised atoms).

How does the corona cause solar winds?

• The corona's temperature causes its particles to move at very high speeds. These speeds are so
high that the particles can escape the Sun's gravity.

Effects of solar wind – Aurora

• An aurora is a natural light display in the sky, predominantly seen in the high latitude (Arctic and
Antarctic) regions. (This is due to magnetic field lines of earth and solar wind).

Auroras - are caused by charged particles, mainly electrons and protons, entering the atmosphere from above
causing ionisation and excitation of atmospheric constituents, and consequent optical emissions.
Effects of solar wind
• As the solar wind approaches a planet that has a well-developed magnetic field (such as Earth,
Jupiter and Saturn), the particles are deflected.
• This region, known as the magnetosphere, causes the particles to travel around the planet rather
than bombarding the atmosphere or surface.
• The boundary of this region is called the magnetopause, and some of the particles are able to
penetrate the magnetosphere through this region by partial reconnection of the magnetic field lines.
• As the wind travels off the sun, it carries charged particles and magnetic clouds.
• If the material carried by the solar wind reached a planet's surface, its radiation would do severe
damage to any life that might exist.
• Earth's magnetic field serves as a shield, redirecting the material around the planet so that it
streams beyond it.
UPSC PYQ

4) Electrically charged particles from space travelling at speeds of several hundred km/sec
can severely harm living beings if they reach the surface of the Earth.
What prevents them from reaching the surface of the Earth?
A. The Earth’s magnetic field diverts them towards its poles
B. Ozone layer around the Earth reflects them back to outer space
C. Moisture in the upper layers of atmosphere prevents them from reaching the surface
of the Earth
D. None of the statements a b and c given above is correct

5) If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the
possible effects on the Earth?:
1. GPS and navigation systems could fail.
2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.
3. Power grids could be damaged.
4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.
5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.
6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed
7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be
interrupted.
Select the correct answer using the code given below;
A. 1, 2, 4 and 5 only
B. 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only
C. 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only
D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
Perihelion And Aphelion

Solar Minimum and Solar Maximum

• The beginning of a solar cycle is a solar minimum, or when the Sun has the least sunspots. Over
time, solar activity—and the number of sunspots—increases.
• The middle of the solar cycle is the solar maximum, or when the Sun has the most sunspots.
• As the cycle ends, it fades back to the solar minimum and then a new cycle begins.
Exoplanets & Exomoons
• Exoplanets are the planets that orbit around other stars located outside our solar system.
• Exoplanets are also called extrasolar planets.
• An exomoon or extrasolar moon is a natural satellite that orbits an exoplanet or other non-stellar
extrasolar body.

Super Moon

• A Supermoon is a Full Moon or a New Moon event that happens to coincide with the closest
distance of the moon with the earth in its elliptical orbit, resulting in a larger than life size of the
lunar disk seen from Earth.

GALAXY

• A galaxy is a sprawling space system which is composed of stars, dust, interstellar gas, stellar
remnants, and dark matter and all held together by gravity.
Magnetosphere
• It is the region above Earth’s ionosphere.
It is the extent of the Earth’s magnetic
field in space. It extends thousands of
kilometres into space and protect the
Earth from the charged particles of solar
wind and cosmic rays that would
otherwise strip away the upper
atmosphere of Earth.

Heliosphere

• The heliosphere is a bubble created by the solar wind, a stream of mostly protons, electrons, and
alpha particles that extends from the Sun into interstellar space and protects the Earth from
harmful interstellar radiation.

Alfvén critical surface

• Alfvén is the outer edge of the corona. It is the point where
solar material that is normally bound to the Sun by gravity
and magnetic forces breaks free to stream out across space.
Space Debris is becoming a pressing issue with the advancement of scientific technology in Space.
Elaborate on the issues posed by space debris along with the steps taken by India in this context.
Structure
• Introduction
• Various factor leading to production of Space Debris.
• Issues posed by Space Debris
• Relevant steps and Technologies to address the issue.
• Way Forward and Conclusion.

Introduction:
• The idea of Space based internet, advent of small and microsatellites and cost-effective launch
vehicles in addition to private participation in space programmes has meant that the number of
global space launch attempts has doubled over the past decade. This directly leads to a new
challenge called space debris.
• Space debris encompasses both natural meteoroid and artificial (human-made) orbital debris.
Meteoroids are in orbit about the sun, while most artificial debris is in orbit about the Earth (hence
the term “orbital” debris).
• The European Space Agency (ESA) estimates that there are some 9 lakh objects over 1cm in size that
have no use orbiting the Earth.

Source of Space Debris:

• Defunct Satellites: When Satellite missions are completed or they break down, they are left drifting
about in Space. They comprise one fourth of the debris.
• Rocket Stages: Some Rocket stages are discarded in low orbits but those in higher orbits are left
drifting about in Space.
• Explosions that can be due to residual fuel that remains on board the rocket stage and explodes
later in time.
• Missing Equipment’s: Astronauts sometimes drop tools or objects during Space walks.
• Anti Satellite operations: Space Junk is also generated when countries deploy their satellites using
missiles for testing purposes. For Example: The Chinese FengYun-1C engagement in January 2007
alone increased the trackable space object population by 25%.
Issues posed by Space Debris
• As these Debris travel at high speeds in the low earth orbit, they risk colliding with functional
satellites or even the space station. The speed at which these pieces move, even a 100g object could
create an impact comparable to a 30 kg stone travelling at 100kmph.
• The debris would pose problems for spaceflight around the planet particularly those orbiting at
1000 km altitude where most of the satellites for Earth Observation and Communication are placed.
Those debris orbiting the Earth at altitudes below 600 km are expected to fall to Earth in some years.
• There is also a concern over the ‘Kessler Syndrome’ – a theoretical scenario in which amount of
space debris become so high that a single collision or destruction event could lead to snowballing
cascade of space debris like a domino effect.
• Space Debris increases satellites operational cost with protective and mitigation measures
accounting for 5%-10% of the total mission cost for satellites in the geostationary orbit and even
higher for those in the low earth orbit according to OECD study.

Steps taken by India

• ISRO is in full compliance with UN-COPUOS guidelines for Space Debris Mitigation like keeping
lifetime of GSLV rocket bodies at Geostationary transfer orbit under 25 years, upper stage
passivation etc.
• It is implementing Collision Avoidance Manoeuvre (CAM) to avoid paths that may lead to collision.
• Collaboration with NASA, SpaceX, JAXA etc for risk mitigation.
• Ensuring post mission disposal of satellites so that no residual fuel is left unburnt.
• Use of NETWORK for Space object Tracking and Analysis (NETRA) , Multi Object tracking RADAR
and two new optical telescopes which will increase monitoring capabilities.

Conclusion
• The expansion of Human Society into the space domain has brought in many benefits. At the same
time, it has spawned novel challenges of which space debris is quickly gaining significance. The
success of future endeavours in Space not only of the major space powers but also of newer
entrants depends on how sustainably we address the space debris issue.
Distribution of Oceans & Continents
 Continental Drift Theory
Earth In Permian Era

Earth In Triassic Era

 Evidences
Apparent Affinity Of Physical Features
 • The shorelines of Africa and South America facing each other have a remarkable and unmistakable
match, especially, the bulge of Brazil fits into the Gulf of Guinea.
• Greenland seems to fit in well with Ellesmere and Baffin islands. The west coast of India,
Madagascar and Africa seem to have been joined.
• North and South America on one side and Africa and Europe on the other fit along the mid-Atlantic
ridge.
• The Caledonian and Hercynian mountains of Europe and the Appalachians of USA seem to be
one continuous series.
PLACER DEPOSITS

• Rich placer deposits of gold are found on the Ghana coast (West Africa) but the source (gold
bearing veins) are in Brazil and it is obvious that the gold deposits of the Ghana are derived from
the Brazil plateau when the two continents lay side by side.
Distribution of Fossils
 • When identical species of plants and animals adapted to living on land or in fresh water are found
on either side of the marine barriers, a problem arises regarding accounting for such distribution.
• The observations that Lemurs occur in India, Madagascar and Africa led some to consider a
contiguous landmass “Lemuria” linking these three landmasses.
• Mesosaurus was a small reptile adapted to shallow brackish water. The skeletons of these are
found only in two localities : the Southern Cape province of South Africa and Iraver formations
of Brazil. The two localities presently are 4,800 km apart with an ocean in between them
Rocks Of Same Age & Characteristics

• The radiometric dating methods developed in the recent period have facilitated correlating the rock
formation from different continents across the vast ocean.
• The belt of ancient rocks of 2,000 million years from Brazil coast matches with those from western
Africa.
• The earliest marine deposits along the coastline of South America and Africa are of the Jurassic
age.
• This suggests that the ocean did not exist prior to that time.
Paleoclimate Data – Tillite Deposits
Paleoclimate Data – Gondwana Coal

PALEOCLIMATE DATA – TILLITE DEPOSITS

• It is the sedimentary rock formed out of deposits of glaciers. The Gondwana system of sediments
from India is known to have its counter parts in six different landmasses of the Southern
Hemisphere.
• At the base the system has thick Tillite indicating extensive and prolonged glaciation. Counter parts
of this succession are found in Africa, Falkland Island, Madagascar, Antarctica and Australia besides
India.
• Overall resemblance of the Gondwana type sediments clearly demonstrates that these landmasses
had remarkably similar histories.

FORCE FOR CONTINENRAL DRIFT

• Pole Fleeing Force
• Tidal Force
FORCE FOR CONTINENRAL DRIFT
• Force for Drifting Wegener suggested that the movement responsible for the drifting of the
continents was caused by pole-fleeing force and tidal force. The polar-fleeing force relates to the
rotation of the earth.
 • The second force that was suggested by Wegener—the tidal force—is due to the attraction of the
moon and the sun that develops tides in oceanic waters.
• Wegener believed that these forces would become effective when applied over many million
years. However, most of scholars considered these forces to be totally inadequate.
• According to Wegener, the drift is still continuing.
Evidences And Criticism

Extra Points to Know

• Movement of Continents across Oceans
• Mountain building
• Why only Northward and Westward Drift
• Oceanic Ridges and Island Arcs
• Pulling of Atmosphere

UPSC PYQ
Q. Which of the following phenomena might have influenced the evolution of organisms? (2014)
1) Continental drift
2) Glacial cycles
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Mains ( PYQ)
What do you understand by the theory of ‘continental drift’? Discuss the prominent
evidences in its support. (2013)
Answer
Introduction
One of the earliest comprehensive theories of continental drift was suggested by Alfred Wegener in 1912 in
the context of the movement of the Lithosphere and continents.
Body
Continental Drift theory
• According to Wagner, around 240 million years ago, all the continents of today were a single
continental mass called PANGEA and a mega ocean called PANTHALASSA surrounded it.
• Around 200 million years ago, the supercontinent, Pangaea, began to split. Pangaea first broke into
two large continental masses as Laurasia and Gondwanaland forming the northern and southern
components respectively.
• Subsequently, Laurasia and Gondwanaland continued to break into various smaller continents that
exist today.
Prominent Evidence to Support the theory continental Drift
• The Matching of Continents (Jig-Saw-Fit): The shorelines of Africa and South America facing each
other have a remarkable and unmistakable match as shown above
• Rocks of Same Age Across the Oceans: Using the radiometric dating methods, it was found that the
belt of ancient rocks from Brazil coast matches with those from western Africa.
• Also, the earliest marine deposits along the coastline of South America and Africa are of the Jurassic
age. This suggests that the ocean between them did not exist prior to that time.

Evidence
• The Gondwana system of sediments from India is known to have its counterparts in six different
landmasses of the Southern Hemisphere such as Africa, Falkland Island, Madagascar, Antarctica and
Australia.
• Placer Deposits: The occurrence of rich placer deposits of gold on the Ghana coast and the absolute
absence of source rock in the region is an amazing fact. The gold-bearing veins are in Brazil and it is
obvious that the gold deposits of Ghana are derived from the Brazil plateau when the two continents
were joined.
• Distribution of Fossils: Several examples of identical species of plants and animals adapted to living
on land or in freshwater are found on either side of the marine barriers.
• For example, the Lemurs occurring in India, Madagascar and Africa led some to consider a
contiguous landmass ‘Lemuria’ linking these three landmasses.
Conclusion
• Continental drift theory however was unable to answer the reasons behind the movement of
continents in a comprehensive and credible way and thus today, the theory of continental drift has
been replaced by the science of plate tectonics

CONVECTIONAL CURRENT THEORY

Concept
MID – OCEANIC SYSTEMS
Trenches
 • Arthur Holmes in 1930s discussed the possibility of convection currents operating in the mantle
portion. These currents are generated due to radioactive elements causing thermal differences in
the mantle portion.
• Holmes argued that there exists a system of such currents in the entire mantle portion.
Note - Wherever rising limbs of these currents meet, oceanic ridges are formed on the sea floor and
wherever the failing limbs meet, trenches are formed.

Extra Points to Know

• Convectional Current Theory
• Explained formation of Mountains
• Basis for Sea Floor Spreading Theory
• Leads to heat loss weakening the entire process ?
• Is this amount of heat available ?
CONVECTIONAL CURRENT THEORY
MID – OCEANIC RIDGE

SEA FLOOR SPREADING

YOUNGER OCEANIC ROCKS
ROCKS OF SAME NATURE – EQUIDISTANT

SEDIMENTS
PALEOMAGNETISM

Particularly, the mapping of the ocean floor and palaeomagnetic studies of rocks from oceanic regions
revealed the following facts:
• It was realised that all along the midoceanic ridges, volcanic eruptions are common and they bring
huge amounts of lava to the surface in this area.
 • The rocks equidistant on either side of the crest of mid-oceanic ridges show remarkable similarities
in terms of period of formation, chemical compositions and magnetic properties.
• Rocks closer to the midoceanic ridges are normal polarity and are the youngest. The age of the rocks
increases as one moves away from the crest.
• The ocean crust rocks are much younger than the continental rocks. The age of rocks in the oceanic
crust is nowhere more than 200 million years old. Some of the continental rock formations are as old
as 3,200 million years.
• The sediments on the ocean floor are unexpectedly very thin. Scientists were expecting, if the ocean
floors were as old as the continent, to have a complete sequence of sediments for a period of much
longer duration. However, nowhere was the sediment column found to be older than 200 million
years.
Note - The deep trenches have deep-seated earthquake occurrences while in the mid oceanic ridge areas,
the quake foci have shallow depths

Theory
• These facts and a detailed analysis of magnetic properties of the rocks on either side of the mid-
oceanic ridge led Hess (1961) to propose his hypothesis, known as the “sea floor spreading”. Hess
argued that constant eruptions at the crest of oceanic ridges cause the rupture of the oceanic crust
and the new lava wedges into it, pushing the oceanic crust on either side. The ocean floor, thus
spreads.
•

• The younger age of the oceanic crust as well as the fact that the spreading of one ocean does not
cause the shrinking of the other, made Hess think about the consumption of the oceanic crust.
• He further maintained that the ocean floor that gets pushed due to volcanic eruptions at the crest,
sinks down at the oceanic trenches and gets consumed.

Note – PALEOMAGNETISM
• Palaeomagnetism is the study of magnetic rocks and sediments to record the history of the magnetic
field. Some rocks and materials contain minerals that respond to the magnetic field. So, when rocks
form, the minerals align with the magnetic field preserving its position. It’s called rock magnetism
when rocks record the position of the magnetic field.
• The magnetic signature of the rocks allows paleomagnetic to date the rocks and map the position of
the field at the time of their formation.
Conclusion
• Harry Hess neither explains the features of ocean floors nor the movement of the continents.
• But it cannot be denied that it was the first complete hypothesis to discuss seafloor movement and
development.
Plate Tectonics
Convectional Current Theory
INTERACTIONS OF OCEANIC PLATES

DIVERGENT EDGE
CONVERGENT EDGE
EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF PLATE TECTONICS

Basic Points :
• Indonesian archipelago and Philippine archipelago are located along the plate margins.
• Both the archipelagos were formed due to ocean-ocean convergence.
 • In ocean-ocean convergence, two oceanic plates converge or collide. The denser plate subducts
into the asthenosphere below the convergence zone and forms a trench at the surface. This region
below the convergence zone is called the zone of subduction.
• In the zone of subduction, due to high temperature and pressure, the rocks undergo
metamorphosis and the sediments in the oceanic plate melt to form magma.
Explain the formation of thousands of islands in Indonesian and Philippines archipelagos. ( UPSC PYQ)
Basic Points :
• The magma being lighter moves upwards due to the buoyant force offered by the surrounding
denser medium. At the surface magma at high pressure escapes in the form of volcanic eruptions.
• The magma solidifies creating a volcanic layer. Subsequent volcanism builds a layer over layer
and a volcanic mountain if formed. Such mountains are formed all along the converging edge
above the less dense plate.
• Over time the mountains merge, and the oceanic crust gets transformed into continental crust.
• This is how Indonesian archipelago and Philippine archipelago were formed.
• Fold mountains are created where two or more of Earth’s tectonic plates are pushed together.
• At these colliding, compressing boundaries, rocks and debris are warped and folded
into rocky outcrops, hills, mountains, and entire mountain ranges.
• World’s fold mountains are located on the margins of the continents because fold mountains are
formed from the folding of crust and uprising of the sediments accumulated by rivers along the
margins of the continents by the collision of two continental plates or a continental plate and an
oceanic plate.
• An example of fold mountains formed by converging of two continental plates are Himalayas
mountains and fold mountains formed by convergence of a continental plate and an oceanic plate
are Andes mountains, Appalachians mountains etc.

POINTS TO KNOW
Turket Earthquake
• Context
• Recently, powerful tremors were felt in Turkey after an earthquake of magnitude 7.8 struck
along a well-known fault line called the Anatolia tectonic block.
• The earthquakes emerged from relatively shallow depths and were a “strike-slip quake”.
Why Turkey is prone to devastating earthquakes
• Turkey’s proneness to earthquakes comes from its tectonic location. The Earth’s outermost layer
comprises of some 15 major slabs, called tectonic plates. The boundaries between these plates are
a system of faults – fractures between two blocks of rocks. Any sudden movement along these
faults can cause earthquakes.
• Turkey is located on the Anatolian tectonic plate, which is wedged between the Eurasian and
African plates. On the north side, the minor Arabian plate further restricts movement. One fault
line — the North Anatolian fault (NAF) line, the meeting point of the Eurasian and Anatolian
tectonic plates — is known to be “particularly devastating”
 • Then there is the East Anatolian fault line, the tectonic boundary between the Anatolian Plate
and the northward-moving Arabian Plate.
• In addition to this, the Aegean Sea Plate, located in the eastern Mediterranean Sea under
southern Greece and western Turkey, is also a source of seismic activity in the region.
What is Strike Slip Earthquake
• Strike-slip earthquakes occur along transform boundaries. The cause of strike-slip fault
earthquakes is due to the movement of the two plates against one another and the release of built-
up strain.
A study revealed that the gradual separation of the African continent is leading to the formation of a new
ocean basin.
• The three plates — the Nubian African Plate, Somalian African Plate and Arabian Plate — are
separating at different speeds.
• The Arabian Plate is moving away from Africa at a rate of about an inch per year, while the two
African plates are separating even slower, between half an inch to 0.2 inches per year.
• In the past 30 million years, the Arabian Plate has been gradually moving away from Africa,
which has already led to the creation of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden.
• As the Somali and Nubian tectonic plates continue to pull apart from each other, a smaller
continent will be created from the rift, which will include present-day Somalia and parts of
Kenya, Ethiopia, and Tanzania.
• The Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea will eventually flood into the Afar region in Ethiopia and the
East African Rift Valley, leading to the formation of a new ocean.
• This new ocean will result in East Africa becoming a separate small continent with its own unique
geographic and ecological characteristics.
Compare and Contrast the Theories for Distribution of Oceans and
Continents.
(250 words)
Approach:
• Introduction – Write briefly about the theories of distribution of oceans and continents.
• Body -
o Discuss the similarities of the theories
o Compare and contrast all the three theories in a tabular format.
• Conclusion – Conclude by writing about the importance of theories in understanding about
the distribution of oceans and continents.
Answer:
To study about the movement of earth’s crust, the continental drift theory, the sea floor spreading
theory and the plate tectonic theory were evolved. These theories have answered numerous
uncleared questions whose certain criteria are similar whereas others are different.
Similarities:
• All three try to explain about the distribution of oceans and continents.
• They discuss the forces responsible for formation the earth and ocean.
• They use geological time scales to propose evolution of landforms and oceans.

Comparison:

Parameter Continental Drift Sea Floor Spreading Plate Tectonic

Theory Theory Theory

Proposed by Proposed by Alfred Proposed by Harry Proposed by

Wegner in 1912 Hess in 1960s Mckenzee and Parker
in 1967. Later by
Morgan in 1968.

Substance It explains the It explains the It explains the

movement of movement of oceanic movement of
continental crust only. plates only. lithospheric plates
that include
continents and
oceans.

Forces Pole-fleeing force, tidal Convection current Convection current

Responsible force, gravitational in the mantle result in the mantle result
forces are responsible. into magma and into the convergence
materials come out in and divergence of
the form of lava. plates.

Evidence in Matching of continents Rocks equidistant on Ocean bottom relief,

support (Jig-saw fit), Rocks of the either side of the paleomagnetic rocks,
same age across oceans, crust show distribution of
placer deposits, similarities in terms earthquakes and
distribution of fossils, of period of volcanoes,
tillite deposits are some formation, chemical gravitational
of its evidence. composition, anomalies at trenches,
magnetic properties convergence of
and rocks closer to Eurasian plate and
mid oceanic ridges Indo-Australian plate
are the youngest. shows the plate
 tectonic theory’s
evidence.

Basic All the Continents formed a The rocks are Tectonic Plates were
components of Single continental mass arranged in the divided into 7 major
theory Called Pangea and a Merge chronological order plates and some
Ocean called Panthaleiss. and in the order of minor plates.
their spread.
Due to tensional
Here the ocean floor stress, plates are
Pangea was divided into is continuously pushed away and
• Laurasia (Northern created at the oceanic forms divergent
Component) ridge and it is getting boundaries.
destroyed at the
• Gondwana Land Due to compressional
oceanic trench.
(Southern stress, one plate dives
Hence, the floor of
Component) under the other plate
ocean is spreading
and forms convergent
• Both continued to
boundaries.
break into several
smaller continents Due to shear stress,
that exist today. plates are neither
destructed nor
constructed and
forms transform
boundaries.

Present Status This theory is not fully This theory was This theory is
accepted. incomplete. accepted widely.

Drawback if Too general and It doesn’t explain the It fulfills the

any inexplicit evidences that movement of limitations of the
does not make sense and continental plates. other two theories.
doesn’t explain the
movement of oceans.

Overall It helped in the It helped in the It helped us

contribution evolution of convection evolution of plate understand various
current theory and sea tectonic theory. geographical
floor spreading theory. features.
Thus these theories are very helpful to study about the evolution of continents and oceans.
However, plate tectonics is the most widely accepted theory which explains the evolution of
continents and oceans along with movement of lithospheric plates.
 SOURCES OF INTERIOR OF EARTH
SOURCES OF INFORMATION ABOUT THE INTERIOR

DIRECT SOURCES
SOURCES OF INFORMATION ABOUT THE INTERIOR

INDIRECT SOURCES
 INTERIOR OF THE EARTH
FORMATION OF THE INTERIOR

PLANETARY DIFFERENCIATION:
• In planetary science, planetary differentiation is the process of separating out different
constituents of a planetary body as a consequence of their physical or chemical behavious, where
the body develops into compositionally distinct layers; the denser materials sink into the center,
while less dense materials rise to the surface, generally in a magma ocean.

Such a process tends to create a core and mantle.

LAYERS OF THE EARTH
DISCONTINUITIES

THE LAYERS OF THE EARTH

• It is the outermost solid part of the earth.
•
• It is brittle in nature.
• The thickness of the crust varies under the oceanic and continental
areas.
• Oceanic crust is thinner as compared to the continental crust. The
mean thickness of oceanic crust is 5km whereas that of the continental
is around 30 km.
• The continental crust is thicker in the areas of major mountain
systems
• It is 0.5-1.0 percent of the earth’s volume.
OCEANIC CRUST
• Oceanic crust, extending 5.10 km (3-6 km) beneath the ocean floor is mostly composed of different
types of basalts.
• Geologists often refer to the rocks of the oceanic crust as SiMa. SiMa stands for silicate and
magnesium, the most abundant minerals in oceanic crusts
• Oceanic crust is constantly formed at mid-ocean ridges, where tectonic plates are tearing apart from
each other. As magma that wells up from these rifts in Earth’s surface cools, it becomes young
oceanic crust.
• Just as oceanic crust is formed at midocean ridges, it is destroyed in subduction zones. Subduction
is the important geological process in which a tectonic plate is made of dense lithospheric material
melts or falls below a plate made of less sense lithosphere at a convergent plate boundary.
• Largely due to subduction, oceanic crust is much much younger than continental crust.

CONTINENTAL CRUST
• This is the thick layer of the earth that exists beneath the continents.
• Continental crust is mostly composed of different types of granites.
• Geologists often refer to the rocks of the continental crust as “SiAl.” SiAl stands for silicate and
aluminium, the most abundant minerals in continental crust.
• SiAl can be much thicker than SiMa (as thick as 70 kilometre’s kilometres (44 miles)), but also slightly
less dense (about 2.7 grams per cubic centimetre (1.6 ounces per cubic inch)).
• Continental crust is almost always much older than oceanic crust. Because continental crust is
rarely destroyed and recycled.
MANTLE

• Lithosphere is the solid, outer part of the earth.

• It includes brittle upper portion of the mantle and the crust.
• Types of Lithosphere
o Oceanic Lithosphere
o Continental Lithosphere

ASTHENOSPHERE
• The upper portion of the mantle is called asthenosphere.
• Asthenosphere, zone of earth’s mantle lying beneath the
lithosphere and believed to be much hotter and more fluid than
the lithosphere.
• The word astheno means weak.
• It is the main source of magma that finds its way to the surface
during volcanic eruptions.
• The asthenosphere is the main source of magma and it is the layer over which the lithospheric
plates/ continental plates move (plate tectonics).

MAGMA/LAVA
• The material in the upper mantle portion is called magma.
• Once it starts moving towards the crust or it reaches the surface, it is referred to as lava.
• The material that reaches the ground includes lava flows, pyroclastic debris, volcanic bombs, ash
and dust and gases such as nitrogen compounds, sulphur compounds and minor amounts of
chlorine, hydrogen and argon.
CORE
• 16 per cent of the earth’s volume.
• The outer core is in liquid state while the inner core is in solid state.
• The density of material at the mantle core boundary is around 5 g/cm3 and at the
centre of the earth at 6,300 km, the density value is around 13g/cm3.
• The core is made up of very heavy material mostly constituted by nickel
and iron.
• It is sometimes referred to as the NiFe layer.

NOTE:
REVISE

EARTHQUAKES
WHERE DO EARTHQUAKES HAPPEN?

Along Plate Edges

• Most earthquakes occur along the edge of the oceanic and continental plates. The earth's crust (the
outer layer of the planet) is made up of several pieces, called plates. The plates under the oceans
are called oceanic plates and the rest are continental plates. The plates are moved around by the
motion of a deeper part of the earth (the mantle) that lies underneath the crust.
• These plates are always bumping into each other, pulling away from each other, or past each
other.
 • Earthquakes usually occur where two plates are running into each other or sliding past each other.

Along Faults
• Earthquakes can also occur far from the edges of plates, along faults.
• Faults are cracks in the earth where sections of a plate (or two plates) are moving in different
directions.
• Faults are caused by all that bumping and sliding the plates do.
• They are more common near the edges of the plates.

EARTHQUAKE ALONG PLATES

EARTHQUAKE ALONG FAULTS

FOCUS AND EPICENTRE

WHERE DO EARTHQUAKES HAPPEN?

SEISMIC WAVES

TYPES OF WAVES
BODY WAVES & SURFACE WAVES

SHADOW ZONE

EARTHQUAKE WAVES
Surface Waves
• A Rayleigh wave is a seismic surface wave producing the sudden shake in an elliptical motion,
with no crosswise or perpendicular motion.
• The greater part of the shaking felt from an earthquake is because of the Rayleigh wave, which
can be considerably bigger than other waves.
• Much slower than Body Waves but are the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side to
side.
PROPAGATION OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES

P - WAVES

S - WAVES
RELEVANCE TO STUDY THE INTERIOR OF THE EARTH
TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES: SET 1

TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES: SET 2

EARTHQAKE WAVES

RICHTER SCALE
MERCALLI SCALE
 ROCK CYCLE
ROCKS

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
• Igneous Rocks
• Sedimentary Rocks
• Metamorphic Rocks

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS – MODE OF FORMATION

Classification of rocks as per their mode of formation
• Igneous rocks
o Solidified from magma and lava;
• Sedimentary rocks
o The result of deposition of fragments of rocks by exogenous process.
• Metamorphic rocks
o Formed out of existing rocks undergoing recrystallizations
IGNEOUS ROCKS

Classification Of Rocks – Igneous Rocks

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS – IGNEOUS – BASED ON TEXTURE

INTRUSIVE/EXTRUSIVE ROCKS
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS – BASED ON SILICA
• These are characterized by high content of silica—up to 80 per cent,
while the rest is divided among aluminium, alkalis, magnesium,
iron oxide, lime etc.
• These rocks constitute the Sial portion of the crust. Due to the
excess of silicon, acidic magma cools fast and it does not flow and
spread far away. This flow and cooling give rise to High
Mountains.
• These rocks are poor in silica (about 40 per cent); magnesia content
is up to 40 per cent and the remaining 40 per cent is spread over iron
oxide, lime, aluminium, alkalis, potassium etc.
• Due to low silica content, the parent material of such rocks cools
slowly and thus, flows and spreads far away. This flow and cooling
give rise to plateaus.
• Basalt is a typical example, others being gabbro and dolerite. Not
being very hard, these rocks are weathered relatively easily.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS – SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

• The word ‘sedimentary’ is derived from the Latin word sedimentum,
which means settling.
• Rocks (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic) of the earth’s surface are
exposed to denudational agents, and are broken up into various sizes of
fragments.
• Such fragments are transported by different exogenous agencies and
deposited. These deposits through compaction turn into rocks. This process
is called lithification.
• In many sedimentary rocks, the layers of deposits retain their
characteristics even after lithification. Hence, we see a number of layers of
varying thickness in sedimentary rocks like sandstone, shale etc.
• These rocks consist of a number of layers or strata. These rocks have fossils
of plants and animals.
• These rocks are generally porous and allow water to percolate through
them.
• E.g. Alluvial deposits in the Indo-Gangetic plain
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

CLASSIFICATION – SEDIMENTARY – MODE OF FORMATION

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS –METAMORPHIC ROCKS
• The word metamorphic means ‘change of form’.
• These rocks form under the action of pressure, volume and temperature (PVT) changes.
• Metamorphism is a process by which already consolidated rocks undergo recrystallisation and
reorganisation of materials within original rocks

REVISE
ROCK CYCLE
 Volcanoes
WHAT IS A VOLCANO?

• A volcano is a place where gases, ashes and/or molten rock material – lava – escape to the ground.
• The layer below the solid crust is mantle. It has higher density than that of the crust. The mantle
contains a weaker zone called asthenosphere. It is from this that the molten rock materials find
their way to the surface.
• The material in the upper mantle portion is called magma. Once it starts moving towards the crust
or it reaches the surface, it is referred to as lava.
• The material that reaches the ground includes lava flows, pyroclastic debris, volcanic bombs, ash
and dust and gases such as nitrogen compounds, sulphur compounds and minor amounts of
chlorene, hydrogen and argon.

TYPES OF VOLCANOS
• An active volcano is a volcano that has had at least one eruption during the past 10,000 years. An
active volcano might be erupting or dormant.
• An erupting volcano is an active volcano that is having an eruption...
• A dormant volcano is an active volcano that is not erupting, but supposed to erupt again.
• An extinct volcano has not had an eruption for at least 10,000 years and is not expected to erupt
again in a comparable time scale of the future.
CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANOES
On the basis of nature of eruption and the form developed at the surface

Shield Volcanoes
COMPOSITE VOLCANOES

CALDERA
CALDERA

FLOOD BASALT PROVINCES

MID-OCEAN RIDGE VOLCANOES
REVISION
On the basis of nature of eruption and the form developed at the surface

VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
• The lava that is released during volcanic eruptions on cooling develops into igneous rocks.
• The cooling may take place either on reaching the surface or also while the lava is still in the
crustal portion.
• Depending on the location of the cooling of the lava, igneous rocks are classified as volcanic rocks
(cooling at the surface) and plutonic rocks (cooling in the crust).
• The lava that cools within the crustal portions assumes different forms.
• These forms are called intrusive forms
Batholiths
• A large body of magmatic material that cools in the deeper depth of the crust develops in the form
of large domes.
• They appear on the surface only after the denudational processes remove the overlying materials.
• They cover large areas, and at times, assume depth that may be several km.
• These are granitic bodies. Batholiths are the cooled portion of magma chambers.

Lacoliths
• These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies with a level base and connected by a pipe-like
conduit from below.
• It resembles the surface volcanic domes of composite volcano, only these are located at deeper
depths.
• It can be regarded as the localized source of lava that finds its way to the surface.
 • The Karnataka plateau is spotted with domal hills of granite rocks.
• Most of these, now exfoliated, are examples of lacoliths or batholiths.

• As and when the lava moves upwards, a portion of the same may tend to move in a horizontal
direction wherever it finds a weak plane.
• It may get rested in different forms.
• In case it develops into a saucer shape, concave to the sky body, it is called lapolith.

Phacolith
• A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at the base of synclines or at the top of anticline
in folded igneous country.
• Such wavy materials have a definite conduit to source beneath in the form of magma chambers
(subsequently developed as batholiths)
• These are called the phacoliths.
Sills
• The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or sheet, depending on the
thickness of the material.
• The thinner ones are called sheets while the thick horizontal deposits are called sills.

Dykes
• When the lava makes its way through cracks and the fissures developed in the land, it solidifies
almost perpendicular to the ground.
• It gets cooled in the same position to develop a wall-like structure. Such structures are called dykes.
These are the most commonly found intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra area.
• These are considered the feeders for the eruptions that led to the development of the Deccan traps.
 HOT SPOT VOLCANISM
Hotspot Volcanism
• Hotspot volcanism is a type of volcanism that typically occurs at the interior parts of the
lithospheric plates rather than at the zones of convergence and divergence (plate margins).
• Example – Icelandic Hotspot
• Hotspot volcanism occurs due to abnormally hot centres in the mantle known as mantle plumes.

Mantle Plumes
• A mantle plume is the convection of abnormally hot rock (magma) within the Earth’s mantle.
• Unlike the larger convection cells in the mantle which change their position over geological
timescales, the position of the mantle plumes seems to be relatively fixed.
• Mantle plumes are theorised to form at the core-mantle boundary where an abnormally hot plume
of rock accumulates.
• The mantle plume is shaped like a mushroom with a long conduit (tail) connecting the bulbous
head to its base. The head expands in size as the plume rises.
Applications - Flood basalt volcanism
• When a plume head encounters the base of the lithosphere, it flattens out and undergoes
widespread decompression melting to form large volumes of basalt magma.
• The basaltic magma may then erupt onto the surface through a series of fissures giving rise to large
igneous provinces. When created, these regions often occupy several thousand square kilometers
• Large igneous provinces, such as Iceland, Siberian Traps, Deccan Traps, and Ontong Java Plateau,
are extensive regions of basalts on a continental scale resulting from flood basalt eruptions..
Applications - Mantle plumes and volcanic hotspots
• The mantle plume provides a continuous supply of abnormally hot magma to a fixed location in
the mantle referred to as a hotspot.
• Hotspot volcano chain
• A volcano above a hotspot does not erupt forever. Attached to the tectonic plate below, the volcano
moves and is eventually cut off from the hotspot (plate moves overhead relative to the fixed plume
source).
• Without any source of heat, the volcano becomes extinct and cools. This cooling causes the rock
of the volcano and the tectonic plate to become denser. Over time, the dense rock sinks and erodes.
• A new and active volcano develops over the hotspot creating a continuous cycle of volcanism,
forming a volcanic arc that parallels plate motion.
• The Hawaiian Islands chain in the Pacific Ocean is the best example.

Hot Spots

Applications - Mantle plumes and Divergence

• Mantle plumes are convection currents on a small scale (in comparison to major convection currents
in the mantle).
• The plume rises through the centre and diverges in all directions just below the lithospheric plates.
• The divergence of the plume exerts extensional stress (tensile stress) on the lithospheric plate above
and causes the plate to stretch and rupture and then diverge to form a rift in between.
• Afar hotspot in Africa got ruptured due to the mantle plume below
Mantle plumes and thinning of the continental crust
• The Yellowstone hotspot is an example for a hotspot developed beneath a continent.
• Here the mantle plume has been thinning the part of America’s crust above and is likely to thin the
whole of the surface

Define mantle plume and explain its role in plate tectonics. ( UPSC PYQ)
Role of mantle plume in plate tectonics:
• Basic Points
o Volcanism
o Volcanic Chains
o Formation of Islands
o Formation of Rift Valleys
o Continental Drifting, break up and Formation of Ocean Basins
o Formation of Basalt Provinces (Plates )
 PACIFIC RING OF FIRE

• The Ring of Fire is a string of volcanoes and sites of seismic activity, or earthquakes, around the
edges of the Pacific Ocean. Roughly 90 percent of all earthquakes occur along the Ring of Fire, and
the ring is dotted with 75 percent of all active volcanoes on Earth.
Plate Boundaries
• The Ring of Fire is the result of plate tectonics.
Convergent Boundaries
• A convergent plate boundary is formed by tectonic plates crashing into each other. Convergent
boundaries are often subduction zones, where the heavier plate slips under the lighter plate,
creating a deep trench. This subduction changes the dense mantle material into buoyant magma,
which rises through the crust to Earth’s surface. Over millions of years, the rising magma creates a
series of active volcanoes known as a volcanic arc.
• The Andes Mountains of South America run parallel to the Peru-Chile Trench, created as the
Nazca Plate subducts beneath the South American Plate.
• The Andes Mountains include the world’s highest active volcano, Nevados Ojos del Salado

Peru Chile Trench

Divergent Boundaries
• A divergent boundary is formed by tectonic plates pulling apart from each other.
• Divergent boundaries are the site of seafloor spreading and rift valleys. Seafloor spreading is the
process of magma welling up in the rift as the old crust pulls itself in opposite directions.
Cold seawater cools the magma, creating new crust.
• The upward movement and eventual cooling of this magma has created high ridges on the ocean
floor over millions of years.
• The East Pacific Rise is a site of major seafloor spreading in the Ring of Fire.
• The East Pacific Rise is located on the divergent boundary of the Pacific Plate and the Cocos Plate
(west of Central America), the Nazca Plate (west of South America),

East Pacific Rise

Transform Boundaries
• A transform boundary is formed as tectonic plates slide horizontally past each other.
• Parts of these plates get stuck at the places where they touch. Stress builds in those areas as the
rest of the plates continue to move.
• This stress causes the rock to break or slip, suddenly lurching the plates forward and
causing earthquakes. These areas of breakage or slippage are called faults.
• The majority of Earth’s faults can be found along transform boundaries in the Ring of Fire.
• The San Andreas Fault, stretching along the central west coast of North America, is one of the most
active faults on the Ring of Fire.
• It lies on the transform boundary between the North American Plate, which is moving south, and
the Pacific Plate, which is moving north.
San Andreas Fault

• Hot Spots
• The Ring of Fire is also home to hot spots, areas deep within Earth’s mantle from which heat rises.
This heat facilitates the melting of rock in the brittle, upper portion of the mantle. The melted rock,
known as magma, often pushes through cracks in the crust to form volcanoes.
• Hot spots are not generally associated with the interaction or movement of Earth’s tectonic plates.
• Example – Hawaiian Islands
• Active Volcanoes in the Ring of Fire
 • Most of the active volcanoes on the Ring of Fire are found on its western edge, from the Kamchatka
Peninsula in Russia, through the islands of Japan and Southeast Asia, to New Zealand.

Indonesian Islands

Island Arcs
• Island arcs are formed due to subduction of an oceanic plate beneath another.
• Indonesian and Philippine archipelagos are formed due to ocean-ocean convergence. Philippine
Island Arc system is formed due to subduction of Philippine Sea plate under the Sunda Plate. For
Indonesian Archipelago, the Indo-Australian plate is subducting below Sunda Plate
Philippine Island

Closer Look
Philippine Island Arc system is formed due to subduction of Philippine Sea plate under
the Sunda

Indonesian Islands

For Indonesian Archipelago, the Indo-Australian plate is subducting below Sunda Plate
UPSC PYQ
Question: Discuss the Geophysical Characteristics of Circum – Pacific Zone.

Introduction:
• Circum pacific ring, also known as the Pacific Ring of fire, is a horshoe shaped seismically active belt
of tectonic boundaries.
• Geophysical Characteristics refers to Physical Phenomena like Earthquake, subduction , volcanoes
etc .

Geophysical Characteristics of Circum – Pacific Zone-

Volcanic Phenomena –
• Hotspot Formation - areas deep within Earth’s mantle from which heat rise. Ex – Hawaiian Islands
• Island Arcs – Surrounded by Volcanic Island Arcs due to subduction of Oceanic Plates – Ex –
Indonesian Islands
• About three fourth of the world’s active volcanoes are located in this belt due to interaction in plate
margins leading to trenches and subsequent volcanism .
• Existence of Plates : Circum Pacific belt surrounds both major and minor plates leading to
convergent, divergent and transform boundary .
• Seismic Features : Epicentre of 80 percent of world’s earthquakes due to interaction in plate
boundaries .
• Ex – The pacific and North American Plates don’t form volcanoes as they form transform boundary,
where plates move sideways past one another. This type of boundary generates a large number of
earthquakes as tension in Earth’s crust builds up and is released.
Oceanographic Features
• Deep Ocean Trenches – Subduction of Oceanic Plates leading to Trenches Ex – Peru Chile Trench
The pacific and North American Plates don’t form volcanoes as they form transform boundary, where plates
move sideways past one another.
 DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES
Distribution of Earthquakes along the World
• Circum-Pacific Seismic Belt: The circum-Pacific seismic belt, which is the largest earthquake belt in
the world, runs around the Pacific Ocean's rim and is where about 81% of the planet's major
earthquakes take place.
• Mid Continental Belt:The Mid Continental Belt, which includes the Himalayas, the Mediterranean,
and the Atlantic Ocean, stretches from Europe to Sumatra.Around 17% of the greatest earthquakes
in the globe, including some of the most damaging ones, occur inside this belt.
• Mid-Atlantic Ridge: The third distinct belt is located in the submerged mid-Atlantic Ridge. The
ridge indicates the separation of two tectonic plates (a divergent plate boundary).

Distribution of Earthquakes along the World

Mid Continental Belt – Alpide Belt

 INDIAN CONTEXT
India’s Vulnerability to Earthquakes
• India is located in the Alpine seismic region, one of the most damaging earthquake belts.
• India is vulnerable to earthquakes of moderate to extremely high strength because the Indian
Plate is moving towards the Eurasian plate.
• India's increasing population and extensive unscientific constructions keeps - India at high risk.
• Earthquake in Andaman and Nicobar Islands due to underwater seismic activity and interaction
to Burma Minor Plate .

Burma Plate

UPSC PYQ (GS 3 – Disaster Management )

Question: Discuss about the vulnerability of India to earthquake related hazards. Give examples including
the salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India during the last three
decades.
• Introduction - Earthquake hazards include any physical phenomenon associated with an
earthquake that may produce adverse effects on human activities. Hazards associated with
earthquakes include ground tremor, surface rupture, landslides, liquefaction, tectonic
deformation, tsunami, etc.
Vulnerability of India to Earthquake-related hazards:
• According to the National Disaster Management Authority, more than 58.6 percent of India’s
landmass is prone to earthquakes of moderate to very high intensity
Reasons for the Vulnerability
• India is located in the Alpine seismic region, one of the most damaging earthquake belts.
• India is vulnerable to earthquakes of moderate to extremely high strength because the Indian Plate
is moving towards the Eurasian plate. These two plates have been colliding for a few million years.
• India's increasing population and extensive unscientific constructions keeps - India at high risk.
• Earthquake in Andaman and Nicobar Islands due to underwater seismic activity and interaction
to Burma Minor Plate .

Salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India

during the last three decades
Earthquake Reason Effect

2001 Bhuj Earthquake Reactivated Fault – not Loss of life and property
known Earlier

2004 Indian Ocean Under-water seismic Massive Floods

Tsunami activity

2005 Kashmir Earthquake Movement of Indian Disruption of Infrastructure

plate against Eurasian and communication
plate
 MISCELLANEOUS CONTENT FOR GS 3
UPSC PYQ (Environment + Geography)
Mention the global occurrence of volcanic eruptions in 2021 and their impact on regional environment
• A volcanic eruption is when gas and/or lava are released from a volcano—sometimes explosively.
• Volcanoes provide a number of environmental benefits, for example: fertile soils, hydrothermal
energy, and precious minerals.
• But they also pose several hazards: volcanic ash, gases, lahars (mud flows), landslides, lava flows,
and pyroclastic flows (fast-moving currents of hot gas).
Volcanic Eruption Details

La – Palma Volcano Spain - Erupted for the first time in 50 years

Nyiragongo Democratic Republic of Congo – Loss of life

Hunga Tonga – Hunga Tapai Pacific Ocean - Undersea Volcanic Eruption

Volcano consisting of two small uninhabited islands

Taal volcano Phillipines -Phreatomagmatic Eruption

Impacts on regional environment:

• Volcanic ash plumes can cover wide swaths of the sky, obstructing visibility.
• As a result of reflecting incoming solar radiation, volcanic ash causes a localised decrease of the
temperature.
• Volcanic eruptions disturb vegetation at a time it is needed for preventing mudflows. In long term ,
these volcanic ashes may increase the soil productivity of the region.
• Volcanic ash can accumulate gases like carbon dioxide and fluorine gas, which can contaminate
the local environment and make it difficult for people and animals to breathe.
• The eruptions' ashfall can interrupt air travel as well as harm infrastructure and crops.
• Volcanic eruptions are generally preceded by increased seismic activity.
 • The earth rotates about an imaginary line that passes through the North and South Poles of the
planet. This line is called the axis of rotation .
• Hence, one portion of the earth’s surface comes towards the rays of the sun and experiences day light.
The other portion is away from the sun’s rays and that will be darkness.
• Earth rotates eastward. Earth rotates once in about 24 hours with respect to the Sun, but once every 23
hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds with respect to other, distant, stars. Our rotation period with respect
to the stars is called a sidereal day.

Why Is the Earth Rotating?

 • The earth was formed out of a nebula that collapsed. As the nebula collapsed, it began rotating. The
Earth's rotation comes from the initial tendency to rotate that was imparted on it when it formed.
• If an object is moving, then a force is required to slow it down or stop it, not to keep it moving. (Hence,
"Objects in motion tend to stay in motion. Objects at rest tend to stay at rest.") In our everyday
experience, it's the force of friction that tends to stop Earth-bound objects from moving forever. But for
the Earth rotating on its axis, there is no force working to counteract the rotation (except the tidal
effect of the Moon, but that's working very slowly).

Is this Right ?
• Today, the Earth's axis is tilted 23.5 degrees from the plane of its orbit around the sun. But this tilt
changes.
• During a cycle that averages about 40,000 years, the tilt of the axis varies between 22.1 and 24.5
degrees.
• The reason is that the earth’s axis also wobbles (move or cause to move unsteadily from side to side.)
around itself. The wobble motion is called axial precession. it is caused by gravitational force from the
sun, the moon and other planets and uneven distribution of mass inside the earth. A complete wobble
of earth’s axis takes around 26,000 years.

• It is said that When an object, the size of mars crashed into newly formed planet earth around 4.5
billion years ago, it knocked our planet and left it tilted to an angle. For the past 4.5 billion years,
earth is orbiting the sun at a slant. This is the axial tilt and is called obliquity.
• As the earth orbits the sun at an angle, the solar energy reaching different parts of our planet is not
constant. It varies during the course of the year. This is the reason why we have different seasons. It is
also the reason, why seasons are opposite in southern and northern hemisphere.
NOTE :

• Since a large portion of the northern hemisphere is getting light from the sun, it is summer in the
regions north of the equator.
• The longest day and the shortest night at these places occur on 21st June.

• At this time in the southern hemisphere all these conditions are reversed. It is winter season there.
• This position of the earth is called the summer solstice.
• On 22nd December, the Tropic of Capricorn receives direct rays of the sun as the south pole tilts towards
it. The vice versa of the summer solstice is observed now. This position of the earth is called the winter
solstice
On 21st June, the Sun
a) does not set below the horizon at the Arctic Circle

b) does not set below the horizon at Antarctic Circle

c) shines vertically overhead at noon on the Equator
d) shines vertically overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn

UPSC – 2022
In the northern hemisphere, the longest day of the year normally occurs in the:
(a) First half of the month of June

(b) Second half of the month of June

(c) First half of the month of July
(d) Second half of the month of July

UPSC – 2013
Variations in the length of daytime and night time from season to season are due to
(a) the earth’s rotation on its axis
(b) the earth’s revolution round the sun in an elliptical manner
(c) latitudinal position of the place

(d revolution of the earth on a tilted axis

 • These are imaginary lines on the globe, one set running east and west, parallel to the equator and
these are latitudes.
• The other set runs north and south passing through the poles and these are called lines of longitude.
• The intersection of latitude and longitude pin points any place on the earth’s surface.

Latitudes
• Latitude is the angular distance of a point on the earth’s surface measured in degrees from the centre
of the earth.
• It is parallel to a line, the equator which is mid-way between the poles. The lines are called parallels
of latitude.
 • On the globe, these are actually circling and they become smaller when we reach towards the poles
• The equator represents zero degrees and the north and south poles are 90 degrees N and 90 degrees
S.

Other Latitudes

• The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at least once a year on all latitudes in between the Tropic of
Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
• This area, therefore, receives the maximum heat and is called the torrid zone
• The mid-day sun never shines overhead on any latitude beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic
of Capricorn.
• The angle of the sun’s rays goes on decreasing towards the poles. These are, therefore, called
temperate zones.
• Areas lying between the Arctic circle and the north pole in the northern hemisphere and the
Antarctic circle and the south pole in the southern hemisphere, are very cold. It is because here the
sun does not raise much above the horizon. These are, therefore, called frigid zones.
• It is an angular distance measured in degrees along the equator, east or west of prime meridian. On
the globe, longitude runs from pole to pole passing through the equator
• In 1884, it was decided to choose zero meridian, the one which passes through the royal astronomical
observatory at Greenwich near London.
• From the prime meridian, all other meridians radiate eastward and westward up to 180 degrees.
• Time: As the earth moves from west to east, for every 15 degrees if we go eastwards, local time is
advanced by one hour.
• Conversely if we go westwards, local time is retarded by one hour.
• India accepted meridian of 82 1 /2 degrees E for the standard time, which is 5 hrs and 30 min ahead
of GMT.
NOTE :

India – Let’s Calculate

Indian Context – Time Zones – Issue ?

• International date line is the line, where the date changes by exactly one day when it is crossed.
NOTE
• Some groups of Islands (Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia) fall on either of the dateline.
• So, if the dateline was straight, then two regions of the same Island Country or Island group would
fall under different date zones.
• Thus, to avoid any confusion of date, this line is drawn through where the sea lies and not land.
Hence, the IDL is drawn in a zig-zag manner.
Gases
• Carbon dioxide is meteorologically a very important gas as it is transparent to the incoming solar
radiation but opaque to the outgoing terrestrial radiation.
• It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and reflects back some part of it towards the earth’s surface.
It is largely responsible for the greenhouse effect
• Ozone is another important component of the atmosphere found between 10 and 50 km above the
earth’s surface and acts as a filter and absorbs the ultra-violet rays radiating from the sun and
prevents them from reaching the surface of the earth.
• Water vapour is also a variable gas in the atmosphere, which decreases with altitude.
• In the warm and wet tropics, it may account for four per cent of the air by volume, while in the dry
and cold areas of desert and polar regions, it may be less than one per cent of the air.
• Water vapour also decreases from the equator towards the poles.
• It also absorbs parts of the insolation from the sun and preserves the earth’s radiated heat. It thus,
acts like a blanket allowing the earth neither to become too cold nor too hot.
Note :
• Certain atmospheric gases absorb radiation at some wavelengths but allow radiation at other
wavelengths to pass through unimpeded.
• Absorption of energy by a particular gas occurs when the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation
is similar to that of the molecular vibrational frequency of the gas in question.
• Dust Particles: Atmosphere has a sufficient capacity to keep small solid particles, which may
originate from different sources and include sea salts, fine soil, smoke-soot, ash, pollen, dust and
disintegrated particles of meteors.
• Dust particles are generally concentrated in the lower layers of the atmosphere; yet, convectional air
currents may transport them to great heights.
• The higher concentration of dust particles is found in subtropical and temperate regions due to dry
winds in comparison to equatorial and polar regions.
• Dust and salt particles act as hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapour condenses to produce
cloud

• The atmosphere consists of different layers with varying density and temperature.
• Density is highest near the surface of the earth and decreases with increasing altitude.
• The troposphere is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere
• Its average height is 13 km and extends roughly to a height of 8 km near the poles and about 18 km
at the equator
• Thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the equator because heat is transported to great heights
by strong convectional currents.
• This layer contains dust particles and water vapour.
Height of Troposphere- Reason

Why Temperature Inversion?

• The troposphere ends with the Tropopause.

• The Zone separating the troposphere from stratosphere is known as the tropopause.
• The temperature here is nearly constant, and hence, it is called the tropopause.

• The stratosphere is found above the tropopause and extends up to a height of 50 km.
• Temperature increases with increasing height.
• This rise is due to the presence of ozone (harmful ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by ozone).
• Devoid of major weather phenomena but there is circulation of feeble winds and presence of cirrus
cloud in lower stratosphere
• Commercial jet planes fly in air because of less atmospheric turbulence. Upper limit of stratosphere
is called as the stratopause.
• Lower part consists of most important layer ozone. This layer absorbs ultra-violet radiation and
shields life on the earth from intense, harmful form of energy. This zone is referred to as
ozonosphere and is also called chemosphere because, a lot of chemical activity goes on here.

• The mesosphere lies above the stratosphere, which extends up to a height of 80 km.
• In this layer, once again, temperature starts decreasing with the increase in altitude and reaches up
to minus 100°C at the height of 80 km
• The upper limit of mesosphere is known as the mesopause.
• Meteorites burn up in this layer on entering from the space.

• It extends between 80 kilometre and 640-kilometre

• Temperature in its upper limit becomes up to 1700 degree Celsius
• The International Space Station and satellites orbit in this layer. (
• Though temperature is high, the atmosphere is extremely rarefied – gas molecules are spaced
hundreds of kilometres apart.
• Hence a person or an object in this layer doesn’t feel the heat)
• Ionosphere is a part of this layer. It extends between 80-400 km.
• This layer helps in radio transmission. In fact, radio waves transmitted from the earth are reflected
back to the earth by this layer. Because of the electric charge, radio waves transmitted from the earth
are reflected back to the earth by this layer.
• Temperature again starts increasing with height because of radiation from the sun.
• This is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere extending beyond the ionosphere above a height of
about 400 km.
• This layer coincides with space.

• Homosphere
• It is a zone of the atmosphere where the constituent gases are fairly mixed with. It consists
of layers till 80- kilometre tropopause, stratosphere and the mesosphere layers.
• Karman Line
• This line represents the boundary between Earth's atmosphere and outer space.
UPSC – 2011
A layer in the Earth’s atmosphere called Ionosphere facilitates radio communication. Why?
1. The presence of ozone causes the reflection of radio waves to Earth.
2. Radio waves have a very long wavelength.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a.) 1 only
(b.) 2 only
(c.) Both 1 and 2
(d.) Neither 1 nor 2

The jet aircrafts fly very easily and smoothly in the lower stratosphere. What could be the appropriate
explanation?
1. There are no clouds or water vapour in the lower stratosphere.
2. There are no vertical winds in the lower stratosphere.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct in this context?
(a.) 1 only
(b.) 2 only
(c.) Both 1 and 2
(d.) Neither 1 nor 2

UPSC - 2012
Normally, the temperature decreases with the increase in height from the Earth’s surface, because(2012)
1. the atmosphere can be heated upwards only from the Earth’s surface
2. there is more moisture in the upper atmosphere
3. the air is less dense in the upper atmosphere
Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
 INSOLATION

The energy received by the earth is known as incoming solar

radiation which in short is termed as insolation.
The earth’s surface receives most of its energy in short wavelengths.

As the earth is a geoid resembling a sphere, the sun’s rays fall

obliquely at the top of the atmosphere and the earth intercepts a very
small portion of the sun’s energy.
The solar output received at the top of the atmosphere varies slightly
in a year due to the variations in the distance between the earth and
the sun.

Variability of earth’s insolation surface: Factors

The Rotation of Earth on its Axis

Sunspots

Angle of Inclination of the Sun’s Rays Land Sea Differential

The Length of the day Prevailing Winds

The Distance between the Earth and the
Sun Aspect of Slope

The transparency of the atmosphere Ocean Currents

Factors

Rotation of the earth

• The variations in the duration of the day and angle of sun's rays at the different latitude

Angle of sun's rays

Length of the day

Distance between the earth and the sun

Factors

Sunspots

Effects of atmosphere
FACTORS

Aspects of Slope - Is this Right ?

Aspects of Slope
Ocean Currents
 •The rate at which energy •The effect of this variation in
reaches the earth's surface the solar output is masked by
other factors like the distribution
from the sun. of land and sea and the
•On an average the earth atmospheric circulation.
receives 1.94 calories per •Hence, this variation in the
sq. cm per minute at the solar output does not have great
effect on daily weather changes
top of its atmosphere. on the surface of the earth.

SOLAR
NOTE
CONSTANT

Spatial Distribution at the Earth’s Surface

• The insolation received at the surface varies from about 320 Watt/m2
in the tropics to about 70 Watt/m2 in the poles.
• Equator receives comparatively less insolation than the tropics.
• Maximum insolation is received over the subtropical deserts, where
the cloudiness is the least.
• Generally, at the same latitude the insolation is more over the
continent than over the oceans.
• In winter, the middle and higher latitudes receive less radiation
than in summer.
 HEATING & COOLING OF ATMOSPHERE

CONDUCTION

CONVECTION

ADVECTION

RADIATION

Conduction

Conduction takes
place when two
bodies of unequal
temperature are in
contact with one
another, there is a Conduction is The earth after being
The air in contact with
the land gets heated
flow of energy from important in heated by insolation
slowly and the upper
the warmer to cooler transmits the heat to the
body.
heating the atmospheric layers near
layers in contact with
the lower layers also get
lower layers of to the earth in long
heated. This process is
the atmosphere wave form.
called conduction.
The transfer of heat
continues until both
the bodies attain the
same temperature or
the contact is broken.
Convection

The air in contact with This process of

the earth Rises The convective
vertical heating of
vertically on heating in transfer of energy is
the atmosphere is
form of current and confined only to the
further transmits the known as
troposphere
heat of the atmosphere convection.

Radiation – Terrestrial radiation

Advection

Horizontal
The transfer of heat movement of the air
through horizontal is relatively more
movement of air is important than the
called advection. vertical movement

Why is the outgoing radiation in the long waveform while incoming days are shortwave
radiation?
•Shortwave radiation contains a lot of energy; longwave radiation
contains less energy than shortwave radiation.

•The sun emits shortwave radiation because it is extremely hot and has a
lot of energy to give off.

•Once in the Earth’s atmosphere, clouds and the surface absorb the solar
energy.

•The ground heats up and re-emits energy as longwave radiation in the

form of infrared rays.

•Earth emits longwave radiation because Earth is cooler than the sun and
has less energy available to give off.
 HEAT BUDGET OF THE EARTH

The earth as a whole does not accumulate or lose heat.

This balance of heat is known as heat budget.

ADDITIONAL INFO
To balance the energy rich and efficient areas it is clear that there must be 2-way transfer of heat from:

The Earth surface to the atmosphere The Equator to the Poles

•This transport of heat from equator towards the poles by the atmosphere is known as
meridional transport of heat.

•The amount of insolation received varies from latitude to latitude

•Regions within the equator and 40° N and S latitudes receive abundant sunlight. Hence, they
are energy surplus regions.

•Regions beyond 40° N and S latitudes lose more heat than that gained from sunlight. Hence,
they are energy deficit region

•But alternatively; The planetary winds and ocean currents transfer excess heat from the tropics
(energy surplus region) towards the poles (energy deficit regions) making up for heat loss at
higher latitudes
•Thus, the transfer of surplus energy from the lower latitudes to the deficit energy zone of the
higher latitudes, maintains an overall balance over the earth’s surface

ADDITIONAL INFO
 TEMPERATURE

The interaction of insolation with the

atmosphere and the earth’s surface creates heat
which is measured in terms of temperature.

Factors Controlling the Distribution Of Temperature

Latitudes of The Place

Continentality

Factors Controlling the Distribution of Temperature

Nature of Ground Surface/Ground Slopes

The snow-covered surface reflects most

of incoming shortwave radiation
(albedo).

Thick vegetative cover cuts off Insolation

from reaching the ground surface.

The ground slope facing the sun receive more

insolation because the sun's rays reach the
surface more or less straight than leeward slope
with sun rays reach more obliquely.
ADRET /UBAC SLOPE

Example
In the Northern
hemisphere, the south
facing slopes of east west
stretching mountain
receive greater amount
of insolation then the
north facing slopes
because of their exposure
to the direct ray’s sun for
longer duration

Distance from the Sea

• Sea breeze blows during the day and the land heats up faster than the sea. The
air on land becomes less dense (i.e. Warmer) and rises so the cooler air over
Sea breeze in a
the sea which is denser(cooler) flows in to take the place of the warm air,
day causing a sea breeze.

• Land breeze blows during the night from land to sea and the land becomes
cooler faster than the sea. The air above the sea becomes less dense (i.e.
Land breeze at warmer) and rises. The cooler air from the land moves in to take its place.
night

• Difference between the daily maximum and minimum temperature.

Diural Range • Compare marine climate with continental climate .
of Temperature
Sea and Land Breeze

Prevailing Winds

• In meteorology, an air mass is a volume of air defined by its

temperature and water vapor content.

Air Mass • Air masses cover many hundreds or thousands of miles,

and adapt to the characteristics of the surface below them.
Prevailing Winds

•During the day, the air over the mountain slope heats up more
than the air at the foot of the mountain. The warm air over the
slope reduces in density. A low pressure is created at the top of
the mountain and high pressure from the cool air below forces a
cool breeze to move upward. This condition generates a breeze
which we call Valley breeze, and it is very common during
warmer months when there is a lot of heating from the sun.

•In the night, it is a lot cooler. So the air at the upper slope of the
Valley Breeze and mountain cools off very quickly and becomes dense. A high
pressure is created. At this time, the air at the valley floor is a lot
Mountain Breeze warmer (low pressure) and is forced to give way to colder air
moving down the slope towards the valley floor. This is called
mountain breeze, and it is a lot common in the colder months
when there is less warming from the sun.

Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze

Nature of Land and Water

•Land becomes warm and cold quickly than water body

• Rays penetrate to a depth of only 3 feet in land but they can penetrate
to several meters in water with the heat getting spread to larger areas.

•The reflection (albedo) of incoming solar radiation from the land is far
more than from the Ocean Water.

•Land is static but water is mobile. Hence there is slow redistribution of

Nature of heat in the land.
Land and
•Specific heat capacity of water is much greater than land.
Water
•There is more evaporation from the seas and hence more heat is spent
in the process.

•Oceanic areas are generally more clouded than the land areas and hence
they receive less insolation than land surface.

Ocean Currents
REVISE

Latitudes of The Place Valley Breeze and Mountain Breeze

Altitude of The Place Nature of Land and Water

Nature Of Ground Air Masses

Surface/Ground Slopes

Distance from the Sea Ocean Currents

 DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE
Vertical Distribution of Temperature

Drops with increasing altitude at the rate of 6.5 celsius per thousand metre. This is
known as normal lapse rate.

Why?

The lowest layer of the air contains more water vapour and dust particles and
hence it absorbs larger amount of heat radiated from Earth's surface then upper
layers.

As we asend higher in the atmosphere the amount of heat gets lost to subsequent
layer lying below.

Horizontal Distribution of Temperature

• A line on a map connecting points having the same

temperature at a given time or on average over a given
Isotherms period.

• They are reduced to sea level to negate the effects of altitude

when drawing isotherms of a place
Note :
Characteristics Of Isotherms

Characteristics of Isotherms

Isotherms run along the latitudes, but they are not parallel to the latitudes.

Generally, there and straight but bent at the junction of continents and oceans.
They take sudden bends at landwater edges because of land-water contact.

Closely spaced isotherms indicate Rapid rate of change of temperature and vice
versa.

Irregular in the Northern hemisphere because of large extent of continents, but there
are more regular in the southern hemisphere due to over dominance of oceans
Distribution of Isotherms in Winters

In continents=
bent equatorward

In oceans=
bent pole words

Distribution of Isotherms in Winters

Horizontal Distribution
 TEMPERATURE INVERSION

•Temperature inversion, a reversal of the normal behaviour of temperature in the

troposphere (the region of the atmosphere nearest the Earth’s surface), in which a
layer of cool air at the surface is overlain by a layer of warmer air. (Under normal
conditions air temperature usually decreases with height.)

•A breeze that blows down a mountain slope due to the gravitational flow of
cooled air. Also known as mountain wind.
Example:
Mountain •Over Polar regions , temperature inversion is normal throughout the year.
Breeze

Mountain Breeze
Favourable Conditions

Points to Know – Impact of Temperature Inversion

Air Drainage
Additional Information:
Normally they are one of the following types:
• Subsidence type- (Upper Troposphere Inversion) – Air mass sinks and gets heated due to resulting
increase in atmospheric pressure. This is common in mid and high latitudes and subtropical oceans.
• Stratospheric Inversion- (Upper Troposphere Inversion) – Air mass sinks and gets heated due to
resulting increase in atmospheric pressure. This is common in mid and high latitudes and subtropical
oceans.
• Surface temperature type (Radiation Inversion)– Air is cooled by contact with colder surface. This
is seen in higher latitudes and in where nights are longer than days.
• Air drainage type ( Valley Inversion)– Cold layer being heavy settles in the intermontane valley
region. For example
• Advectional type (Frontal Inversion) – This is common in frontal zones where cold and warm air
mass collide. Cold air being heavy settles beneath warmer mass.
 MAINS QUESTIONS
1) What do you understand by the phenomenon of temperature inversion in meteorology?
How does it affect the weather and the habitants of the place?
Structure:
Intro – Define the phenomenon of temperature inversion with an illustrative diagram.
Body – Explain the conditions and types of temperature inversion. Enumerate its effects on weather and people.
Conclusion – In conclusion, specify why it is important to study it. It can be linked with climate change.
Answer:
Temperature inversion, is a meteorological phenomenon characterized by reversal of the normal behavior of
temperature in the troposphere, in which a layer of cool air at the surface is overlain by a layer of warmer air.
(Under normal conditions, temperature usually decreases with height).

Favorable conditions for temperature inversion:

• Long nights, so that the outgoing terrestrial radiation is greater than the incoming heat of insolation.
• Clear skies, which allow unobstructed escape of radiation.
• Calm and stable air, so that there is no vertical mixing at lower levels

Normally they are one of the following types:

• Subsidence type – Air mass sinks and gets heated due to resulting increase in atmospheric pressure.
This is common in mid and high latitudes and subtropical oceans.
• Surface temperature type – Air is cooled by contact with colder surface. This is seen in higher
latitudes and in where nights are longer than days.
• Air drainage type – Cold layer being heavy settles in the intermontane valley region. For example
• Advectional type – This is common in frontal zones where cold and warm air mass collide. Cold air
being heavy settles beneath warmer mass.
Effects on weather:
• Limits movement of air - It causes stability and air stagnation in atmosphere that stops the
downward and upward movement of air.
• Less rainfall – As Convection clouds fail to move high upwards so there is less rainfall and no
showers.
• Thunderstorms and tornadoes - Because of the intense energy that is released after an inversion
blocks normal convention patterns, intense thunderstorms and tornadoes also occur when this
pattern breaks.
• Frost in lower regions of valley while sunny and above normal temperature in the mountain region
are seen.
Effects on habitants:
• Density Patterns - Houses and farms in intermontane valleys are usually situated along the upper
slopes, avoiding the cold and foggy valley bottoms. For instance, coffee growers of Brazil, apple
growers and hoteliers of mountain states of Himalayas in India avoid lower slopes.
• Agricultural Productivity - Temperature inversion is associated in lower agricultural productivity
due to low rainfall.
• Visibility - Fog lowers visibility affecting vegetation and human settlements. Particularly transport
is worst affected.
• Air Quality: Due to inversion of temperature, air pollutants such as dust particles and smoke do not
disperse on the surface. This worsens air quality as air stagnates.
o In cities, this often results in Smog as smoke and fog together trap pollutants released by vehicles
and industries. Ex- Delhi, PM 2.5 and dust is unable to escape into atmosphere as inversion
conditions prevail.
o These can also be photochemically reactive as they mix with UV from the sun.
• Other effects:
o Freezing rain creates thin layer of ice on surface that’s invisible to the eyes. This results in a
slippery surface that’s prone to accidents.
o Sound amplification is also seen in these conditions as more sound is refracted down.
Thus, temperature inversion is an important phenomenon that has direct and indirect bearing on climatic
conditions. It is vital to study its causes and effects so that disruptive weather trends can be prevented from
getting established.
Additional Info
• A rising pressure indicates fine, settled weather, while a falling pressure indicates unstable and
cloudy weather. - NEXT CLASS
• The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than that of the horizontal pressure gradient.

• But, it is generally balanced by a nearly equal but opposite gravitational force.

• Hence, we do not experience strong upward winds
• There are distinctly identifiable zones of homogeneous horizontal pressure regimes or ‘pressure belts.

• On the earth’s surface, there are in all seven pressure belts.

• The seven pressure belts are:
• equatorial low,
• the sub-tropical highs,

• the sub-polar lows, and

• the polar highs.
Thermal Factors
• When air is heated, it expands and, hence, its density decreases. This naturally leads to low pressure

• On the contrary, cooling results in contraction. This increases the density and thus leads to high
pressure.
• Formation of equatorial low and polar highs.

Dynamic Factors
• Apart from variations of temperature, the formation of pressure belts may be explained by dynamic
controls arising out of pressure gradient forces and rotation of the earth (Coriolis force).
• The rest of the belts are examples of dynamic factors. (to be discussed in some other lecture)

Pressure Belts in July

• In the northern hemisphere, during summer, with the apparent northward shift of the sun, the
thermal equator is located north of the geographical equator.
• The pressure belts shift slightly north of their annual average locations.

Pressure Belts in January

• During winter, these conditions are completely reversed and the pressure belts shift south of their
annual mean locations. Opposite conditions prevail in the southern hemisphere. The amount of shift is,
however, less in the southern hemisphere due to predominance of water.
• Similarly, distribution of continents and oceans have a marked influence over the distribution of
pressure
 • A rising pressure indicates fine, settled weather, while a falling pressure indicates unstable and
cloudy weather

Convergence and Divergence of Winds

• Over low-pressure area the air will converge and rise.
• Over high-pressure area, the air will subside from above and diverge at the surface.
REVISE

• The wind circulation around the low is called as cyclonic circulation .

• The wind circulation around a high is called anticyclonic circulation

Cyclones (Low Pressure System)

 • Cyclones are areas of low pressure. Since air moves from areas of high pressure to low pressure,
cyclones produce a convergence at the surface. This converging air is forced upwards into the
atmosphere, creating a divergence aloft. As warm, moist air is sucked into the low and forced aloft, it
produces an unstable atmosphere. This warm, moist air cools, condenses and forms storm clouds.
• That is why the word cyclone is almost synonymous with the word storm which denotes a period of
heavy rainfall over a specific area.
Anticyclone (High Pressure System)
• Anticyclones are areas of high pressure. The sinking air spreads out when it reaches the ground,
producing a divergence at the surface. Aloft, air rushes in to fill the void, creating a convergence aloft.
Anticyclones produce a stable atmosphere.
Pressure Gradient Force
• The rate of change of pressure with respect to distance is the pressure gradient.
• The pressure gradient is strong where the isobars are close to each other and is weak where the isobars
are apart.
• The pressure-gradient force is the force that results when there is a difference in pressure across a
surface.
• The wind direction follows the direction of change of pressure, i.e. perpendicular to the isobars .
• Pressure Gradient Force is perpendicular to an Isobar.
Frictional Force
• The irregularities of the earth’s surface offer resistance to the wind movement in the form of friction.
• It is greatest at the surface and its influence children extends upward elevation of 1 - 3 kilometer.
• Over the sea surface the friction is minimum.
Coriolis Force
• The rotation of the earth about its axis is the reason for Coriolis force which affects the direction of the
wind. It deflects the wind to the right direction in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the
southern hemisphere.
• The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force
• The Earth rotates faster at the Equator than it does at the poles.
• The Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of latitude. It is maximum at the poles and is
absent at the equator.

Effects of The Coriolis Force

• The direction of ocean currents is determined by the Coriolis force.
 • The wind blows in the direction determined by the Coriolis force.
• In the northern hemisphere, wind passing from high-pressure belt to low-pressure belt turns towards
the right. This creates anti-clockwise hurricanes.
• In the southern hemisphere due to the Coriolis force, the wind moves towards the left direction creating
clockwise storms.
• The long-distance flights face the Coriolis force and hence the earth’s rotation is taken into account to
determine the direction of flight. Therefore, the flights between two cities never travel in a straight line
even if the cities are located on the same latitude.
• Same is the case with rockets, the rockets are launched towards the eastern direction generally near the
equator, so that they do not get affected by the Coriolis force.
• Same is the case with satellites (but only with the equatorial ones).
• Military aircraft also determine the impact of the Coriolis force before the launch because if the missiles
come under the influence of the Coriolis force, they may land up on a different target
Geostrophic Winds
• The velocity and direction of the wind are the net result of the wind generating forces.
• The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3 km above the surface, are free from frictional effect of the
surface and are controlled mainly by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force.
• When isobars are straight and when there is no friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced by the
Coriolis force and the resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar.
• This wind is known as the geostrophic wind.
 Pressure Belt and Wind Distribution - 2

• 5 Degree N – 5-degree S latitudes.

• Since the vertical rays of the Sun fall on the Earth, the heat is intense and the temperature is high. The
air becomes warm and expands.
• This leads to the creation of a low-pressure belt in the region.
• The convection currents also help to spread the heat to the upper layers of the atmosphere.
• Winds in this pressure belt do not blow at a fast pace and hence this belt is also known as the Belt of
Calms or the Belt of Doldrums.
• The position of the belt varies with the apparent movement of the Sun. Zone of convergence of trade
winds.
• Vertical winds (convection) carrying moisture form cumulonimbus clouds and lead to thunderstorms
(convectional rainfall).
• Inspite of high temperatures, cyclones are not formed at the equator because of ‘zero’ coriolis force.

• This belt is located between 85°N to 90°N and 85°S to 90°S.

• The Polar Regions experience cold climatic conditions as the rays of the Sun are extremely slanting.
• The cold air sinks down giving rise to high pressure areas.

• Extends between the latitudes of 25 Degree -35 degree in both the hemispheres.
• As the air at the equator moves toward the Poles, it begins to cool and sink down at about 30° North
and South of the Equator.
• Descent of winds results in the contraction of their volume and ultimately causes high pressure.
• Zone is characterized by anticyclonic conditions.
• This is one of the reasons for the presence of hot deserts of the world.
• Horse Latitudes

• Located between 60 Degree - 65 Degree latitudes in both the hemispheres.

• It is a zone of two winds; the warm Westerly winds meet the cold polar Easterlies.
• As the Westerlies are lighter, they rise over the cold polar winds creating a low-pressure area.
• These belts experience stormy weather and cyclonic activity especially during the winters.
• The area of contrast between cold and warm air masses produces polar jet streams.

• Trade winds blow from sub-tropical high-pressure areas towards the equatorial low-pressure belt.
• Confined to a region between 30°N and 30°S throughout the earth’s surface.
• The trade winds from two hemispheres meet at the equator, and due to convergence, they rise and
cause heavy rainfall.
• These winds are called trade winds because of the fact that they helped the sea merchants in sailing
their ships as direction of trade winds remains more or less constant and regular.
• The trade winds in the Northern-Hemisphere blow from the north-east direction due to the deflection
of the wind caused by the rotation of the Earth and so are called North-East Trades. Similarly, the trade
winds in the Southern-Hemisphere blow from the South-East direction and thus called South-East
Trades.
• These winds are also noted for their consistency, both in force and direction.

• The Westerlies blow from sub-tropical high-pressure belts towards sub-polar low-pressure belts.
• The Westerlies of Southern Hemisphere blow with great strength and constant in direction than
Northern Hemisphere.
• The westerlies become more vigorous in the southern hemisphere because of lack of land and
dominance of oceans.
• The velocity of the westerlies becomes so great that they are called Roaring Forties between the latitudes
of 40 degree S -50 degree S. Furious Fifties at 50 degree S latitude and Shrieking Sixties at 60 degree S
latitude.
• In fact, a cyclonic front, called as polar front, is formed due to this convergence of two contrasting air
masses and thus temperate cyclones are originated.

• The Polar easterlies are dry, cold prevailing winds that blow from the Polar high-pressure belts to the
Temperature low pressure belts.
• They are extremely cold winds as they blow from the Tundra and Icecap regions.
• The Polar Easterlies are more regular in the southern hemisphere than in the northern hemisphere.
• Unlike the westerlies, the polar easterlies are often weak and irregular

• The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), known by sailors as the doldrums or the calms because of
its monotonous, windless weather, is the area where the northeast and southeast trade winds converge.
• It encircles Earth near the thermal equator, though its specific position varies seasonally.
Pressure Gradient Force
• The rate of change of pressure with respect to distance is the pressure gradient.
• The pressure gradient is strong where the isobars are close to each other and is weak where the isobars
are apart.
• The pressure-gradient force is the force that results when there is a difference in pressure across a
surface.
• The wind direction follows the direction of change of pressure, i.e. perpendicular to the isobars .
• Pressure Gradient Force is perpendicular to an Isobar.
Frictional Force
• The irregularities of the earth’s surface offer resistance to the wind movement in the form of friction.
• It is greatest at the surface and its influence children extends upward elevation of 1 - 3 kilometer.
• Over the sea surface the friction is minimum.
Coriolis Force
• The rotation of the earth about its axis is the reason for Coriolis force which affects the direction of the
wind. It deflects the wind to the right direction in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the
southern hemisphere.
• The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force
• The Earth rotates faster at the Equator than it does at the poles.
• The Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of latitude. It is maximum at the poles and is
absent at the equator.
Effects of The Coriolis Force
• The direction of ocean currents is determined by the Coriolis force.
• The wind blows in the direction determined by the Coriolis force.
• In the northern hemisphere, wind passing from high-pressure belt to low-pressure belt turns towards
the right. This creates anti-clockwise hurricanes.
• In the southern hemisphere due to the Coriolis force, the wind moves towards the left direction creating
clockwise storms.
• The long-distance flights face the Coriolis force and hence the earth’s rotation is taken into account to
determine the direction of flight. Therefore, the flights between two cities never travel in a straight line
even if the cities are located on the same latitude.
• Same is the case with rockets, the rockets are launched towards the eastern direction generally near the
equator, so that they do not get affected by the Coriolis force.
• Same is the case with satellites (but only with the equatorial ones).
• Military aircraft also determine the impact of the Coriolis force before the launch because if the missiles
come under the influence of the Coriolis force, they may land up on a different target
Geostrophic Winds
• The velocity and direction of the wind are the net result of the wind generating forces.
• The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3 km above the surface, are free from frictional effect of the
surface and are controlled mainly by the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force.
• When isobars are straight and when there is no friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced by the
Coriolis force and the resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar.
• This wind is known as the geostrophic wind.
Basics - Geostrophic Wind – Parallel to Isobars
Isobars
Permanent/Planetary Winds
Secondary Winds
Tertiary Winds
Windward Side /Leeward Side

North America +South America

Note : Rocky Mountains

Note : Grasslands
Note: Rocky + Appalachain Mountains

Note: Deserts of the World

Note: Cold Deserts
• North America – Great basin
• South America – Atacama Desert, Patagonian Desert
• Eurasia – Iranian desert ¸Gobi Desert
• Africa – Namib desert
Important Winds

Note: Andes Mountains

Europe

Note: The Alps

Note: Strait of Gibraltar

Note:

Africa

Note:
Asia

Australia
Associated Concept
• Major hot deserts in northern hemisphere are located between 20-30 degree north and on the western
side of the continents.
Hot Deserts – Sub Tropical High Pressure Belt
Approach:
Introduction - Briefly introduce about atmospheric layers and specifically about troposphere indicating the
weather phenomena part.
Body - Discuss the reasons for troposphere being the most significant atmosphere layer that determines
weather processes

Conclusion - Give a relevant conclusion.

Answer:
The atmosphere consists of different layers of varying density and temperature. It can be divided into five
different layers depending on the temperature condition and they are Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere,
Ionosphere and Exosphere. Most of the Weather Phenomena – For example - Cyclones, Anticyclones, Storms
and Precipitation are a feature observed in this layer.

Reasons for troposphere being the most significant atmospheric layer that determines weather processes is
the existence of all such conditions which are essential for weather phenomena to occur.

List of Conditions:
• Composition: It contains roughly 80% of the mass of Earth's atmosphere and is composed of nitrogen
(78%) and life-giving gas oxygen (21%) with small concentrations of other trace gases including water
vapour.
• Presence of Dust particles: They act as hygroscopic nuclei around which water vapour condenses to
produce clouds, further to rainfall, which is essential for various life processes such as drinking,
irrigation etc.
 • Climate Change: Various phenomenon like Greenhouse effect takes place in this layer which affects
life on earth. It is an important determinant of global warming as terrestrially reflected radiations are
trapped within the troposphere and contribute to increase in global temperatures leading to change in
weather patterns.
• Wind Patterns: Uneven heating of the Earth by the sun causes convection currents in this layer of the
atmosphere. Both horizontal and vertical mixing occur in the troposphere. Thus, planetary wind
patterns as well as local wind patterns like monsoons, Cyclones, anticyclones, storms etc are a feature
observed in this layer.
The troposphere has a direct contact with the Earth's surface, which makes it very sensitive to processes
occurring at this level, like, evaporation of oceans, photosynthesis in plants, respiration of living creatures and
human activities. Hence, it can be considered as the most significant atmospheric layer without which life as
we know it may not exist.
Structure
Introduction - Brief about Local winds and its characteristics.
Body - Its various types along with how they affect the livelihood of people of that region.
(Diagram is must)
Conclusion - Not Required as you would not be left with any words remaining.
Local winds are the winds that blow over a limited area, their horizontal dimensions generally lies between
tens to a few hundreds of kilometres. Local winds blow between areas having small low and high pressure
systems. They tend to be short lived lasting typically several hours to a day. They are influenced by local
geography and Nearness to an ocean, lake, or mountain range can affect local winds. Local winds can affected
by and in turn affect the weather and climate of a region to a large extent, they can be categorised on the basis
of periodicity (periodic and non periodic winds).

Periodic winds -
1. Land and Sea Breeze
• A Sea breeze blows from sea to land during the day or in summer. That’s when air over the land is
warmer than air over the water. The warm air rises. Cool air from over the water flows in to take its
place.
• A land breeze blows from land to sea during the night or in winter. That's when air over the water is
warmer than air over the land. The warm air rises. Cool air from the land flows out to take its place.
• Monsoons are sea and land breeze only but on a large scale.
 2. Mountain and Valley Breeze - The air on a mountain slope warms more than the air over the nearby
valley. The warm air rises and brings cool air up from below. This is a valley breeze. At night the
mountain slope cools more than the air over the valley. The air flows downhill creating a mountain
breeze.

Anabatic and Katabatic winds are some of its types.

3. Non Periodic Winds -These winds are caused due to local differences of temperature and pressure and
these are local in extent and confined to lowest levels of troposphere. They are categorised on the basis
of cold and hot winds.
4. Various examples and ways in which they affect the livelihood of people are discussed below -

5. Fohn-Beneficial hot wind which holds local importance in Alps.It is a strong, gusty. dry and warm wind
which develops on the leeward side of a mountain range.
• The wind helps animal grazing by melting snow and aids the ripening of grapes.
6. Chinook - Beneficial hot, dry wind which blows over the Rockies Mountains.
• It is beneficial to Ranchers as it keeps the grasslands clear of snow during most of the winters, thus
ensuring their livelihood,
7. Mistral - Dry cold wind which blows at a very high speed that blows over France towards
Mediterranean Sea.
• Mistral has reputation of bringing good health, since dry air dries stagnant water and the mud. It blows
away the pollution from the skies over large cities and industrial areas.
8. Sirocco - Mediterranean wind that comes from the Sahara and reaches hurricane speeds in North Africa
and Southern Europe. The Sirocco causes dusty dry conditions along the northern coast of Africa,
storms in the Mediterranean Sea, and cool wet weather in Europe.
• Sirocco is commonly perceived as causing unease and an irritable mood in people. In addition, many
people attribute health problems to the wind, either because of the heat and dust brought from African
coastal regions, or because of the cool dampness further north in Europe. The dust within the sirocco
winds can cause abrasion in mechanical devices and penetrate buildings.
Basics - Geostrophic Wind – Parallel to Isobars
Isobars
Factors affecting Jet stream – Temperature + Pressure + Coriolis Force + Follow the Sun
Local Jet Stream
Structure
1. Define the concept of Jet Streams briefly.
2. Body – First, introduce the concept of jet streams by giving basic features such as formation, intensity,
frequency etc. Second, highlight the role of jet streams in climate phenomena.
3. Conclusion – Mention how climate change is affecting jet streams and steps which should be taken to
better understand the phenomenon.

Answer
Jet Streams are the quick streaming, narrow, and wandering air currents and flows in the atmosphere of Earth.
They generally are situated close to the altitude of the tropopause and are westerly breezes (streaming west to
east) because of the Coriolis Effect.

Features of Jet Streams

1. Location - Jet streams travel in the tropopause—the area between the troposphere and the
stratosphere—at heights of about 8 to 15 kilometers.
2. Pattern - The strong air currents, which tend to look like wavy, striated rivers when seen on a jet stream
map, form when cold air and hot air meet.
3. Speed - Their winds blow from west to east at speeds that range from 129 to 225 kilometers per hour
(80 to 140 miles per hour), but they can reach more than 443 kilometers per hour (275 miles per hour)
4. Major Jet Streams - The two major jet streams that shape weather patterns around the world are first,
the polar-front jet stream forms at about 60 degrees latitude in both hemispheres, and second the
subtropical jet stream forms at about 30 degrees.
5. Change in pattern - Jet streams are always changing: moving to higher or lower altitudes, breaking up,
and shifting in flow, depending on the season and other variables, such as energy coming from the sun.
, location of high and low pressure systems and locations of merger of warm and cold air currents.

Role in macro and micro climate phenomena

1. Heat or Cold Waves : As jet streams dip or break off, they move air masses around, creating shifts in
global weather patterns. For example, the omega shaped jet streams above Europe and West Asia have
been attributed to cause the extreme heat wave conditions in these regions during the summer of 2022.
2. Monsoon - Jet Streams play a significant role in the onset and withdrawal of monsoon winds. The burst
of monsoons depends upon the upper air circulation which is dominated by Sub Tropical Jet Streams
(STJ). Northward movement of the subtropical jet is the first indication of the onset of the monsoon
over India.
3. Western Disturbances - The winter subtropical westerly Jet Stream blows from the west to the east in
the entire west and middle Asia which brings the western disturbances in India.
4. Ozone depletion - Jet Streams are known to have brought some ozone depleting substances to
stratosphere which result in ozone layer depletion.
 5. Cyclone – They intensifies alternative cyclonic and anticyclonic conditions with the crest and trough
formation in its movement.
6. Polar Vortex - A jet stream band near the North Pole essentially confines the Polar Vortex. When the jet
stream near the pole buckles, the Polar Vortex can shift its position farther south and allow frigid air to
spill toward mid-latitudes.

Conclusion
Rising global temperatures from global warming are affecting the jet stream and, in turn, the weather. There is
visible impact of global and polar warming on jet streams and their patterns. Thus, more detailed studies are
needed to understand their impact and mitigate effects of a changing global microclimate.
Imp Topic - What is a heat dome?
• A heat dome is a weather phenomenon that occurs when a high-pressure system traps hot and humid
air in a specific geographic region for an extended period.
• The dome-shaped high-pressure system acts like a lid, preventing the hot air from escaping and
causing temperatures to rise even higher.
• During a heat dome event, the hot and humid conditions can last for several days or even weeks,
leading to dangerous heatwaves, drought, and other related problems. Heat domes can also cause air
pollution to build up, as pollutants from cars, factories, and other sources get trapped under the
dome and cannot disperse.
• Heat domes typically occur during the summer months and are most common in regions with dry,
hot climates, such as the southwestern United States. However, they can occur in any region where
the right atmospheric conditions exist.
• Heat dome events have become more common and severe in recent years, with climate change
contributing to the hotter temperatures and longer-lasting heatwaves. As a result, many governments
and organizations are taking steps to prepare for and respond to heat dome events to mitigate their
impacts on people, animals, and the environment.
Cold Air Mass
• Cold source regions
• Polar air masses
• Arctic Ocean – cold and moist
• Northern Canada – cold and dry
Warm Air Mass
• Warm source regions
• Tropical air masses
• Sahara Desert – Warm and dry
• Tropical Oceans – Warm and moist

• Broadly, the air masses are classified into polar and tropical air masses.
• Both the polar and the continental air masses can be either of maritime or continental types
Air Masses Based on Source Regions
There are five major source regions.
1. Warm tropical and subtropical oceans;
2. The subtropical hot deserts;
3. The relatively cold high latitude oceans;
4. The very cold snow-covered continents in high latitudes;
5. Permanently ice-covered continents in the Arctic and Antarctica.
• Accordingly, following types of airmasses are recognised
• Maritime tropical (mT);
• Continental tropical (cT);
• Maritime polar (mP);
 • Continental polar (cP);
• Continental arctic (cA).

Discuss the concept of air mass and explain its role in macro-climatic changes (UPSC – 2016)
• Definition + Characteristics + Examples
• Influence in Macro Climate Changes
• Diagram – Map
Cloud Formation- Stationary Fronts
Symbols
 CYCLONES
Basic Characteristics
• Low Pressure Systems
• Local and Smaller Systems
• Winds rapidly converge and Spiral upwards in all directions

Types of Cyclones
• Based on Genesis of Low pressure
• Location of System - Temperate Cyclones or Tropical Cyclones

Cyclic Rotations
 EXTRA TROPICAL CYCLONE
Temperate /Mid Latitudes/Extra Tropical

Extra Tropical Cyclone

• The systems developing in the mid and high latitudes beyond the tropics are called the Middle
Latitude or Extra tropical cyclones.
• Extra tropical cyclones form along the polar front. Initially, the front is stationary.
• In the northern hemisphere, warm air blows from the south and cold air from the north of the
front.
• When the pressure drops along the front, the warm air moves northwards and the cold air move
towards south setting in motion an anticlockwise cyclonic circulation.
• The surrounding air rushed in to occupy this void and coupled with the earth’s rotation, a cyclone
is formed which advances with the westerlies (Jet Streams).
• The cyclonic circulation leads to a well-developed extra tropical cyclone, with a warm front and a
cold front.
• The warm air glides over the cold air and a sequence of clouds appear over the sky ahead of the
warm front and cause precipitation.
• The cold front moves faster than the warm front ultimately overtaking the warm front. The warm
air is completely lifted up and the front is occluded and the cyclone dissipates. - Occluded Front.
Note: Cold Wind and Warm Wind

Dominance of Warm and Cold Front

Characteristics of Temperate Cyclones
• They stretch over 500 to 600 km.
• They may spread over 2500 km
• They have a height of 8 to 11 km.
• The wind velocity increases with the approach but decreases after the cyclone has passed.

Role of Jetstreams
• Jet stream plays a major role in temperate cyclonogeneis.
• Jet streams also influence the path of temperate cyclones.
• Since these cyclones move with the westerlies (Jet Streams), they are oriented west-east
SOLVE PYQ
 Quick Note - BRITISH TYPE CLIMATE
Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate – British Type
Regions of Temperate Cyclones.

Rainfall - Westerlies + Temperate Cyclones

• British type of climate has adequate rainfall throughout the year + Amount of rainfall decreases from
western margin of the continents eastward + with a tendency towards slight winter or autumn
maximum from cyclonic sources.
• Relief can also make great differences in annual rainfall.
• Europe - Sometimes, unsual cold spells caused by the invasion of cold polar continental air from the
interiors, may hit the western margins for the number of weeks.
• Europe - Winters are abnormally mild - Night frost does occur & snow falls in winters.
• Europe - Warming effect - attributes to the moderating effects of the North Atlantic drifts &
prevalence of southern westerlies.
• North-West European Maritime Climate due to greater Oceanic influence.
• British type - more equable in S – Hemisphere, due to lack of continental mass & more presence of
oceanic water, which means extreme of temperature are not likely at all, hence annual temperature
range is further reduced here.
• North America - High Rockies prevent the on-shore Westerlies from penetrating far inland
 TROPICAL CYCLONES
Tropical Cyclones
• Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas and move over to
the coastal areas bringing about large-scale destruction caused by violent winds, very heavy rainfall
and storm surges.
The conditions favourable for the formation and intensification of tropical storms are:
• Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C;
• Presence of the Coriolis force;
• Small variations in the vertical wind speed;
• A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation;
• Upper divergence above the sea level system
• Existence of conditions of ITCZ

UPSC PYQ

1) In the South Atlantic and South-Eastern Pacific regions in tropical latitudes, cyclones do
not originate. What is the reason?
A. Sea surface temperatures are low
B. Inter-tropical Convergence Zone seldom occurs
C. Coriolis force is too weak
D. Absence of land in those regions

• They are known as Cyclones in the Indian Ocean, Hurricanes in the Atlantic, Typhoons in the
Western Pacific and South China Sea, and Willy-willies in the Western Australia.
 • Tropical cyclones originate and intensify over warm tropical oceans.
• The energy that intensifies the storm, comes from the condensation process in the towering
cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding the centre of the storm.
• With continuous supply of moisture from the sea, the storm is further strengthened.
• On reaching the land the moisture supply is cut off and the storm dissipates.
• The place where a tropical cyclone crosses the coast is called the landfall of the cyclone.
• The cyclones, which cross 20-degree N latitude generally, recurve and they are more destructive.
• A mature tropical cyclone is characterised by the strong spirally circulating wind around the centre,
called the eye.
• The diameter of the circulating system can vary between 150 and 250 km. The eye is a region of calm
with subsiding air.
• Around the eye is the eye wall, where there is a strong spiralling ascent of air to greater height
reaching the tropopause.
• The wind reaches maximum velocity in this region, reaching as high as 250 km per hour.
Torrential rain occurs here.

UPSC PYQ

1) Consider the following statements:

1. In the tropical zone, the western sections of the oceans are warmer than the eastern
sections owing to the influence of trade winds.
2. In the temperate Zone, westerlies make the eastern sections of oceans warmer than the
western sections
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 and 2
Intensified Cyclone-Eastern Margins-Continents

Less Tropical Cyclones on Western Margins

 Question
1) Tropical Cyclones are largely confined to South China Sea, Bay of Bengal and Gulf Mexico.
Why?
• A tropical Cyclone is rapidly rotating storm system characterised by a low pressure centre, a closed
low level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that
produce heavy rain or squalls.

Note:
Conditions required for the formation of Tropical Cyclones are -
• Large bodies of relatively warm water
• Presence of preexisting low level disturbances such as low pressure triggered by Upper
atmospheric disturbances such as dying remains of westerlies.
• Coriolis force
• Presence of minimum vertical wind shear which can cause or lead to formation of
explosive cumulonimbus clouds

All these sufficient conditions are met in the areas of Bay of Bengal, South China Sea and Gulf of
Mexico.
• Additionally, the requirement of warm sea surface temperatures is met with only in the
tropical areas. These are areas also affected by warm ocean current coming from equatorial
regions.

Note: Let us see How?

• Tropical Cyclones are largely confined to South China Sea, Bay of Bengal and Gulf Mexico:
• A Cyclone is sustained through evaporation of water from the oceanic surface - Existence
of a large water body is crucial to the formation of a tropical cyclone. That is why tropical
cyclones occur almost exclusively in the tropical seas.

• Additionally, the requirement of warm sea surface temperatures is met with only in the tropical
areas. These are areas also affected by warm ocean current coming from equatorial regions.

• Tropical Cyclones are observed between the latitudes of 10 and 30, which has sufficient Coriolis
force.
 • These areas also lie in the Intertropical Convergence zone- The ITCZ is a very important
component because it triggers the rotation of low-level winds which eventually develop into
tropical cyclones.

Note:
• Tropical cyclone formation also requires a trigger that initiates convection. One such trigger is the
intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), where warm sea-surface temperatures and convergence of
surface trade winds foster convection (rising air). Conveniently, the ITCZ forms near the warmest
surface waters.

Why more cyclones in Bay of Bengal than Arabian sea?

• Temperature difference along the both the Sea Cyclones in the Bay of Bengal can be attributed to
the vast low pressure created by the warm water of the ocean. The high sea surface temperature
makes matters worse in the Bay triggering the intensity of the storms.
• BOB has higher concentration of Landmass than the Arabian Sea .
• More Freshwater discharges from rivers into BOB than Arabian Sea and salinity of Arabian Sea
is more than BOB.
• Cyclonic winds from other water bodies are transferred by Bay of Bengal. The lack of landmass
in the Bay of Bengal basin means that the cyclones occurring in the region do not weaken and
easily move towards the eastern coastline.
• The geometry of the Bay of Bengal – with its long, curved coastline – amplifies wind speeds as they
funnel into the bay.
• The hills along the eastern coasts are not high enough to stop cyclones making much inroad into
the coastal states. The Western Ghats prevents the cyclonic storms to go in the hinterland.
 Question
1) The Arabian Sea is emerging as a new cyclonic hotbed in recent times. Discuss the
reasons behind it.
• The average number of cyclones building in the north Indian Ocean is usually five in
a year. Only one of the five emerges in the Arabian Sea. However, in the past three-four
years, the Arabian Sea seems to be competing with the Bay of Bengal as a cyclone generator.
It can be said that the Arabian Sea is emerging as the new cyclonic hotbed due to the following reasons:
• Average cyclones: Annually, five cyclones on average used to form in the Bay of Bengal and the
Arabian Sea combined. Now the number of cyclones have increased in Arabian Sea.
• Cyclone Tauktae: Tauktae is the fourth cyclone in consecutive years to have developed in the
Arabian Sea after Cyclone Mekanu, Cyclone Vayu, Cyclone Nisarga.
• Places vulnerable to cyclones: Previously, tropical cyclones in the Arabian Sea were restricted to
Gujarat but now even Kerala and Karnataka have also become more vulnerable.
• Rate of Intensification: Apart from frequency, a rise in the intensification rate is also observed. For
instance, Tauktae took only 2 days to become very severe cyclonic storm (VSCS) while Cyclone
Mekanu and Cyclone Nisarga had developed slower, taking 4 and 5 days respectively.

Reasons behind changing trends:

• Global warming: Sea surface temperatures in the Arabian Sea have increased rapidly during the
past century due to global warming. For instance, the temperature now is 1.2–1.4 °C higher than
the temperature witnessed four decades ago.
• Energy for cyclones: The rising temperature is also enabling the Arabian Sea to supply ample
energy for the intensification of cyclones.
• Increase in Anthropogenic Aerosols: leading to changes in sea surface temperatures distribution
that in turn changes monsoon circulation , resulting in more active storms.
• Conducive wind shear: The Arabian Sea is also providing conducive wind shear for cyclones. For
instance, a higher-level easterly wind drove the depression of Cyclone Ockhi from the Bay of Bengal
to the Arabian Sea.
• Impact of La nina : Onset of Winter Monsoon is delaying leading to a longer storm season .
• Greater occurrence of El Niño Modoki : It has been noticed that the frequency of tropical cyclones
are more over Arabian Sea and less over Bay of Bengal during the El Ninâ.
• The new trend is encouraging more and more rapid intensification of cyclones. State-of-
the-art cyclone models are unable to pick this rapid intensification because they do not
incorporate the ocean dynamics accurately. The Indian National Centre for Ocean
Information Services (INCOIS) must be provided with greater autonomy, finance, and
human resources. This would improve the collection and dissemination of data on
cyclonic events.
 Fujiwhara Effect
• The Fujiwhara Effect is any interaction between tropical storms formed around the same time in
the same ocean region with their centres or eyes at a distance of less than 1,400 km, with intensity
that could vary between a depression (wind speed under 63 km per hour) and a super typhoon (wind
speed over 209 km per hour).
• The interaction could lead to changes in the track and intensity of either or both storm systems.
• In rare cases, the two systems could merge, especially when they are of similar size and intensity,
to form a bigger storm
 Recurving Cyclones
• On its way to diminish if cyclone gets a sort of second wind by deflected right or eastwards is known
as re-curving cyclones. This is due to air currents in the local atmosphere that push cold air from the
poles towards the equator and interfere with cyclone formation.
 Grading of Cyclones
• Tropical cyclones in the Bay of Bengal are graded according to maximum wind speeds at their centre.
• At the lower end are depressions that generate wind speeds of 30 to 60 km per hour, followed by:
o cyclonic storms (61 to 88 kmph)
o severe cyclonic storms (89 to 117 kmph)
o very severe cyclonic storms (118 to 166 kmph)
o extremely severe cyclonic storms (167 to 221 kmph) and
o super cyclones (222 kmph or higher)

4-stage warning system for Tropical Cyclones.

• The cyclone warnings are issued to state government officials in four stages. The First Stage warning
known as "PRE-CYCLONE WATCH" issued 72 hours in advance contains early warning about the
development of a cyclonic disturbance in the north Indian Ocean, its likely intensification into a
tropical cyclone and the coastal belt likely to experience adverse weather. This early warning bulletin
is issued by the Director General of Meteorology himself and is addressed to the Cabinet Secretary
and other senior officers of the Government of India including the Chief Secretaries of concerned
maritime states.
• The Second Stage warning known as "CYCLONE ALERT" is issued at least 48 hrs. in advance of the
expected commencement of adverse weather over the coastal areas. It contains information on the
location and intensity of the storm likely direction of its movement, intensification, coastal districts
likely to experience adverse weather and advice to fishermen, general public, media and disaster
managers. This is issued by the concerned ACWCs/CWCs and CWD at HQ.
 • The Third Stage warning known as "CYCLONE WARNING" issued at least 24 hours in advance of
the expected commencement of adverse weather over the coastal areas. Landfall point is forecast at
this stage. These warnings are issued by ACWCs/CWCs/and CWD at HQ at 3 hourly interval giving
the latest position of cyclone and its intensity, likely point and time of landfall, associated heavy
rainfall, strong wind and storm surge alongwith their impact and advice to general public, media,
fishermen and disaster managers.
• The Fourth Stage of warning known as "POST LANDFALL OUTLOOK" is issued by the concerned
ACWCs/CWCs/and CWD at HQ at least 12 hours in advance of expected time of landfall. It gives
likely direction of movement of the cyclone after its landfall and adverse weather likely to be
experienced in the interior areas.

Colour Coded Weather Warning

• It is issued by the IMD with the intention of warning people in advance of severe or dangerous
weather that could result in widespread damage, disruption or potential for death. Depending on
how much water is rising over land or in a river as a result of severe rain, these universal signals are
also sent out during floods.
The four colour codes that the IMD uses are:
• Green (all is well): No advisory is sent out.
• Yellow (Be Aware): Yellow denotes really harsh weather that lasts for a number of days.
• Orange/Amber (Be Prepared): The orange alert is a warning of exceptionally harsh weather with a
possibility of disrupting travel due to road and rail closures, as well as interruptions in power
supplies.
• Red (Take Action): The red alert is issued when exceptionally unfavourable weather conditions are
likely to interrupt travel and power and pose a serious risk to life.
 How are cyclones named around the world
• WMO maintains rotating lists of names which are appropriate for each Tropical Cyclone basin.
• There is a strict procedure to determine a list of tropical cyclone names in an ocean basin by the
Tropical Cyclone Regional Body responsible for that basin at its annual/biennial meeting. There are
five tropical cyclone regional bodies, i.e. ESCAP/WMO Typhoon Committee, WMO/ESCAP
Panel on Tropical Cyclones, RA I Tropical Cyclone Committee, RA IV Hurricane Committee, and
RA V Tropical Cyclone Committee.

Northern Indian Ocean Names - Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal
• The WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones (hereafter the Panel) at its twenty-seventh Session
held in 2000 in Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, agreed in principal to assign names to the tropical
cyclones in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea.
• The naming of the tropical cyclones over north Indian Ocean commenced from September 2004,
with names provided by eight Members. Since then, five countries have joined the Panel.
• The Panel Member’s names are listed alphabetically country wise.
• The names will be used sequentially column wise.
• The first name will start from the first row of column one and continue sequentially to the last row
in the column thirteen.
• The names of tropical cyclones over the north Indian Ocean will not be repeated, once used it will
cease to be used again. The name should be new. It should not be there in the already existing list of
any of the RSMCs worldwide including RSMC New Delhi.
• The name of a tropical cyclone from south China Sea which crosses Thailand and emerge into the
Bay of Bengal as a Tropical cyclone will not be changed. If a cyclonic storm moves into the basin
from the Western Pacific, then it will keep its original name.[4] However, if the system weakens into
a deep depression and subsequently reintensifies after moving into the region, then it will be
assigned a new name.

UPSC - PYQ
• Tropical cyclones are largely confined to South China Sea, Bay of Bengal and Gulf of Mexico. Why?
• Discuss the meaning of colour-coded weather warnings for cyclone prone areas given by India
Meteorological department.
• The recent cyclone on the east coast of India was called “Phailin”. How are the tropical cyclones
named across the world?
 Difference Between Tropical Cyclone and Temperate Cyclone
Difference
Tropical Cyclone Temperature Cyclone

Origin Thermal Origin Dynamic Origin – Coriolis force,

Movement of air masses

Latitude Confined to 5 to 20 degree to Confined to 35 degree to 65 degree N

degree N and S of equator. and S of equator.

Frontal System Absent Occluded Front

Formation They form only on seas Can form both on land as well as seas

Size Limited to small area. They cover a larger area.

Typical size: 100 - 500 kms in Typical size: 300 – 2000 kms in
diameter. diameter.

Rainfall If the cyclone stays at a place, In a temperature cyclone, rainfall is

the rainfall may continue for slow and continues for many days,
many days sometimes even weeks.

Wind Velocity and Much greater (100 – 250 kmph) Comparatively low. Typical range: 30 -
destruction (200-1200 kmph in upper 150 kmph.
troposphere) Less destruction due to winds but
Greater destruction due to more destruction due to flooding.
winds, storm surges and
torrential rains.

Isobars Pressure gradient is steep. Pressure gradient is low.

Life time Doesn’t last for more than a Last for 2 – 3 weeks.
week

Temperature The temperature at the center is All the sectors of the cyclone have
Distribution almost equally distributed. different temperatures.

Claim region The center of a tropical In a temperature cyclone There is not

cyclone is known as the eye. a single place where winds and rains
The wind is claim at the center are inactive.
with no rainfall.

Driving force Latent heat of condensation Densities of air masses.

 Clouds The tropical cyclones exhibit The temperature cyclones show a
fewer varieties of clouds – Varity of cloud development at various
cumulonimbus nimbostratus, elevations.
etc.

Influence on India Both coasts effected. But east Bring rains to North – West India. The
coast is the hot spot. associated instability is called ‘Western
Disturbances.

UPSC - PYQ
1) Consider the following statements:
1. Jet streams occur in the Northern Hemisphere only.
2. Only some cyclones develop an eye.
3. The temperature inside the eye of a cyclone is nearly 10°C lesser than that of the
surroundings.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 2 only
D. 1 and 3 only

UPSC PYQ- QUESTION FOR PRATICE

2) Consider the following statements:
1. The winds which blow between 30 N and 60 S latitudes throughout the year are known
as westerlies.
2. The moist air masses that cause winter rains in the North Western region of India are
part of westerlies.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Concepts
Water in the atmosphere – Solid , Liquid, Gas ( Moisture)
• Cloud Formation
• Vaporization – Evaporation
• Hygroscopic Nuclei – Cloud Seeding
• Relative Humidity around 100 %
• Moisture that it can store is a function of Temperature
• Condensation
• Reverse Sublimation
• Why are they not formed on the ground

• Condensation – Loss of Heat , Controlled Environment ( Saturation ) + Cold Surface

• Types of Rainfall – Convection + Orographic Rainfall + Fronts
• Types of Condensation – Fog , Frost , Mist , Rain , Snow
• Case of Dew Point

Cloud Seeding
• The concept of cloud condensation nuclei is used in cloud seeding, that tries to encourage rainfall by
seeding the air with condensation nuclei.
• Cloud seeding is a type of weather modification that aims to change the amount or type of precipitation
that falls from clouds by dispersing substances into the air that serve as cloud condensation or ice
nuclei, which alter the microphysical processes within the cloud.
• The usual intent is to increase precipitation (rain or snow)

Please Note
• As the clouds are formed at some height over the surface of the earth, they take various shapes.

Applications
• It generates rain, bringing relief to regions suffering from drought.

• In Tasmania, Australia, cloud seeding trials have proved to increase hydroelectricity production
during the past 40 years.
• Cloud seeding can lessen the impact of treated wastewater discharges from companies and
municipalities while maintaining the minimum summer river flow.
• By using cloud seeding, it may be possible to employ rain to let harmful air pollutants settle. For
instance, the Central Pollution Control Board and other researchers recently discussed the possibility
of using cloud seeding to reduce Delhi's air pollution.
Threats
• It's possible that the chemicals employed in cloud seeding could be dangerous. It does have the
ability to negatively impact the environment as a whole as well as plants, animals, and people.
• It may eventually alter global climatic trends.
• It entails logistically complex methods like transporting chemicals to the sky and dispersing them
into the atmosphere via flare shots or aeroplanes.

Cloud Bursts
• Introduction:
• The intensity of cloudburst is increasing in India. We have witnessed another cloudburst recently in
Amarnath.
• It is a weather phenomenon with unexpected precipitation exceeding 100mm/h over a geographical
region of approximately 20-30 square km.
• In the Indian Subcontinent, it generally occurs when a monsoon cloud drifts northwards, from the
Bay of Bengal or the Arabian Sea across the plains than onto the Himalayas sometimes brings 75
millimeters of rain per hour.
• A rainfall of 50 mm or more within two hours can also be called a mini cloudburst.
• Increasing incidents of cloudbursts in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand are
also clear evidence of climate change.

Detecting cloud bursts is a difficult task as it covers small areas so precaution will go a long way in lessening
the damage.
Unlike cyclones, forecasting a cloudburst is mission impossible due to the very dynamics of rapid developing
cloud cover.
NDMA guidelines suggest taking a holistic and integrated approach in case of Disaster management events.
• It emphasizes building strategic partnerships at strategic levels.

• Community-based disaster management, including last mile integration of the policy, plans and
execution will be required.
• Past initiatives taken as precautionary measures or responsive actions can be consolidated and best
practices can be adopted to reduce the calamity.
• Stopping haphazard construction in hilly areas
• There is no satisfactory technique for anticipating the occurrence of cloud bursts because they develop
over a small period of time.

• Only the areas likely to receive heavy rainfall can be identified on a short-range scale.
• Much of the damage can be avoided by way of identifying the areas and the meteorological situations
that favour the occurrence of cloud bursts.
• The damaged ground must be replanted as soon as possible since erosion caused by loss of ground soil
cover can lead to flash flooding and additional landslides in the near future
• Preventing encroachment of riverbeds.
• Afforestation to prevent landslides in hilly areas and minimize the damage.
• Early warning system to evacuate people on time

• The large scale features, which are conducive for occurrence of severe thunderstorms associated with
cloudburst, are predictable two to three days in advance. However, the specific location and time of
cloud burst can be predicted in NOWCAST mode only, i.e. a few hours in advance, when the genesis
of thunderstorm has already commenced. To detect these sudden developments, a Doppler Weather
Radar (DWR), a powerful tool for time and location specific prediction of cloudburst, can be deployed
a few hours in advance. Coupled with satellite imagery this can prove to be useful inputs for
extrapolation of cloudbursts anywhere in India
Water in the Atmosphere – Altitude
• Cirrus
• Cumulus
• Stratus
Cirrus Clouds
• Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes (8,000 - 12,000m).

• They are thin and detatched clouds having a feather.

Cirrus Cloud Thinning
• Cirrus cloud thinning is a kind of technology that involves thinning the wispy, elongated cirrus clouds
of high altitudes. Cirrus clouds do not reflect a lot of solar radiation back into space, but as these are
formed at high altitudes and cold temperatures, these clouds trap long-wave radiation and have a
climate impact similar to greenhouse gases.

• Thinning cirrus clouds would be achieved by injecting ice nuclei (such as dust) into regions where there
are cirrus clouds, making the ice crystals bigger and reducing the cirrus optical depth. Thinning the
clouds would allow more heat to escape into space and thereby cool the planet.

Concept
• The study of clouds, where they occur, and their characteristics, play a key role in the understanding of
climate change.
• Low, thick clouds primarily reflect solar radiation and cool the surface of the Earth.
• High, thin clouds primarily transmit incoming solar radiation; at the same time, they trap some of
the outgoing infrared radiation emitted by the Earth and radiate it back downward, thereby warming
the surface of the Earth.
UPSC PYQ
Q ) In the context of which of the following do some scientists suggest the use of cirrus cloud thinning
technique and the injection of sulphate aerosol into stratosphere?
(a) Creating the artificial rains in some regions
(b) Reducing the frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones

(c) Reducing the adverse effects of solar wind on the Earth

(d) Reducing the global warming
Consider the following statements :
1. High clouds primarily reflect solar radiation and cool the surface of the Earth.

2. Low clouds have a high absorption of infrared radiation emanating from the Earth’s surface and thus cause
warming effect.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?
[A] 1 only

[B] 2 only
[C] Both 1 and 2
[D] Neither 1 nor 2
Cumulus Clouds

• Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool.

• They are generally formed at a height of 4,000 -7,000 m.
• They exist in patches and can be seen scattered here and there.

• They have a flat base

Water in the Atmosphere – Cumulus

Stratus Clouds
• As their name implies, these are layered clouds covering large portions of the sky.
• These clouds are generally formed either due to loss of heat or the mixing of air masses with
different temperatures.

Nimbus Clouds
• Nimbus clouds are black or dark gray. They form at middle levels or very near to the surface of the
earth.
• These are extremely dense and opaque to the rays of the sun.

• Sometimes, the clouds are so low that they seem to touch the ground.
• Nimbus clouds are shapeless masses of thick vapour.
Cumulonimbus Clouds
• Heavy and dense cloud, with a considerable vertical extent, in the form of a mountain or huge towers.
At least part of its upper portion is usually smooth, or fibrous or striated, and nearly always flattened;
this part often spreads out in the shape of an anvil or vast plume.

Revision
• High clouds – cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus;
• Middle clouds – altostratus and altocumulus;

• Low clouds – stratocumulus and nimbostratus (long duration rainfall cloud) and
• Clouds with extensive vertical development – cumulus and cumulonimbus (thunderstorm cloud)

Basic Concept – Evaporation – Liquid to Gas

Basic Concept – Boiling- Liquid to Gas

Heat being the Main Driver

Basic Concept – Condensation

Condensation

Introduction
• Water is present in the atmosphere in three forms namely – gaseous, liquid and solid.
• The moisture in the atmosphere is derived from water bodies through evaporation and from plants
through transpiration.
• The amount of water vapour in the atmosphere is added or withdrawn due to evaporation and
condensation respectively.

Basic Concept – Transpiration

Evaporation
• Evaporation is a process by which water is transformed from liquid to gaseous state.

• Heat is the main cause for evaporation.

 • Increase in temperature increases water absorption and retention capacity of the given parcel of air.
• Similarly, if the moisture content is low, air has a potentiality of absorbing and retaining moisture.
• Movement of air replaces the saturated layer with the unsaturated layer.

• Hence, the greater the movement of air, the greater is the evaporation.

Condensation
• The transformation of water vapour into water is called condensation.
• When moist air is cooled, it may reach a level when its capacity to hold water vapour ceases.
• Then, the excess water vapour condenses into liquid form.
• Condensation is caused by the loss of heat.

• In free air, condensation results from cooling around very small particles termed as hygroscopic
condensation nuclei. Particles of dust, smoke and salt from the ocean are particularly good nuclei
because they absorb water

• Condensation also takes place when the moist air comes in contact with some colder object and it
may also take place when the temperature is close to the dew point- maximum relative humidity .
• Condensation, therefore, depends upon the amount of cooling and the relative humidity of the air.
• Condensation takes place:(i) when the temperature of the air is reduced to dew point with its volume
remaining constant; (ii) when both the volume and the temperature are reduced; (iii) when moisture
is added to the air through evaporation.
• However, the most favorable condition for condensation is the decrease in air temperature

Latent Heat
• The amount of heat required to change the state of a unit mass of a substance from solid to liquid or
from liquid to vapour without changing its temperature is known as the latent heat.
• The amount of heat that changes the state of the material without changing its temperature.
• Example: There comes a point while heating a cube of ice when there is no change in temperature in
spite of continuous heating.
• There will be absolutely no rise in the temperature till the ice cube has melted entirely.
• Latent Heat of Vaporisation: Latent Heat of Vaporisation is defined as the amount of heat required to
change the unit mass of liquid at boiling point into vapour under constant temperature.

• Latent Heat of Fusion : Latent Heat of Fusion as the amount of heat required to change a unit mass
from solid to liquid at a constant temperature.

Sublimation
• Sublimation is the transition of a substance directly from the solid to the gas phase, without passing
through the intermediate liquid phase.
Humidity
• Water vapour present in the air is known as humidity. .

Absolute Humidity
• The actual amount of the water vapour present in the atmosphere is known as the absolute humidity.

• The absolute humidity differs from place to place on the surface of the earth.
• The ability of the air to hold water vapour depends entirely on its temperature.

Relative Humidity
• The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere as compared to its full capacity at a given
temperature is known as the relative humidity.
• With the change of air temperature, the capacity to retain moisture increases or decreases and the
relative humidity is also affected.
• It is greater over the oceans and least over the continents.

Saturation Point
• The air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is said to be saturated.
• It means that the air at the given temperature is incapable of holding any additional amount of
moisture at that stage
• Dew Point - The temperature at which saturation occurs in a given sample of air is known as dew
point.

Specific Humidity
• The term Specific Humidity is applied to express the ratio of weight of water vapour to the weight of
moist air (including water vapour).

Note
• Humidity is measured by an instrument called the hygrometer.
• Hygrograph is an instrument which plots a graph of relative humidity round the clock.
Water in the Atmosphere –Clouds

Water in the Atmosphere -Fog

Water in the Atmosphere –Mist

Water in the Atmosphere – Snow

Water in the Atmosphere – Frost

Water in the Atmosphere – Dew

Forms of Condensation
• The forms of condensation can be classified on the basis of temperature at which the dew point is
reached.
 • Condensation can take place when the dew point is
• lower than the freezing point,
• higher than the freezing point.
• White frost, snow and some clouds (cirrus clouds) are produced when the temperature is lower than
the freezing point.
• Dew, fog and clouds result even when the temperature is higher than the freezing point.
• Note : Forms of condensation may also be classified on the basis of their location, i.e. at or near the
earth’s surface and in free air.
• Dew, white frost, fog and mist come in the first category, whereas clouds are in the second category

Dew
• When the moisture is deposited in the form of water droplets on cooler surfaces of solid objects such
as stones, grass blades and plant leaves, it is known as dew.
• At night, various objects such as leaves etc. may frequently become cooler that the air above it.

• This causes water vapour contained in the air to get condensed and deposit on the cooled surface. This
is known as dew.
• The ideal conditions for its formation are clear sky, calm air, high relative humidity, and cold and long
nights.
• On cloudy nights cooling of the surface is not complete due to the greenhouse effect of the clouds
and dew is not likely to be formed.
• For the formation of dew, it is necessary that the dew point is above the freezing point.

Frost
• Frost forms on cold surfaces when condensation takes place below freezing point (00C), i.e. the dew
point is at or below the freezing point.
• The excess moisture is deposited in the form of minute ice crystals instead of water droplets.
• The ideal conditions for the formation of white frost are the same as those for the formation of dew,
except that the air temperature must be at or below the freezing point.

• In winter season the cooling of the surface may cause the ground temperature to fall below the
freezing point.
• In such a situation the moisture contained in air condenses and freezes on various objects on the
ground making a thin layer of ice. This is called Frost

Fog and Mist

• When the temperature of an air mass containing a large quantity of water vapour falls all of a sudden,
condensation takes place within itself on fine dust particles.
• Fogs are mini clouds in which condensation takes place around nuclei provided by the dust, smoke,
and the salt particles.
 • So, the fog is a cloud with its base at or very near to the ground.
• In urban and industrial centres smoke provides plenty of nuclei which help the formation of fog and
mist.
• The only difference between the mist and fog is that mist contains more moisture than the fog.
• In mist each nucelli contains a thicker layer of moisture.
• Mists are frequent over mountains as the rising warm air up the slopes meet a cold surface.
• Fogs are drier than mist and they are prevalent where warm currents of air come in contact with cold
currents

Smog
• Smog = smoke + fog caused by the burning of large amounts of coal, vehicular emission and
industrial fumes.
• Smog is also called smoke fog.
• Smog is a combination of water particles and fine particles of carbon and other substances contained
in smoke.
• Such a condition when fog is mixed with smoke, is described as smog.

Haze
• Haze is traditionally an atmospheric phenomenon in which dust, smoke, and other dry particulates
obscure the clarity of the sky.

Clouds
• Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the condensation of the
water vapour in free air at considerable elevations.

Clouds and Weather

• Certain types of clouds produce precipitation.
• Clouds also produce the bolt of electricity called lightning and the sound of thunder that accompanies
it.
• Thunder sometimes sounds like it comes in waves because of the time it takes the sound to travel.
Because the speed of light is faster than the speed of sound, lightning will always appear before its
thunder is heard.

Precipitation
• In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls
under gravitational pull from clouds.
• The process of continuous condensation in free air helps the condensed particles to grow in size.
• When the resistance of the air fails to hold them against the force of gravity, they fall on to the earth’s
surface.
 • So, after the condensation of water vapour, the release of moisture is known as precipitation.
• This may take place in liquid or solid form.
• The term precipitation refers to falling of water, snowfall or hail from the clouds and it results when
condensation is occurring rapidly within a cloud

Forms of Precipitation
• Precipitation may occur in different forms.
• Rainfall, Sleet, Snowfall and hail are the common forms of precipitation.
• Rainfall : The precipitation in the form of water is called rainfall. Rainfall occurs when the dew point
of air is above the freezing point so that the condensing moisture is converted to water droplets.
• Snowfall : When the temperature is lower than the 0 degree C, precipitation takes place in the form
of fine flakes of snow and is called snowfall. The dew point of air for this to occur should be below
the freezing point .

• Hailstones : Sometimes, drops of rain after being released by the clouds become solidified into small
rounded solid pieces of ice and which reach the surface of the earth are called hailstones. These are
formed by the rainwater passing through the colder layers. Hailstones have several concentric layers of
ice one over the other.
Convectional Precipitation
• As the name suggests convectional precipitation is a result of convection.
• The, air on being heated, becomes light and rises up in convection currents.

• If the cooling due to uplift of air is sufficient, it may lead to condensation and precipitation. This
type of precipitation is called convectional precipitation.
• It is very common in the equatorial regions and interior parts of the continents, particularly in the
northern hemisphere.
Orographic Precipitation
• Orographic precipitation is caused by landforms. It is sometimes also called mountain precipitation
• When the saturated air mass comes across a mountain, it is forced to ascend and as it rises, it expands;
the temperature falls, and the moisture is condensed.
• After giving rain on the windward side, when these winds reach the other slope, they descend, and
their temperature rises.
• Then their capacity to take in moisture increases and hence, these leeward slopes remain rainless and
dry.
• The chief characteristic of this sort of rain is that the windward slopes receive greater rainfall.
• The area situated on the leeward side, which gets less rainfall is known as the rain-shadow area.

• It is also known as the relief rain.

• Much of the precipitation in the northern plains of India during the southwest monsoon season and
most of the precipitation in the northeast India is of this type.

Cyclonic Rainfall
• Already Covered – You Can Refer To The Corresponding Lectures
• Additional Info
 • It is called virage(virga) when raindrops evaporate before reaching the earth while passing through
dry air.

Distribution of Rainfall
• Different places on the earth’s surface receive different amounts of rainfall in a year and that too in
different seasons.
• In general, as we proceed from the equator towards the poles, rainfall goes on decreasing steadily.
• The coastal areas of the world receive greater amounts of rainfall than the interior of the continents.
• The rainfall is more over the oceans than on the landmasses of the world because of being great
sources of water.
During a thunderstorm, the thunder in the skies is produced by the:
1) meeting of cumulonimbus clouds in the sky

2) lightning that separates the nimbus clouds

3) violent upward movement of air and water particles
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3
(d) None
Why are dewdrops not formed on a cloudy night?

(a) Clouds absorb the radiation released from the Earth’s surface.
(b) Clouds reflect back the Earth’s radiation.
(c) The Earth’s surface would have a low temperature on cloudy nights.
(d) Clouds deflect the blowing wind to ground level
 Ocean Currents - Concept
Ocean Currents

Planetary Winds
Basics
• Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. They represent a regular[ Seasonal Directed movement
of Water ]volume of water in a definite path and direction.
• Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces namely
• Primary forces that initiate the movement of water
• Secondary forces that influence the currents to flow
Primary Forces
• Heating by solar energy
• Heating by the solar energy causes the water to expand.
• That is very near the equator, the ocean water is about 8 centimetres higher in level than in middle
latitude.
• This causes a very slight gradient and water tends to flow down the slope.
• Temperature variation also occurs with the depth of the ocean.
• Temperature decreases with depth as the sun's rays can't penetrate deep oceanic waters.
Coriolis Force
• The Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to move to the right in the Northern hemisphere
and to the left in the southern hemisphere. This is large accumulation of water and the flow around
them are called gyres. These produce large circular currents in all the ocean basins.
• One such circular current is the Sargasso Sea.
• Subtropical gyres are also responsible for concentrating plastic trash in certain areas of the ocean.
Gyres/Sargasso Sea
Wind
• Wind blowing on the surface of the ocean pushes the water to move. Friction between the wind and
the water surface affects the movement of the water body in its course.
• Winds are responsible for both magnitude and direction.
• equatorial currents flow westward under the influence of N.E. and S.W. trade winds.
• Monsoon winds are responsible for the seasonal reversal of ocean currents in the Indian ocean.
• Gravity
• Gravity tends to pull the water down the pile and create gradient variation.
Secondary Forces
• Differences in water density affect the vertical mobility of ocean currents .
• Water with highest salinity is denser than the water with low salinity.
• Cold water is denser than warm water. It into sink by relatively lighter water tends to rise.
• Water of low salinity flows on the surface of waters of high salinity while waters of high salinity
flow at the bottom towards water of low salinity .
• Example – In Mediterranean region , there is great difference in salinity between open Atlantic and
partially closed Mediterranean sea . The less saline water of Atlantic flows on to the surface into the
Mediterranean Sea and this is compensated by outflow of denser bottom water from Mediterranean
Classification of Currents
• Basis of Depth
• Surface currents
• They constituent about 10% of all the water in the ocean, these waters are the upper 400m of
the ocean.
• Deep water currents
• These currents make up the other 90% of the ocean water. These water mover around the ocean
basins due to variation in gravity and the density.
• Basis of Temperature
• Cold currents
• They bring cold water into warm water areas. Cold water ocean currents occur when the cold water at
the poles thing and slowly moves towards the equator.
• These currents are usually found on the west coast of the continents in the low and middle latitudes
(true in both hemispheres) and on the east coast in the higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.
Cold Currents

Classification of Currents
• Basis of Temperature
• Warm currents
• They bring warm water into cold water areas. Warm water currents travel out from the equator along
the surface flowing towards the poles to replace the sinking cold water.
• These are usually observed on the east coast of continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in
both hemispheres).
• In the northern hemisphere they are found on the west coasts of continents in high latitudes.
Warm Currents
Note :
• The oceanic circulation transports heat from one latitude belt to another in a manner similar to the
heat transported by the general circulation of the atmosphere.
• The cold waters of the Arctic and Antarctic circles move towards warmer water in tropical and
equatorial regions, while the warm waters of the lower latitudes move polewards
Effects of Ocean Currents
• Desert Formation : Cold ocean currents have a direct effect on desert formation in West Coast regions
of the Tropical and subtropical continents. Peru Current is a cold-water current of the southeast Pacific
Ocean and a primary reason for the aridity of Atacama desert (driest desert of the world).
• Rains : Warm ocean currents bring rain to coastal areas and even interiors .
• Temperature Distribution- Without currents in the ocean, regional temperatures would be more
extreme– super hot at the equator and frigid toward the poles- and much less of Earth’s land would
be habitable. The North Atlantic Drift keeps the coasts of the North Sea (western coast of Europe)
warm which is unusual for such high latitudes.
Desert Formation + Temperature Distribution

Effects of Ocean Currents

• Moderating Effect
• These are responsible for moderate temperature at coasts.
• Tropical cyclones: They pile up warm waters in tropics and this warm water is the major force
behind tropical cyclones.
• Fishing
• Cold and warm ocean currents mixing brings the richest fishing Grounds in the world.
 • Distribution of Nutrients-
• They carry nutrients and food to organisms that live permanently attached in one place and
carry reproductive cells and ocean life to new places.
• Climate
• Foggy weather and drizzle in the mixing zones of cold and warm currents. They pile up warm
waters and this warm water is the major force behind tropical cyclones.
• Navigation
• Ships usually follow routes which are aided by ocean currents and winds. Agulhas
Current (down along eastern Africa), which long prevented sailors from reaching
India

Cyclones + Fishing + Navigation

 UPSC PYQ
Q) Consider the following statements:

1. In the tropical zone, the western sections of the oceans are warmer than the eastern sections owing to the
influence of trade winds.

2. In the temperate Zone, westerlies make the eastern sections of oceans warmer than the western sections
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(c) Both 1 and 2

(d) Neither 1 and 2

Q) The most important fishing grounds of the world are found in the regions where:
(a) warm and cold atmospheric currents meet
(b) rivers drain out large amounts of freshwater into the sea
(c) warm and cold oceanic currents meet
(d) continental shelf is undulating

What explains the eastward flow of the equatorial countercurrent?

(a) The Earth’s rotation on its axis
(b) Convergence of the two equatorial currents
(c) Difference in salinity of water
(d) Occurrence of the belt of calm near the equator
 Mains Questions
Q. Explain the factors responsible for the origin of ocean currents. How do they influence
regional climates, fishing and navigation?
Introduction
• An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of sea water generated by a number of forces
acting upon the water, including wind, the Coriolis effect, and temperature and salinity differences.
Factors responsible for the origin and modifications of ocean currents :
• Primary Factors
• Insolation: Heating due to solar energy causes the expansion of water, which in turn causes a very slight
gradient and water tends to flow down the slope causing ocean current.

• Planetary winds: Planetary winds are the principal cause of the origin of ocean currents because these
winds such as the trade winds drive surface water along with them.
o Example:
Equatorial currents are driven by the Trade winds.
Gulf Stream in the Atlantic and the Kuroshio in the Pacific move in northeastern direction under the influence
of the westerlies
• Earth rotation and gravity: The rotation of the Earth from west to east causes Coriolis force which
affects the direction of movement of water and leads to formation of ocean currents. Due to Coriolis
force, currents flow in a clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere and in anti-clockwise
direction in the southern hemisphere. These produce large circular currents in all the ocean basins.
Example - North and South Atlantic Subtropical Gyres
 o Gravity tends to pull the water down to pile and create gradient variation.
• Secondary Factors
• Difference of density and salinity: It is because of the density differences in different layers of ocean
waters, that the heavier water sinks and causes the overlying surface water to move in its space. This
gives rise to global oceanic circulation.
• Shape of Coastline: The shape of coastline is also an important factor that affects the current in the
oceans.
o Example - Equatorial current strikes at the Brazilian coast and gets deflected towards the north.
o Temperature difference: Warm equatorial waters, therefore, move slowly along the surface towards
the poles while heavier cold waters of the polar areas creep slowly towards the Equator along the
bottom of the sea – Origin of Surface and Deep-Water Currents.
Effects of the Ocean Currents on
• Climate
o Winds blowing over a warm current become warm and at the same time, pick up moisture. Thus, the
wind that reaches the land brings down the temperature and causes heavy rainfall, responsible for
moderate temperatures at coasts.
▪ For example - North Atlantic Drift brings warmth to England - The western coast of Europe is an
example of such a region.
o Another example is the cold currents creating a desiccating effect on the climate, leading to the
formation of deserts.
• Navigation
o By using predicted, real-time and short-term forecasted currents, ships can be safely docked and
undocked, maneuvered in confined waterways and safely navigate through coastal waters.
o Example - Agulhas Current which long prevented sailors from reaching India.
• Fishing
o Places, where cold and warm currents meet, are ideal for the growth of plankton which is food for fish,
developing into major fishing grounds of the world.
o Example - Newfoundland on the eastern coast of North America is the meeting point of the Gulf Stream
and the Labrador Current.
Q. Identify the major fishing grounds of the world. Why biggest fishing grounds are located in temperate
region?
• The World's Ocean Fishing grounds are located in the cool waters of the northern hemisphere
because in southern hemisphere commercial ocean fishing is less developed and the best fishing
grounds are found above the continental shelves.

• The North-West Pacific Region:

o It stretches from the Bering Sea to East China Sea and the world's largest as well as greatest fishing
ground. It extends southward from the outer Aleutian Islands in the north to the central pacific, north
of the Philippine Islands.
o Japan is at the top in commercial fishing of this region, followed by China, North and South Korea,
and Russia.
• The North East Atlantic and adjacent region of the Arctic:
o It stretches from Iceland to Mediterranean shores that covered some of the European countries like
Norway, Denmark, Spain, Iceland and the United Kingdom.
o It is a World’s best fish-exporting region.
• The North West Atlantic Region:
o This region is blessed with the convergence of the Gulf Stream and the Labrador Current that enhance
the fishing productivity.
• The North East Pacific Region:
o It stretches from Alaska to California along the western shores of North America forms the fourth
largest fishing area of the world.
• The South East Pacific Region:
o It stretches from Pacific Coast of South America that includes Panama to Cape Horn.
• The West Central Pacific Region:
o It stretches from the Philippines and Southern Indonesia to the Australian coast.
• Reasons for the biggest fishing grounds to be located in temperate region are:
• Availability of Phytoplankton: Plankton are more produced in areas having cooler waters, found most
in temperate regions of Northern hemisphere seas. More planktons, more fish available.
• Climate: The cool temperate climate favours large scale commercial fishing, preservation, and storage
of fish.
• Ocean Currents: When hot and cold ocean currents meet, there will be lot of planktons, hence lot of
fishes.
• Ex - When Gulf Stream (Warm ocean current) and Labrador (cold ocean current) meets, it benefits US
and Canada (in temperate region).
o Kuroshio (warm) and Oyoshio (cold) Currents meet which benefits Honshu, Japan (again in the
temperate region).
• Continental Shelves: Temperate regions have large continental shelves, which are areas of shallow
water that extend from the coast to the open ocean. Phytoplankton can develop well in the continental
shelves and shallow seas (wider in temperate regions) because of sunlight penetration and minerals
from coastal waters.
• Topography: In mountainous regions of Asia and Europe, agricultural production is low so fishing
takes place. Example: Japan and Norway (in temperate region).
• Location factor determines upon
o Labour: Cold long winters are not good for agriculture so more people switch to fishing. Example:
Iceland, Japan, Norway.
o Capital: Due to presence of sophisticated technology, people in temperate regions are highly employed
for fishing. Even, high income in these regions are used to develop fishing Industry.
• History of Migration: When Europeans started migrating to North America, most of the early urban
settlements were on or near the eastern coast, which became ready market for selling fish products.
• Fishing has become one of the most traded food communities and is the source of many livelihoods. So,
new innovations and renovations are essential for its progress.
Q. Discuss the main features of AMOC. Also analyse the impact of decline of AMOC.
• Introduction
• The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is a large system of ocean currents. It is the
Atlantic branch of the ocean conveyor belt or Thermohaline circulation (THC) and distributes heat
and nutrients throughout the world’s ocean basins.
• Two main features of the AMOC:
• Flow of warm, salty water in the upper layers of the ocean northwards from the Gulf of Mexico (red
line). This is made up of the “Gulf Stream” to the south and the “North Atlantic Current” further north.
• Cooling of water in the high latitudes of the Atlantic, which makes the water denser. This denser
water then sinks and returns southwards towards tropics and then to the South Atlantic as a bottom
current (blue line). From there it is distributed to all ocean basins via the Antarctic circumpolar current

• A recent study notes that the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is losing its
stability
• Reasons for Decline in AMOC
• Global Warming - Climate models have long suggested that rising temperatures may harm the world's
major ocean systems.
• Melting of Glaciers : The salinity and density of the water are decreased by the freshwater from the
melting ice. The water can no longer sink as it formerly could, which reduces the AMOC flow.
• Warming of Indian Ocean : The Indian Ocean produces more precipitation as it warms up more
quickly. Less precipitation will fall in the Atlantic Ocean due to the Indian Ocean receiving so much
precipitation, which will result in a higher salinity in the tropical Atlantic's waters. As it travels north
 through the AMOC, this saltier Atlantic water will cool considerably more quickly than typical and sink
more quickly.
•

Impact of decline of AMOC:

• Changes in regional Climate: Weakening of AMOC and Gulf Stream, will trigger a cooling effect on
climate and decrease rainfall over around the North Atlantic region, as the northward heat supply is
slowed down.
• Sea ice will increase across the Greenland-Iceland-Norwegian seas and to the south of Greenland due
to pronounced cooling over the northern Atlantic region and adjoining regions.
• Sea level rise: The northward surface flow of the AMOC leads to a deflection of water masses to the
right, away from the US east coast. As the current slows down, this effect weakens and more water can
pile up at the US east coast, leading to an enhanced sea level rise

• Socio-economic impacts: On agriculture, wildlife, transport, energy demand and coastal

infrastructure. For example, one study showed a 50% reduction in grass productivity in major grazing
regions of the western UK and Ireland due to weakening of AMOC.
 • Severe consequences for Atlantic marine ecosystems: The North Atlantic ecosystem is adapted to the
existence of the overturning circulation, which sets the conditions – the seasonal cycle, the temperature,
the nutrient conditions. Any changes in these conditions would disrupt fish populations and other
marine life.
• Change in Rainfall Pattern due to Warming of Indian Ocean - The Sahara region will become more
drought prone and Indian Ocean will get more rainfall.
Additional Topic – 1- Why are tropical waters highly unproductive and Icelandic waters productive ?
• There is a fundamental problem phytoplankton in the open ocean have to face. They need both
sunlight and nutrients (such as nitrate and phosphate) to be able to photosynthesize.
• Sunlight is only available in the uppermost layers.
• During photosynthesis, the nutrients are quickly used up by phytoplankton so they are not available
for long periods in the upper layers under normal circumstances. This is indeed the case in tropical
waters, and as a result they are very unproductive.
• To escape this problem the seawater needs to be mixed regularly to bring the nutrient rich deep
waters up to the sunlight zone where the phytoplankton can grow.
• Furthermore, in surroundings where atmospheric temperatures are often colder than oceanic
temperatures, the top layers of the ocean are cooled by the atmosphere.
• This increases the density of the surface waters and causes them to sink and therefore causes mixing
leading to upwelling zones which are the most productive zones. Ex- Icelandic Waters
• Additional Topic- 2 - Great Pacific Garbage Patch
Context
• A new study published in the Nature Ecology & Evolution journal reveals those dozens of coastal
invertebrate organisms, including tiny crabs and anemones, have been able to survive and reproduce
on plastic debris in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch.
Great Pacific Garbage Patch
• Findings:
• Scientists have found thriving communities of coastal creatures, including tiny crabs and anemones,
living thousands of miles from their original home on plastic debris in the Great Pacific Garbage
Patch – a 620,000 square mile swirl of trash in the ocean between California and Hawaii.
• In a new study published in the Nature Ecology & Evolution journal on Monday, a team of researchers
revealed that dozens of species of coastal invertebrate organisms have been able to survive and
reproduce on plastic garbage that’s been floating in the ocean for years.
• The scientists said that the findings suggest plastic pollution in the ocean might be enabling the
creation of new floating ecosystems of species that are not normally able to survive in the open
ocean.
• Points to Know
• The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is a collection of marine debris in the North Pacific Ocean.
• Marine debris is litter that ends up in oceans, seas, and other large bodies of water.
• These areas of spinning debris are linked together by the North Pacific Subtropical Convergence
Zone, located a few hundred kilometers north of Hawai'i.
• This convergence zone is where warm water from the South Pacific meets up with cooler water from
the Arctic. The zone acts like a highway that moves debris from one patch to another.
• Also known as the Pacific trash vortex, the garbage patch is actually two distinct collections of debris
bounded by the massive North Pacific Subtropical Gyre.
OCEAN GYRES – Basics
• Ocean gyres are large, circular systems of ocean currents that span entire ocean basins.
• They are driven by a combination of factors, including wind patterns, the rotation of the Earth, and
differences in water temperature and density.
● There are five major ocean gyres in the world:
○ the North Atlantic Gyre,
○ the South Atlantic Gyre,
○ the Indian Ocean Gyre,
○ the North Pacific Gyre, and
○ the South Pacific Gyre
• Each of these gyres consists of a central region of relatively still water, known as the gyre center,
surrounded by a system of rotating currents, called the gyre circulation.
• The direction of the gyre circulation is determined by the prevailing winds in the region, which can
drive ocean currents in a clockwise or counter-clockwise direction, depending on the hemisphere.
• For example, the North Atlantic Gyre and the North Pacific Gyre both rotate clockwise, while the South
Atlantic Gyre and the South Pacific Gyre rotate counterclockwise.
• Ocean gyres have significant impacts on global climate patterns and marine ecosystems. They can
influence the distribution of nutrients, heat, and salt in the ocean, which in turn affects ocean
temperature and chemistry.
• They can also affect weather patterns on land, as changes in ocean currents can alter atmospheric
circulation and the distribution of moisture.
• Ocean gyres also play a role in the transport of marine debris and pollutants, such as plastic waste,
which can accumulate in the gyre centers and cause environmental damage. For example, the Great
Pacific Garbage Patch, a large area of plastic debris in the North Pacific Gyre, has become a major
environmental concern in recent years.
Introduction
• This section deals with the spatial and vertical variations of temperature in various oceans.
• Ocean waters get heated up by the solar energy just as land.
• The process of heating and cooling of the oceanic water is slower than land.

The Ocean Water Is Heated by Three Processes:

• Absorption of sun’s radiation.
• The conventional currents: Since the temperature of the earth increases with increasing depth, the
ocean water at great depths is heated faster than the upper water layers. So, convectional oceanic
circulations develop causing circulation of heat in water.

• Heat is produced due to friction caused by the surface wind and the tidal currents which increase
stress on the water body.

The Ocean Water Is Cooled By

• Back radiation (heat budget) from the sea surface takes place as the solar energy once received is
reradiated as long wave radiation (terrestrial radiation or infrared radiation) from the seawater.
• Exchange of heat between the sea and the atmosphere if there is temperature difference.
• Evaporation

Latitude
• The temperature of surface water decreases from the equator towards the poles because the amount
of insolation decreases poleward.
Unequal Distribution of Land and Water
• The oceans in the Northern hemisphere receive more heat due to their contact with larger extent of
land than the oceans in the southern hemisphere

Prevailing Wind
• The winds blowing from the land towards the ocean drive warm surface water away from the coast
resulting in the upwelling of cold water from below.
• The replacement of warm water by cold water results into longitudinal variation in the temperature
in ocean

Ocean Currents
• Warm ocean currents raise the temperature in Cold areas will the cold currents decrease the
temperature and warm Ocean areas.
 • Gulf Stream (warm current) raises the temperature near the eastern coast of the North America and the
West Coast of Europe by the Labrador current (cold current) lowers the temperature near the Northeast
Coat of North America.

Other Factors
• Heat loss: The loss of energy by reflection, scattering, evaporation and radiation.

• Albedo: The albedo of the sea (depending on the angle of sun rays).
• The physical characteristics of the sea surface: Boiling point of the sea water is increased in the case of
higher salinity and vice versa.
• The enclosed seas in the low latitudes record relatively higher temperature than the open seas;
whereas the enclosed seas in the high latitudes have lower temperature than the open seas.

Enclosed Seas
Vertical Distribution
• Generally, the maximum temperature of the oceans is at their surfaces .
• This is because they directly receive the heat from the sun and the heat is transmitted to the lower
sections of the ocean to the process of convection.
• This result in to decrease of temperature with the increasing depth but the rate of decrease is not
uniform throughout.
• The profile shows a boundary region between the surface waters of the ocean and the deeper layers.

• The boundary usually begins around hundred to 400 meter below the sea level and extend hundreds
of metres down words.
• This boundary region from where there is a rapid decrease of temperature is called the thermocline.
• About 90% of total volume of water is Found below the thermocline in the deep ocean.

Layers
• The temperature structure of oceans over middle and lower latitude can be described as a three-layer
system from surface to the bottom
• The first layer represents the top layer of warm oceanic water and it is about 500m thick with
temperatures ranging between 20° and 25° C.
• This layer, within the tropical region, is present throughout the year but in mid-latitudes it develops
only during summer.
• The second layer called the thermocline layer lies below the first layer and is characterized by rapid
decrease in temperature with increasing depth. The thermocline is 500 -1,000 m thick.
• The third layer is very cold and extends up to the deep ocean floor. Here the temperature becomes
almost stagnant.
Horizontal and Vertical Distribution of Temperature
• The average temperature of surface water of the oceans is about 27°C and it gradually decreases from
the equator towards the poles.
• The rate of decrease of temperature with increasing latitude is generally 0.5°C per latitude.
• The highest temperature is not recorded at the equator but slightly towards north of it. This variation
is due to the unequal distribution of land and water in the northern and southern hemispheres.
• The horizontal temperature distribution is shown by isothermal lines, i.e., lines joining places of equal
temperature.
• Isotherms are closely spaced when the temperature difference is high and vice versa.
Introduction
• All waters in nature whether the rain water or ocean water contain dissolved mineral salt .
• Salinity is the term used to define the total content of dissolved salts in sea water.
• It is calculated and the amount of salt dissolved in thousand gram of sea water .
• It is usually expressed as parts per thousand.
Factors Affecting Ocean Salinity
• The salinity of water in the surface layer of oceans depend mainly on evaporation and precipitation
.
• Surface salinity is greatly influenced in coastal regions by the fresh water flow from rivers .
• Surface salinity in polar regions is influenced by process of freezing and thawing of ice, inflow of
Glacier etc.
• Wind also influences salinity of an area by transferring water to other areas.
• Ocean currents too contribute to the salinity variations.
• Salinity, temperature and density of water are interrelated. Hence, any change in the temperature
or density influences the salinity of water in an area.
Additional Info
• In Tropics
• The salinity is higher where the addition of fresh water through rain fall, rivers and ice melt
is lesser and the rate of evaporation is higher.
• Conversely the salinity is low in areas receiving a lot of freshwater through rainfall, ice melt
or rivers and where the loss of water is through evaporation is lower .
• In Polar Regions
• The lowest salinity in polar areas in on a count of two factors:
i.rate of evaporation here is very low
ii.a large amount of water is added through ice melt
• In Equator Region
o The chief cause of lowest salinity in the equatorial regions is a large amount of rainfall
here and the number of large rivers flowing into the seas .
o Also the cloudy weather of these regions restricts the rate of water loss through
evaporation.
Distribution of Salinity
• Horizontal
• The salinity for normal open Ocean ranges between 33 and 37% .
• In hot and dry regions where evaporation is high, the salinity sometimes reaches to 70% .
• Salinity and gradually decreases from the tropics as we move northwards.
• The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is 35 o/oo.
• The low salinity trend is observed in the Bay of Bengal due to influx of river water by the river
Ganga.
• On the contrary, the Arabian Sea shows higher salinity due to high evaporation and low influx
of fresh water
• The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean is mainly due to its shape and larger areal extent.
• Salinity decreases from 35 o/oo - 31 o/oo on the western parts of the northern hemisphere because
of the influx of melted water from the Arctic region.
• In the same way, after 15° - 20° south, it decreases to 33 o/oo .
• The average salinity of the Atlantic Ocean is around 36 o/oo.
• For example, Near the equator, there is heavy rainfall, high relative humidity, cloudiness and calm
air of the doldrums.
• Whereas, The polar areas experience very little evaporation and receive large amounts of freshwater
from the melting of ice. This leads to low levels of salinity, ranging between 20 and 32 parts per
thousand
• The highest salinity is recorded between 15° and 20° latitudes.
• Maximum salinity (37 o/oo) is observed between 20° N and 30° N and 20° W - 60° W.
• It gradually decreases towards the north.
 • The North Sea, in spite of its location in higher latitudes, records higher salinity due to more
saline water brought by the North Atlantic Drift.
• Baltic Sea records low salinity due to influx of river waters in large quantity.
• The Mediterranean Searecords higher salinity due to high evaporation.
• Salinity is, however, very low in Black Sea due to enormous fresh water influx by rivers.
• Vertical
• Salinity changes with depth, but the weight changes depend upon the location of the sea .
• At the surface it increases by the loss of water to evaporation or decrease by the input of
freshwater such as from the rivers .
• At depth, it is more or less fixed, because there is no way the water is lost or more salt is added.
• There is a marked Difference in the salinity between the surface zones and the deep zones of the
oceans .
• It really increases with depth and there is a zone called the halocline where salinity increases
sharply.
• Other factors being constant, increasing salinity of sea water causes its density to increase.
• High salinity sea water generally sinks below the Lower salinity water. This leads to stratification
by salinity.
Relief of the Ocean Floor

Introduction
• The oceans are confined to the great depressions of the earth’s outer layer.
• The oceans, unlike the continents, merge so naturally into one another that it is hard to demarcate
them.
• The geographer’s have divided the oceanic part of the earth into oceans, like the Pacific, the Atlantic,
the Indian ocean etc.
• The various seas, bays, gulfs and outer inlets are parts of these large oceans.
• A major portion of the ocean floor is found between 3-6 km below the sea level.
• The land, under the waters of the oceans, that is, the ocean floor exhibits complex and varied features
as those observed over the land.
• The floors of the oceans are rugged with the world’s largest mountain ranges, deepest trenches and
the largest plains.
• These features are formed, like those of the continents, by the factors of tectonic, volcanic and
depositional processes.
Ocean Floor
• The ocean floors can be divided into four major divisions :
• The continental shelf
• The continental slope
• The deep-sea plain
• The oceanic deep
• Besides these divisions, there are also major and minor relief features in the ocean floors like ridges,
hills, sea mountains, guyots, trenches, canyons, etc.

Continental Shelf
• The continental shelf is the extended margin of each continent occupied by relatively shallow seas.
• The shelf is formed mainly due the
i. submergence of a part of a continent
ii. relative rise in sea level
iii. Sedimentary deposits brought down by rivers
It is the shallowest part of the ocean showing an average gradient of 1 degree or even less.
• The shelf typically ends at a very step slope, called the shelf break.
• The width of the continental shelves vary from one ocean to another.

• The average width of continental shelves is about 80 km.

• The continental shelves are covered with variable thickness of sediments brought down by rivers,
glaciers, wind, from the land and distributed by waves and currents. Massive sedimentary deposits
received over a long time by the continental shelves, become the source of fossil fuels.
• Marine food comes almost entirely from continental shelves.
• They provide the richest fishing grounds
• They are potential sites for economic minerals

Continental Shelf- Example

• The shelves are almost absent or very narrow along some of the margins like the coasts of chile, the
west coast of Sumatra, etc.
• On the contrary, the Siberian shelf in the arctic ocean, the largest in the world, stretches to 1500km
in width.
Siberian Shelf

Continental Slope
• The slope boundary indicates the end of the continents
• The continental slope connects the continental shelf and the ocean basins or its floor.
• It begins where the bottom of the continental shelf sharply drops off into a steep slope.
• The gradient of the slope region varies between 2-5 degrees.

• The depth of the slope region varies between 200 and 3000m.
• Canyons and trenches are observed in this region.

Deep Sea Plain

• Deep sea plains are generally sloping areas of the ocean basins
• These are the flattest and the smoothest regions of the world.
• The depths vary between 3000 and 6000 m.
• These plains are covered with fine-grained sediments like clay and silt.

Oceanic Deep and Trenches

• These areas are the deepest parts of the oceans. These trenches are relatively steep sided, narrow
basins.

• They are some 3-5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean floor.
• The Mariana Trench off the Guam Islands in the Pacific Ocean is the deepest trench with, a depth of
more than 11 kilometres.
• They are associated with active volcanoes and strong earthquakes.

• This makes them very significant in the study of plate movements

How are trenches formed
• Trenches are formed by subduction, a geophysical process in which two or more of Earth's tectonic
plates converge and the older, denser plate is pushed beneath the lighter plate and deep into the
mantle, causing the seafloor and outermost crust (the lithosphere) to bend and form a steep, V-shaped
depression.

Minor Relief Features

• Mid-Oceanic Ridges
• A mid oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of mountains separated by a large depression.

• The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2500 m and some even reach above the ocean’s
surface.
• Running for a total length of 75,000 km, these ridges form the largest mountain systems on
earth.
• These ridges are either broad, like a plateau, gently sloping or in the form of steep-sided
narrow mountains.
• These oceanic ridge systems are of tectonic origin and provide evidence in support of the
theory of Plate Tectonics.

Minor Relief Features – Mid Oceanic Ridges

Minor Relief Features - Sea Mount

Sea Mounts
• It is a mountain with pointed summits, rising from the Sea floor that does not reach the surface of
the ocean
• Seamounts are volcanic in origin.
• This can be 3000 to 4500 m tall.
• The emperor seamount, an extension of Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean is a good example.

Minor Relief Features –Guyots

• It is a flat topped seamount

• The show evidences of gradual subsidence through stages to become flat top submerged mountains
• It is estimated that more than 10000 seamounts and guyots exist in the Pacific Ocean alone.
Minor Relief Features – Submarine Canyons

Submarine Canyons
• These are deep valleys, some compared to the Grand Canyon of the Colorado river.
• They are sometimes found cutting across the continental shelves and slopes often extending from the
mouth of large rivers.
• The Hudson Canyon is the best-known Canyon in the world.

Minor Relief Features –Atolls

• This is a ring of narrow growing Coral generally formed around an island or an elliptical form on a
submarine platform
• It may be a part of sea (lagoon), or sometimes form and closing a body of fresh or brackish water.
MISCELLANEOUS
Additional Info

With reference to the water on the planet Earth, consider the following statements:
1. The amount of water in the rivers and lakes is more than the amount of groundwater.
2. The amount of water and polar ice caps and glaciers is more than the amount of groundwater.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
2. On the planet earth, most of the freshwater exists as ice caps and glaciers. Out of the remaining freshwater,
the largest proportion
(a) is found in the atmosphere as moisture and clouds
(b) is found in freshwater lakes and rivers
(c) exists as groundwater
(d) exists as soil moisture
Definition
• The rise and fall of sea level once or twice a day mainly due to the attraction of the sun and moon is
called tide.

• NOTE :
• The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice a day, mainly due to the attraction of the sun
and the moon, is called a tide.
• Movement of water caused by meteorological effects (winds and atmospheric pressure changes) are
called surges.

Factors Responsible for Tides

• The moon’s gravitational pull to a great extent and to a lesser extent the sun’s gravitational pull, are
the major causes for the occurrence of tides.
• Another factor is centrifugal force, which is the force that acts to counter the balance the gravity.
• Together, the gravitational pull and the centrifugal force are responsible for creating the two major
tidal bulges on the earth.
• On the side of the earth facing the moon, a tidal bulge occurs while on the opposite side though the
gravitational attraction of the moon is less as it is farther away, the centrifugal force causes tidal
bulge on the other side.
Types of Tides
• Tides Based on Frequency
• Semidiurnal tide: The most common tidal pattern, featuring 2 high Tides and 2 low tides each
day. The successive high or Low Tides are approximately of the same height.

• Diurnal tide: There is only one high tide and one low tide during each day. The successive
high or Low Tides are approximately of the same height.
• Mixed tide: Tides having variation in height are known as mixed tide. these tides generally
occur along the west coast of north America and on many islands of Pacific Ocean

Tides Based on Sun, Moon and Earth Positions

• The height of the rising water (high tide) varies appreciably depending upon the position of sun and
moon with respect to the earth.
• Spring tides and neap tides come under this category.
• Spring tides
• The position of both the sun and the moon in relation to the earth has direct bearing on tide
height . When the sun the moon and the earth are in a straight line the height of the tide will
be higher. These are called spring tides and they occur twice a month one on a full moon period
and another during New Moon period.
• Neap tides
• At this time the sun and the moon are at right angles to each other and the forces of the sun
and the moon tend to counteract one another. The moon's attraction, though more than twice
as stronger than the sun, is diminished by the counteracting force of the sun's gravitational
pull

Note :
• Perigee and Apogee
• Once in a month when the Moon's orbit is closest to the earth (perigee) unusually high and
low Tides occur. During this time the tidal range is greater than normal .
 • Two weeks later when the moon is farthest from the Earth (apogee), the moon's gravitational
force is limited and and the tidal ranges are less than their average height

• When the earth is closest to the sun, perihelion, around 3rd January each year, tidal ranges are also
much greater, with unusually high and unusually low tides.
• When the earth is farthest from the Sun, aphelion, around 4 July each year, tidal ranges are much less
than average

Terms
• Ebb
•

• The time between the high tide and low tide, when the water level is falling, is called the ebb.
• Flow
• The time between the low tide and high tide, when the tide is rising, is called the flow or flood.

Importance of Tides
• Navigation
• Since tides are caused by the earth-moon-sun positions which are known accurately, the tides
can be predicted well in advance. This helps the navigators and fishermen plan their activities.
• Tidal flows are of great importance in navigation. Tidal heights are very important, especially
harbours near rivers and within estuaries having shallow ‘bars’ at the entrance, which prevent
ships and boats from entering into the harbours.
• Fishing
• The high Tides also help in fishing. Many more fish come closer to the Shore during high tide.
This enables fishermen to get a plentiful catch.
• Desilting
• Tides are also helpful in desilting sediment and in removing polluted water from river estuaries
 • Power
• Tides are used to generate electrical power (in Canada, France , Russia and China)

Factors Controlling the Nature and Magnitude

• The movement of the moon in relation to the earth.
• Changes in position of the sun and moon in relation to the earth.
• Uneven distribution of water over the globe.
• Irregularities in the configuration of the oceans.
• The tidal bulges on wide continental shelves, have greater height. When tidal bulges hit the mid-
oceanic islands they become low. The shape of bays and estuaries along a coastline can also magnify
the intensity of tides.
Highest Tides – Bay of Fundy
Horizontal Movement
• The horizontal motion refers to the ocean currents and waves.

Vertical Movement
• The vertical motion refers to tides (Due to attraction of the sun and the moon) .
• The upwelling of cold water from the subsurface and the sinking of surface water are also forms of
vertical motion of ocean water

Factors Affecting Movement of Ocean Water

Waves
• Waves are actually the energy, not the water as such, which move across the ocean surface.
• Waves travel because wind pushes the water body in its course while gravity pulls the crests of the
waves downward.
• Wind causes waves to travel in the ocean and the energy is released on shorelines

• As a wave approaches the beach, it slows down. This is due to the friction occurring between the
dynamic water and the sea floor
• When the depth of water is less than the wavelength of the wave, the wave breaks.
• Waves continue to grow larger as the move and absorb energy from the wind .
Account for variation in ocean salinity and discuss its impacts.
Structure
1. Introduction – Define Ocean salinity.

2. Body – First, mention the factors which influence salinity of the ocean. Second, highlight the impact of
variation in salinity across different dimensions.
3. Conclude appropriately

Answer
• Ocean Salinity refers to the total amount of dissolved solids present in seawater, commonly expressed
as a percentage or in parts per thousand. The average ocean salinity is around 35 ppm.

Ocean salinity is affected by the following factors:

1. Evaporation and Rainfall - The salinity of water in the surface layer of oceans depends mainly on
evaporation and precipitation. Area facing high evaporation have high salinity while areas with high
precipitation have less salinity. For instance, equatorial regions have low salinity. The most saline of
open ocean waters are in the mid-latitudes of the Atlantic Ocean basin.
2. River inflow - Surface salinity is greatly influenced in coastal regions by the freshwater flow from
rivers, and in polar regions by the processes of freezing and thawing of ice. For instance, Bay of Bengal
has low salinity due to freshwater from Himalayan rivers.
3. Wind - Wind also influences the salinity of an area by transferring water to other areas.

4. Ocean currents - The ocean currents contribute to salinity variations. Salinity, temperature, and density
of water are interrelated. Hence, any change in the temperature or density influences the salinity of
water in an area.
5. Polar regions – Melting of polar caps reduces salinity near the poles due to influx of freshwater.

6. Landmass - In waters that are not open, for example in bays, lagoons, estuaries, and other water bodies
that are connected to the sea, but partially surrounded by land, salinity can vary greatly.
Impact of Salinity
1. Thermohaline Process – Salinity affects seawater density, which in turn governs ocean circulation and
climate. The term thermohaline circulation (THC) refers to a part of the large-scale ocean current
circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and salinity of the sea
water.

2. Marine organism - Plankton are kept perpetually afloat due to the density of seawater. Without
plankton, the entire marine ecosystem will collapse, the atmospheric levels of oxygen will be altered-
posing threat to all forms of life even on land.
3. Heat transfer - The Ocean Conveyor Belt is the principal mechanism by which the oceans store and
transport heat. Since salinity is a key ingredient in the global thermohaline circulation, its measured
value will help to discover how its variation induces change in global ocean circulation.
4. Climate - Salinity is a major factor in ocean and atmospheric science because it affects the ocean currents
that further control the climate of the planet.
Ocean acidification and global warming have impacted the normal variation of salinity of water. Along with
more research, efforts to reduce Green House Emissions need to be fastened to ensure the harmful effect of
climate change on ocean salinity can be mitigated.
Equinox + Solstice – Max and Min Rainfall
 • Equinox
March 21
Sep 22
Max Rainfall – April and Oct
• Solstice
• Dec 22
• June 21
Min Rainfall - June and December

Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate - Equatorial Vegetation - Stratification + Epiphytes

Temperature
• The most outstanding feature is its great uniformity throughout the year.
• Mean monthly temperatures are always around 27° C with very little variation
• Cloudiness and heavy precipitation help to moderate the daily temperature so that even at the
equator , climate is not unbearable .
• There is no winter.
• Regular land and sea breezes assist in maintaining a truly equable climate.
 • The diurnal range of temperature is small, and so is the annual range.

Precipitation
• Precipitation is heavy and well distributed throughout the year.
• Annual average is always above 150 cm. In some regions the annual average may be as high as 250 –
300 cm.

• There is no month without rain and a distinct dry season is absent.

• There are two periods of maximum rainfall, April and October short after equinoxes and solstices .
But this pattern may be upset by local conditions .
• The double rainfall peaks coinciding with the equinoxes are a characteristic feature of equatorial
climates not found in any other type of climate.
• Due to great heat in the equatorial belt , There is much evaporation and convectional air currents are
set up, followed by heavy downpours of convectional rain from cumulonimbus clouds.

• Thunder and lightening are also recorded .

• Besides convectional rainfall , it also experiences orographic rainfall.
• In addition there are some intermittent showers from cyclonic disturbances caused by convergence
of air currents in the doldrums.

Distribution
• The equatorial, hot, wet climate is found between 5° and 10° north and south of the equator.
• Its greatest extent is found in the lowlands of the Amazon, the Congo, Malaysia and the East Indies.

• Further away from the equator, the influence of the on-shore Trade Winds, gives rise to a modified
type of equatorial climate with monsoonal influences.
• Within the tropics, the equatorial highlands have a distinctively cooler climate, modified by
altitude, such as the Cameron Highlands in Malaysia, the Northern Andes, and the Kenyan
Highlands in East Africa.

UPSC PYQ
A geographic area with an altitude of 400 metres has following characteristics.
If this geographic area were to have a natural forest, which one of the following would it most likely be?
a) Moist temperate coniferous forest

b) Montane subtropical forest

c) Temperate forest
d) Tropical rain forest
Equatorial Vegetation
• High temperature and abundant rainfall support a luxuriant tropical rain forest.
• In the Amazon lowlands, the forest is so dense and so complete in its vegetational extravagance that
special term for it is ‘selvas’.
• Unlike the temperate regions, the growing season here is all the year round-seeding, flowering, fruiting
and decaying do not take place in a seasonal pattern.

A great variety of vegetation

• The equatorial vegetation comprises a multitude of evergreen trees that yield tropical hardwood, eg.
mahogany, ebony, greenheart, cabinet woods and dyewoods.
• There are smaller palm trees, climbing plants like the lianas or rattan which may be hundreds of feet
long and epiphytic and parasitic plants that live on other plants.

• Under the trees grow a wide variety of ferns, orchids and lalang.

A distinct layer arrangement

• From the air, the tropical rain forest appears like a thick canopy of foliage, broken only where it is
crossed by large rivers or cleared for cultivation.
• All plants struggle up- wards for sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer arrangement.

Forest Clearings
• Many parts of the virgin tropical rain forests have been cleared either for lumbering or shifting
cultivation.
• When these clear ings are abandoned, less luxuriant secondary forest called belukar in Malaysia,
spring up.
• These are characterized by short trees and very dense under growth.

• In the coastal areas and brackish swamps mangrove forests thrive.

Life and Development
• The equatorial regions are generally sparsely populated.
• In the forests most primitive people live as hunters and collectors and the more advanced ones
practise shifting cultivation.
• There are numerous animals, birds and reptiles that can be hunted to serve the needs of the
community.
• The ever- flowing rivers and streams provide an inexhaustible supply of fish that the people spear or
trap.
• In the Amazon basin the tribes collect wild rubber, in the Congo Basin the Pygmies gather nuts and
in the jungles of Malaysia the Orang Asli make all sorts of cane products and sell them to people in
villages and towns.
• When the fertility is exhausted, the clearing is abandoned and they move on to a new plot.
With the coming of the Europeans, many large plantations have been established, especially in Java,
Sumatra, Malaysia, West Africa and Central America.
• The climate has proved to be very favourable for the cultivation of certain crops that are highly
valued in the industrial West.
• The most outstanding is natural rubber, called hevea brasiliensis.

• Though it was first discovered in its wild state as Para rubber in the Amazon basin, it has since been
transplanted to other parts of the equatorial lands and is grown very profitably on large estates.
Malaysia and Indonesia are the leading producers, each accounting for more than a third of the
world production.
• The home country, Brazil exports practically no natural rubber. The problems of tree diseases and
the lack of commercial organization of the Indians in the Amazon lowlands have brought about this
unexpected 'shift' of rubber cultivation.

• Another tropical crop that has achieved an amazing success is cocoa.

• It is most extensively cultivated in West Africa, bordering the Gulf of Guinea. The two most
important producers are Ghana and Nigeria.
• There is a keen demand for the crop and acreages are rapidly on the increase.

• Most of the crop leaves West Africa for Europe or North America for the cocoa and chocolate
industry.
• From the same area another crop, oil palm, has done equally well and many countries outside
Africa have now taken to its cultivation.

• Other crops that have been found suitable for the hot, wet equatorial climate and are extensively
cultivated are coconuts, sugar, coffee, tea, tobacco, spices, cinchona, bananas, pineapples and sago.
UPSC PYQ
With reference to ‘palm oil’ consider the following statements:
1. The palm oil tree is native to Southeast Asia.
2. The palm oil is a raw material for some industries producing lipstick and perfumes.
3. The palm oil can be used to produce biodiesel.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

[A] 1 and 2 only
[B] 2 and 3 only
[C] 1 and 3 only

[D] 1, 2 and 3

Factors - Development of Equatorial Regions

• Equatorial climate and health
o Under conditions of excessive heat and high humidity, Man is subject to serious physical and
mental handicaps.
o He exposes him- self to such dangers as sun-stroke and to such diseases as malaria and yellow-
fever. Nowadays malaria eradication schemes are in progress in most tropical areas and vaccines
have been developed to counteract other diseases

• Prevalence of bacteria and insect pests

o The hot, wet climate which stimulates rapid plant growth, also encourages the spread of insects
and pests.
o As germs and bacteria are more easily transmitted through moist air, equatorial conditions are
ideal for the survival of such organisms.
o Insects and pests not only spread diseases but are injurious to crops.

• Jungle hinders development and maintenance

o The jungle is so luxuriant that it is quite a problem to clear a small patch of it and even more
difficult to maintain it.
o Lalang (tall grass) and thick undergrowth spring up as soon as the shade trees are cut and unless
they are weeded at regular intervals, they may choke crops and overwhelm estates.
o In the same way, roads and railways constructed through the equatorial lands have to cut
through forests, dense thickets and swamps and those who build and maintain them encounter
wild animals, poisonous snakes and insects.
o Once completed, they have to be maintained at a high cost.
o Many remote parts of the Amazon basin, the Congo and Borneo are without modern
communication lines. The rivers form the only natural highways.
 • Rapid deterioration of tropical soil
o It is a misconception that tropical soils are rich. In its untouched state, due to heavy leaf-fall and
the decomposition of leaves by bacteria, a thick mantle of humus makes the soil fairly fertile.

o This is clear from the shifting cultivators' heavy croppings in their newly cleared ladangs.
o But once the humus is used and the natural vegetative cover is removed, the torrential
downpours soon wash out most of the soil nutrients.
o The soil deteriorates rapidly with subsequent soil erosion and soil impoverishment. One may
quote the Indonesian island of Java as an exception, because of its rich volcanic ashes and the
energetic local people.

o In Malaysia, Singapore and eastern Brazil much progress has also been made in the development
of the tropical lands through systematic planning and the will of the people to succeed.

• Difficulties in lumbering and livestock farming

o As mentioned earlier, though the tropics have great potential in timber resources, commercial
extraction is difficult.
o The trees do not occur in homogenous stands, there are no frozen surfaces to facilitate logging
and the tropical hardwoods are sometimes too heavy to float in the rivers, even if these flow in
the desired directions.
o Livestock farming is greatly handicapped by an absence of meadow grass, even on the
highlands.
o The few animals like bullocks or buffaloes are kept mainly as beasts of burden. Their yield in
milk or beef is well below those of the cattle in the temperate grasslands.
o The grass is so tall and coarse that it is not nutritious.
o In Africa, domesticated animals are attacked by tsetse flies that cause ngana, a disease.

NCERT- Tropical Evergreen Forests

• These forests are also called tropical rainforests.

• These thick forests occur in the regions near the equator and close to the tropics.
• These regions are hot and receive heavy rainfall throughout the year.
• As there is no particular dry season, the trees do not shed their leaves altogether. This is the reason
they are called evergreen.
• The thick canopies of the closely spaced trees do not allow the sunlight to penetrate inside the
forest even in the day time.
• Hardwood trees like rosewood, ebony, mahogany are common here.
UPSC PYQ
Assertion (A): Unlike temperate forests, the tropical rain forests, if cleared, can yield productive farmland
that can support intensive agriculture for several years even without chemical fertilizers.
Reason (R): The primary productivity of the tropical rain forest is very high when compared to that of
temperate forests.
a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A.
b) Both A and R are individually true but R is not the correct explanation of A
c) A is true but R is false

d) A is false but R is true

2. Each day is more or less the same, the morning is clear and bright with a sea breeze; as the Sun climbs high
in the sky, heat mounts up, dark clouds form, then rain comes with thunder and lightning. But the rain is
soon over.”
Which of the following regions is described in the above passage?
(a) Savannah
(b) Equatorial

(c) Monsoon
(d) Mediterranean
3. Leaf litter decomposes faster than in any other biome and as a result the soil surface is often almost bare.
Apart from trees, the vegetation is largely composed of plant forms that reach up into the canopy vicariously,
by climbing the trees or growing as epiphytes, rooted on the upper branches of trees”. This is the most likely
description of
a) coniferous forest

b) dry deciduous forest

c) mangrove forest
d) tropical rainforest

4. Which of the following is/are unique characteristic/characteristics of equatorial forests?

1. Presence of tall, closely set trees with crowns forming a continuous canopy
2. Coexistence of a large number of species
3. Presence of numerous varieties of epiphytes

[A] 1 only
[B] 2 and 3 only
[C] 1 and 3 only
[D] 1, 2 and 3
 • Describing the distribution of rubber producing countries, indicate the major environmental issues
faced by them. (2022)

Distribution
• These are the tropical monsoon lands with on-shore wet monsoons in the summer and off-shore dry
monsoons in the winter.

• They are best developed in the Indian sub-continent, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, parts of
Vietnam and south China and northern Australia.
 • Outside this zone, the climate is modified by the influence of the on-shore Trade Winds all the
year round, and has a more evenly distributed rainfall.

• Such a climate, better termed the Tropical Marine Climate, is experienced in Central America. West
Indies, north-eastern Australia, the Philippines, parts of East Africa, Madagascar, the Guinea Coast
and eastern Brazil

Climatic Conditions
• The basic cause of monsoon climates is the difference in the rate of heating and cooling of land and
sea.
• In the summer, when the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, the great land masses of the
northern hemisphere are heated. Central Asia, backed by the lofty Himalayan ranges, is more than
15°F. Hotter than its normal temperature and a region of intense low pressure is set up. The seas,
which warm up much slower, remain comparatively cool.
• At the same time, the southern hemisphere experiences winter, and a region of high pressure is set
up in the continental interior of Australia.
• Winds blow outwards as the South-East Monsoon, to Java, and after crossing the equator are drawn
towards the continental low-pressure area reaching the Indian sub-continent as the South-West
Monsoon.
• In the winter, conditions are reversed. The sun is overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn, central Asia
is extremely cold, resulting in rapid cooling of the land. A region of high pressure is created with
outblowing winds-the North-East Monsoon.
• On crossing the equator, the winds are attracted to the low-pressure center in Australia and arrive
in northern Australia as the North West Monsoon
Note - In other parts of the world which experience a tropical monsoon climate a similar Seasonal reversal of
wind directions occurs.

The Tropical Marine Climate

• This type of climate is experienced along the eastern coasts of tropical lands, receiving steady
rainfall from the Trade Winds all the time.
• The rainfall is both orographic where the moist trades meet upland masses as in eastern Brazil, and
convectional due to intense heating during the day and in summer.
• Its tendency is towards a summer maximum as in monsoon lands, but without any distinct dry
period.
• Approximately 70 per cent of the annual rainfall is concentrated in the four summer months.
• There is no month without any rainfall.
• Due to the steady influence of the trades, the Tropical Marine Climate is more favorable for
habitation, but it _is prone to severe tropical cyclones, hurricanes or typhoons.

Tropical Monsoon Forests

• The natural vegetation of tropical monsoon lands depends on the amount of the summer rainfall.
 • Trees are normally deciduous, because of the marked dry period, during which they shed their
leaves to withstand the drought.
• Where the rainfall is heavy, e.g. in southern Burma, peninsular India, northern Australia and coastal
regions with a tropical marine climate, the resultant vegetation is forest.
• The forests are more open and less Luxuriant than the equatorial jungle and there are far fewer
species.

• Most of the forests yield valuable timber, and are prized for their durable hardwood. Amongst
these teak is the best known.
• Burma alone accounts for as much as three-quarters of the world's production. It is such a durable
timber that it is extensively used for ship building, furniture and other constructional purposes.
• Other kinds of timber include sal, acacia and some varieties of eucalyptus in northern Australia.
Together with the forests are bamboo thickets, which often grow to great heights.
• With a decrease in rainfall in summer, the forests thin out into thorny scrubland or savanna with
scattered trees and tall grass.
• In parts of the Indian sub-continent, rainfall is so deficient that semi desert conditions are found.

Agricultural Development
• Much of the monsoon forest has been cleared for agriculture to support the very dense population.
• Wherever possible, crops are grown. The plains are ploughed, and the hills are terraced to provide
farmland. In their quest for land, they, have removed the natural vegetation, sometimes wantonly,
resulting in acute soil erosion.
• This is particularly serious in the Indian sub-continent which has a very high density of
population with a rapid rate of growth.
• Tropical agriculture dependent on natural rainfall and a large labour force, reaches its greatest
magnitude in the monsoon lands.
• Farming is not only the dominant occupation of the greater part of the people, but also forms the
mainstay of the economy of the Indian sub-continent, China, South East Asia, eastern Brazil and the
West Indies.
• Wet padi cultivation : Rice is the most important staple crop and is grown in tropical lowlands
wherever the rain exceeds 70 inches. It is perhaps the most characteristic crop of the monsoon lands
and its total acreage far exceeds that of any other crop. In fact, very few areas outside the influence
of the monsoons ever take to the cultivation of padi.
• There are two main varieties, the wet padi, which is mainly grown on lowlands in Flooded fields or
in terraced uplands, and the dry padi grown in regions of lower rainfall. A minimum of 50 inches of
rainfall is required during the growing season.
• Droughts and floods that are almost inseparable from a monsoonal type of climate can be very
detrimental to its cultivation. Irrigation water from rivers, canals, dams or wells is extensively used
in the major rice producing countries.

• Other food crops like maize, millet, sorghum, wheat, gram and beans are of subsidiary importance.
They are cultivated in the drier or cooler areas where rice cannot be grown.
 • Lowland cash crops : A wide range of lowland tropical cash crops are cultivated for the export
market, after local needs have been met.
• The most important crop in this category is cane sugar. As much as two-thirds of world's sugar
production comes from tropical countries. Sugar is either grown on plantations or on small holdings
wherever rainfall and sunshine are abundant.
• Some of the major producers include India, Java, Formosa, Cuba, Jamaica, Trinidad and Barbados.
• Jute is confined almost entirely to the Ganges - Brahmaputra delta, in India and Bangladesh. It has
long been a leading hard fiber for the manufacture of sacks (gunny).

• Manila hemp (abaca) is a product of the Philippines, particularly of Mindanao. It is used to make high
quality rope. Other crops include indigo, still cultivated in India and Java; cotton, a major export of
the Indian sub-continent and bananas, coconuts and spices.

Highland plantation crops

• The colonization of tropical lands by Europeans gave rise to a new form of cultivated landscape in
the cooler monsoonal highlands. This is the cultivation of certain tree crops in tropical plantations.
• Thousands of acres of tropical upland forests were cleared to make way for plantation agriculture
in which tea and coffee are the most important crops. These were luxuries in Europe in the
eighteenth century and the products of the plantations were originally meant only for export to the
mother countries where there was a great craze for the beverages.
• Later, the local people also got into the habit of drinking them and they fast became necessities. Both
the beverages became so popular in and out of the tropics that there was great expansion in their
acreages both in regions with a Tropical Monsoon Climate and the Tropical Marine Climate.
• Coffee originated in Ethiopia and Arabia, where it is still grown, but Brazil now accounts for
almost half the world's production of coffee. It is mainly grown on the eastern slopes of the Brazilian
plateau.
• The crop is also cultivated on the highland slopes between 2,000 feet and 4,500 feet in the Central
American states, India and eastern Java.
• Tea originated in China and is still an important crop there, but as it requires moderate
temperatures (about 60°F.),
• Heavy rainfall (over 60 inches) and well drained highland slopes it thrives well in the tropical
monsoon zone, but preferably at a higher altitude.
• The best regions are thus the Himalayan foothills of India and Bangladesh, the central highlands of Sri
Lanka and western Java, from all of which it is exported.
• Lumbering: Wherever there are tropical forests which still have not been felled to make way for the
plough, lumbering is undertaken in the more accessible areas.
• This is particularly important in continental South-East Asia. Of the tropical deciduous trees, teak, of
which Burma is the leading producer, is perhaps the most sought after. It is valuable on account of
its great durability, strength, immunity to shrinkage, fungus attack and insects. It is grown in hilly
districts up to 3,000 feet in altitude with a moderate rainfall.
• In northern Burma, in the region of the Chindwin River, there are large teak plantations.
 • Green teak logs are so heavy that they will not float readily on water. It is therefore necessary to
'poison' the tree several years before actual felling, so that it is dry and light enough to be floated
down the Chindwin and the Irrawaddy to reach the saw mills at Rangoon.
• Shifting Cultivation : This most primitive form of farming is widely practised. Instead of rotating
the crops in the same field to preserve fertility, the tribesmen move to a new clearing when their
first field is exhausted.
• As tropical soils are mainly latosolic, rapidly leached and easily exhausted, the first crop may be
bountiful but the subsequent harvests deteriorate. A few years later, the field has to be abandoned
and a new patch cleared elsewhere.
• Shifting cultivation is so widely practised amongst indigenous peoples that different local names
are used in different countries. For example, ladang in Malaysia, taungya in Burma, tamrai in
Thailand, caingin in the Philippines, humah in Java, chena in Sri Lanka and milpa in Africa and
Central America.

NCERT- Tropical Deciduous Forests

• Tropical deciduous are the monsoon forests found in the large part of India, Northern Australia and
in central America .
• These regions experience seasonal changes.
• Trees shed their leaves in the dry season to conserve water.
• The hardwood trees found in these forests are sal, teak, neem and shisham.
• Hardwood trees are extremely useful for making furniture, transport and constructional materials.
Distribution
• The Savanna or Sudan Climate is a transitional type of climate found between the equatorial forests
and the trade wind hot deserts.
• It is confined within the tropics and is best developed in the Sudan where the dry and wet seasons
are most distinct, hence its name the Sudan Climate.

• The belt includes West African Sudan, and then curves southwards into East Africa and southern
Africa north of the Tropic of Capricorn .
• In South America, there are two distinct regions of savanna north and south of the equator, namely
the llanos of the Orinoco basin and the campos of the Brazilian Highlands.

• The Australian savanna is located south of the monsoon strip running from west to east north of the
Tropic of Capricorn.
Climate of the Sudan Type
• Rainfall-
o The Sudan type of climate is characterized by an alternate hot, rainy season and cool, dry season.
o In the northern hemisphere, the hot, rainy season normally begins in May and lasts until
September, as in Kano, Nigeria.

o The rest of the year is cool and dry.

o Both the length of the rainy season and the annual total rainfall decrease appreciably from the
equatorial region polewards towards the desert fringes.

• Temperature-
o It is, however, interesting to note that the highest temperatures do not coincide with the period
of the highest sun (e.g. June in the northern hemisphere) but occur just before the onset of the
rainy season, i.e. April in Kano and October in Salisbury.
o There is also a distinct drop in temperature in the rainy period, due to the overcast sky and the
cooler atmosphere.
o Days are hot, and during the hot season, noon temperatures of over 100°F. are quite frequent.
When night falls the clear sky which promotes intense heating during the day also causes rapid
radiation in the night. Temperatures drop to well below 50°F. and night . Frosts are not
uncommon at this time of the year.
o This extreme diurnal range of temperature is another characteristic feature of the Sudan type of
climate.
o Winds - The prevailing winds of the region are the Trade Winds, which bring rain to the coastal
districts.
o They are strongest in the summer but are relatively dry by the time they reach the continental
interiors or the western coasts of the continents, so that grass and scattered short trees
predominate.
o In West Africa, the North-East Trades, in fact, blow off-shore from the Sahara Desert and reach the
Guinea coast as a dry, dust-laden wind, called locally the Harmattan, meaning the doctor’.

o It is so dry that its relative humidity seldom exceeds 30 per cent. 'The doctor' provides a welcome
relief from the damp air of the Guinea lands by increasing the rate of evaporation with resultant
cooling effects, but it is such a dry dusty wind that, besides ruining the crops, it also stirs up a
thick dusty haze and impedes inland river navigation.

• Natural Vegetation
o The savanna landscape is typified by tall grass and short trees.

o The terms 'parkland' or 'bush-veld' perhaps describe the landscape better. Trees grow best
towards the equatorial humid latitudes or along river banks but decrease in height and density
away from the equator. The trees are deciduous, shedding their leaves in the cool, dry season to
prevent excessive loss of water through transpiration, e.g. acacias. Others have broad trunks,
 with water-storing devices to survive through the prolonged drought such as baobabs and bottle
trees.
o Many trees are umbrella shaped, exposing only a narrow edge to the strong winds. Palms which
cannot withstand the drought are confined to the wettest areas or along rivers.
o In true savanna lands, the grass is tall and coarse, growing 6 to 12 feet high. The elephant grass
may attain a height of even 15 feet! The grass tends to grow in compact tufts and has long roots
which reach down in search of water.
o It appears greenish and well-nourished in the rainy season but turns yellow and dies down in
the dry season that follows.

• Animal Life of the Savanna

o The savanna, particularly in Africa, is the home of wild animals. It is known as the ‘big game
country' and thousands of animals are trapped or killed each year by people from all over the
world.

• Human Life in the Savanna

o Within the savanna lands of the tropics live many different tribes who are either cattle
pastoralists like the Masai of the East African plateau or settled cultivators like the Hausa of
northern Nigeria.

• Problems, Prospects and Development

o Savanna lands with an annual rainfall of over 30 inches and without any severe cold, should be
able to support a wide range of tropical crops.
o Pioneer settlements in central Africa, northern Australia and eastern Brazil have shown that the
savannas have immense agricultural potential for plantation agriculture of cotton, cane sugar,
coffee, oil palm, groundnuts and even tropical fruits. In West Africa, the commercial cultivation
of ground-nuts, oil palm and cocoa have been gradually extended into the savanna lands.
o Droughts may be long and trying, as rainfall is often unreliable. Unless countermeasures can be
taken in the form of adequate provision for irrigation, improved crop varieties and scientific
farming techniques suitable for the tropical grasslands, crop failures can be disastrous for the
people, who have very little to fall back on.
o The Sudan Climate, with distinct wet-and-dry periods is also responsible for the rapid
deterioration of soil fertility.
o During the rainy season, torrential down-pours of hear rain cause leaching, in which most of the
plant nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates and potash are dissolved and washed away.
o Savanna lands with an annual rainfall of over 30 inches and without any severe cold, should be
able to support a wide range of tropical crops.
o Pioneer settlements in central Africa, northern Australia and eastern Brazil have shown that the
savannas have immense agricultural potential for plantation agriculture of cotton, cane sugar,
coffee, oil palm, groundnuts and even tropical fruits. In West Africa, the commercial cultivation
of ground-nuts, oil palm and cocoa have been gradually extended into the savanna lands.
 o Droughts may be long and trying, as rainfall is often unreliable. Unless countermeasures can be
taken in the form of adequate provision for irrigation, improved crop varieties and scientific
farming techniques suitable for the tropical grasslands, crop failures can be disastrous for the
people, who have very little to fall back on.
o The Sudan Climate, with distinct wet-and-dry periods is also responsible for the rapid
deterioration of soil fertility. During the rainy season, torrential down-pours of hear rain cause
leaching, in which most of the plant nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates and potash are
dissolved and washed away.
o During dry season, intense heating and evaporation dry up most of the water.

o Many savanna areas therefore have poor lateritic soil is properly conserved through regular
manuring, weeding and careful maintenance, crop yields are bound to decline.
o The savanna is said to be the natural cattle country and many of the native people are, in fact,
herdsmen of pastoralists.
o Unfortunately, the native zebu cattle are bony and yield little meat or milk. They often fall
victim to tropical diseases, e.g. the ngana or sleeping sickness carried by the tsetse fly in Africa. It
seems necessary to introduce temperate cattle such as the English Shorthorn, Friesian or Guernsey
to cross with the tropical zebu, if cattle rearing is to be successful in the savanna.
o In the African savanna, the attitude of such native herdsmen as the Masai who treat cattle as
prestige animals, not for slaughtering, will pose many difficulties towards the commercialization
of the cattle industry. But as an agricultural region, the savanna holds great promise for the future.

NCERT - Tropical grasslands

• These occur on either side of the equator and extend till the tropics .

• This vegetation grows in the areas of moderate to low amount of rainfall.

• The grass can grow very tall, about 3 to 4 metres in height.
• Savannah grasslands of Africa are of this type.
• Elephants, zebras, giraffes, deer, leopards are common in tropical grasslands

Tropical Grasslands
I. East Africa- Savanna

II. Brazil- Campos

III. Venezuela- Llanos

UPSC PYQ
Q. Which one of the following is the Characteristic climate of the Tropical Savannah Region?
A. Rainfall throughout the year
B. Rainfall in winter only

C. An extremely short dry season

D. Definite dry and wet season
2. “Climate is extreme, rainfall is scanty and the people used to be nomadic herders.” (2013)
The above statement best describes which of the following regions?

(a) African Savannah

(b) Central Asian Steppe
(c) North American Prairie

(d) Siberian Tundra

The vegetation of savannah consists of grassland with scattered small trees. The forest development in such
areas is generally kept in check by one or more or a combination of some conditions. Which of the following
are such conditions?

1. Burrowing animals and termites.

2. Fire
3. Grazing herbivores
4. Seasonal rainfall

5. Soil properties
Select the correct answer using the code given below-
(a) 1 and2
(b) 4 and 5

(c) 2, 3 and 4
(d) 1, 3 and 5

The Hot Desert and Mid – Latitude Desert Cli

Distribution
• Deserts are regions of scanty rainfall which may be hot like the hot deserts of the Saharan type; or
temperate as are the mid-latitude deserts like the Gobi.

• The aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to the effects of off-shore Trade Winds, hence they are
also called Trade Wind Deserts. The temperate deserts are rainless because of their interior location
in the temperate latitudes, well away from the rain-bearing winds.

• The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents between latitudes
15° and 30°N. and S.

• They include the Sahara Desert, the largest single stretch of desert, which is 3,200 miles from east to
west and at least 1,000 miles wide. The next biggest desert is the Great Australian Desert which covers
almost half of the continent.

• The other hot deserts are the Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari and Namib
Deserts. the Mohave.

• In North America, the desert extends from Mexico into U.S.A. and is called by different names at
different places, e.g. Sonoran, Californian and Mexican Deserts.

• In South America, the Atacama or Peruvian Desert is the driest of all deserts with less than 0.5 inches
of rainfall annually.

• Amongst the mid-latitude deserts, many are found on plateaux and are at a considerable distance
from the sea. These are the Gobi, Turkestan and Patagonian Deserts.

• The Patagonian Desert is more due to its rain-shadow position on the leeward side of the lofty
Andes than to continentality.
Climate
• Rainfall - The hot deserts lie astride the Horse Latitudes or the Sub-Tropical High Pressure Belts
where the air is descending, a condition least favourable for precipitation of any kind to take place.
• The rain-bearing Trade Winds blow off-shore and the Westerlies that are on-shore blow outside the
desert limits." Whatever winds reach the deserts blow from cooler to warmer regions, and their relative
humidity is lowered, making condensation almost impossible.
• There is scarcely any cloud in the continuous blue sky. The relative humidity is extremely low,
decreasing from 60 per cent in coastal districts to less than 30 per cent in the desert interiors. Under
such conditions, every bit of moisture is evaporated and the deserts are thus regions of permanent
drought.
• On the western coasts, the presence of cold currents gives rise to mists and fogs by chilling the on-
coming air.
• This air is later warmed by contact with the hot land, and little rain falls. The dessicating effect of the
cold Peruvian Current along the Chilean coast is so pronounced that the mean annual rainfall for the
Atacama Desert is not more than half an inch! Rain normally occurs as violent thunderstorms of the
convectional type.
• It 'bursts suddenly and pours continuously for a few hours over small areas. An inch or more may be
recorded in one single shower!

Temperature
• The deserts are some of the hottest spots on earth and have high temperatures throughout the year.
• There is no cold season in the hot deserts and the average summer temperature is around 86°F.

• The reasons for the high temperatures are obvious a clear, cloudless sky, intense insolation, dry air
and a rapid rate of evaporation.
• Coastal deserts by virtue of their maritime influence and the cooling effect of the cold currents have
much lower temperatures.

Climate
• The diurnal range of temperature in the deserts is very great. Intense insolation by day in a region of
dry air and no clouds causes the temperature to rise with the sun. But as soon as the sun sets, the land
loses heat very quickly by radiation, and the mercury column in the thermometer drops to well below
the mean temperature.
• Frosts may occur at night in winter.

Climatic Conditions in the Mid-Latitude deserts

• The climatic conditions of the mid-latitude deserts are in many ways similar to those of the hot
deserts.

• Aridity is the keynote. These inland basins lie hundreds of miles from the sea, and are sheltered by
the high mountains all around them. As a result, they are cut off from the rain-bearing winds.
• Occasionally depressions may penetrate the Asiatic continental mass and bring light rainfall in winter,
or unexpected convectional storms may bless the parched lands with brief showers in summer.
 • Due to their coldness and elevation, snow falls in winter.

Desert Vegetation
• All deserts have some form of vegetation such as grass, scrub, herbs, weeds, roots or bulbs.

• The environment, so lacking in moisture and so excessive in heat, is most unfavourable for plant growth
and a significant vegetation cannot be expected. But very rarely are there deserts where nothing grows.

• The predominant vegetation of both hot and mid-latitude deserts is xerophytic or drought-resistant
scrub.

• This includes the bulbous cacti, thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses and scattered dwarf acacias.

• Trees are rare except where there is abundant ground water to support clusters of date palms.

• Plants that exist in deserts have highly specialized means of adapting themselves to the arid
environment. Intense evaporation increases the salinity of the soil so that the dissolved salts tend to
accumulate on the surface forming hard pans.

• Absence of moisture retards the rate of decomposition and desert soils are very deficient in humus,
Plants, whether annuals or perennials must struggle for survival against both aridity and poor soil.
Most desert shrubs have long roots and are well spaced out to gather moisture, and search for ground
water.

• Plants have few or no leaves and the foliage is either waxy, leathery, hairy or needle-shaped to reduce
the loss of water through transpiration. Some of them are entirely leafless, with pricks or thorns.
Others like the cacti have thick succulent stems to store up water for long droughts. There are still
others that shed their leaves during droughts.

• The seeds of many species of grasses and herbs have thick, tough skins to protect them while they lie
dormant.

Life in the Deserts

• Despite its inhospitality, the desert has always been peopled by different groups of inhabitants.

• Some, like the Egyptians have attained a high level of civilization, others like the Bedouin Arabs have
fared quite well with their flocks of sheep, goats, camels and horses.
• The Bushmen of the Kalahari and the Bindibu of Australia remain so primitive in their mode of living
that they barely survive.

The primitive hunters and collectors

• Of the primitive tribes, the Bushmen and the Bindibu are the best known.

• Both the tribes are nomadic hunters and food gatherers, growing no crops and domesticating no
animals.
The nomadic herdsmen
• These people represent a more advanced group of desert dwellers who pursue a livestock economy.
They ride on animals instead of walking and are heavily clad against the blazing sun, the stormy winds
and the chilly nights.
• The Bedouin of Arabia ride on horses and live in tents; the Tuaregs of the Sahara are camel riders and
dwell in grass zeriba, while the Gobi Mongols ride on horses to herd their yaks and live in portable
yurts (a kind of tent).

The settled cultivators

• For crops to be cultivated in the desert, irrigation is indispensable. This is obtained either from oases,
rivers or dams, through a network of canals. In Egypt, the Nile supports a population of 25 million,
mainly concentrated in the Nile valley and delta. The life-giving waters of the Nile made it possible for
the Egyptians to raise many crops as early as 5,000 years ago.
• When the Nile flooded in summer, the overflowed water was caught in basins with raised banks and
led into the fields to irrigate the crops. This was basin irrigation, which was widely practised by the
ancient Egyptian farmers and is still employed by the Egyptians today.

The mining settlers

• The lure of mineral wealth has attracted many immigrants into the desert. Mining camps and isolated
settlements have sprung up following the discovery of certain mineral deposits.
• In the Kalahari Desert, the discovery of diamonds and copper has brought many white men to the
‘thirstland’ as it is called.
• Similarly in the deserts of North America, silver is mined in Mexico, uranium in Utah and copper in
Nevada.

NCERT - Thorny bushes

• These are found in the dry desert like regions.
• Tropical deserts are located on the western margins of the continents.
• The vegetation cover is scarce here because of scanty rain and scorching heat.

UPSC PYQ
1. What could be the main reason/reasons for the formation of the African and Eurasian desert belt?
1. It is located in the subtropical high pressure cells.

2. It is under the influence of warm ocean currents.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct in this context?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only

C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
2. Which of the following leaf modifications occur(s) in the desert areas to inhibit water loss?
1) Hard and waxy leaves

2) Tiny leaves
3) Thorns instead of leaves
Select the correct answer using the code given below

(a) 2 and 3 only

(b) 2 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

MAINS - Why World’s most tropical Deserts are found on Western Margins of Continents ?
• Offshore areas of trade wind : When the moisture laden trade wind flows from

east to west shed their moisture on the eastern part and by the time they reach the western margin, they become
dry.
• Anticyclonic conditions: The areas between 20 ° -30 ° latitude on westernmargins of continents are the
regions of descending air. Because of this, the airgets compressed and warm as it descends and thus the
moisture keeps decreasing
• Formation of Rain-shadow Zone: A region in the leeward of mountains thatreceives less rainfall than
the region windward of the mountains is calledrain-shadow zone.
• Presence of cold ocean currents along the western coast of continents tends stabilise the air over the
coast. This prevents cloud formation and rainfall. Hence,it leads to arid conditions or the formation of
marine deserts on the adjacentcoastal lands.
The process of desertification does not have climatic boundaries. Justify with examples. ( UPSC PYQ)
“Desertification” is land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various
factors, including climatic variations and human activities. As per UN Convention to Combat Desertification
(UNCCD), about 45 percent of world population and 10% of world GDP is affected by desertification.

Causes – Water Erosion + Vegetation Degradation + Deforestation + Soil Erosion+ Soil Salinity + Water
Logging
Although world climate is classified into various types by scientists like W Koeppen depending upon
temperature, precipitation and vegetation, Desertification knows no boundaries mainly because
anthropogenically induced global warming and climate change knows no boundaries :
1. Climate zones themselves are changing : Human activities-induced warming has played havoc with
climatic zones: dry climates have increased, while polar climates have decreased.
2. Sahel Region in Africa is facing alarming desertification due to combination of long draughts and
overgrazing.
3. Similarly Murray Darling Basin in Australia and cold deserts of northern China also faced severe loss of
vegetation and resulting desertification.
4.Tropical rainforest regions: India is prime example where 6 out of top ten states in terms of desertification
are from the north east as per the Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas of ISRO.
5.Mediterranean region: Southern Europe, with increasing drought spells and land use changes, witnessed its
worst draught in 500 years and this is directly aiding the desertification process.

Thus desertification is a global challenge which is fast becoming a catastrophe. To ensure land degradation
neutrality by 2030 and working on climate change goals in a responsible manner is the only way forward.
Distribution
• The Warm Temperate Western Margin Climate are entirely confined to the western portion of
continental masses, between 30° and 45° north and south of the equator.
• The basic cause of this type of climate is the shifting of the wind bells. Though the area around the
Mediterranean Sea has the greatest extent of this type of ‘winter rain climate' , and gives rise to the more
popular name Mediterranean Climate, the best developed form of this peculiar climatic type is, in fact,
found in central Chile.
• Other Mediterranean regions include California (around San Francisco), the south-western tip of Africa
(around Cape Town), southern Australia (in southern Victoria and around Adelaide, bordering the St.
Vincent and Spencer Gulfs), and south-west Australia (Swanland).

Climate
The Mediterranean type of climate is characterized by very distinctive climatic features.
• A dry, warm summer with off-shore trades.
o The summer months have a relatively high temperature.The highest temperatures are however
experienced further away from the coast in the more continental eastern Mediterranean, in the
interiors of the Balkan peninsula, the Anatolian Plateau and Mediterranean Middle East.
o In summer when the sun is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer, the belt of influence of the
Westerlies is shifted a little polewards. Rain bearing winds are therefore not likely to reach the
Mediterranean lands.
o The prevailing Trade Winds are off-shore and there is practically no rain The air is dry, the
heat is intense and the relative humidity is low.

o Days are excessively warm and in the interiors, prolonged droughts are common. At night, there
is rapid radiation but frosts are rare.

• A concentration of rainfall in winter with on-shore Westerlies.

o The Mediterranean lands receive most of their precipitation in winter when the
Westerlies shift equatorwards.
o In the northern hemisphere, the prevailing on-shore Westerlies bring much cyclonic rain
from the Atlantic to the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea. This is the rainy
season and is the most outstanding feature of the Mediterranean Climate.
o In almost all other climatic types maximum rain comes in summer.
o This is another characteristic feature of the Mediterranean winter rain.
o With a little more caution in relating the relief of the Mediterranean lands to the rainfall
distribution, you will notice that the Mediterranean regions arc often backed by
mountains of some kind. In Iberia, the central Mcseta and other Sierras of the peninsula
present an effective barrier to the oncoming Westerlies. As a result, the Portuguese coast
is much wetter than eastern Spain. Lisbon has an annual rainfall of nearly 30 inches
while Cartagena, along the eastern coast of Spain does not receive even hall as much.
 o Much heavier precipitation has been recorded in the highlands on windward slopes
facing the Westerlies.
o Though the downpours are infrequent they are often very torrential and in
mountainous districts, destructive floods occur.
o Snow rarely occurs on lowlands and coastal districts and even if it does fall on the
highlands, it is moderate and is a source of water supply for hydroelectric power
generation and for irrigation.
• The prominence of local winds around the Mediterranean Sea
Many local winds, some hot, others cold are common around the Mediterranean Sea.. The topography of the
region with the high Alps in the north, the Sahara desert in the south, continental interiors in the east and the
open Atlantic on the west give rise to great differences in temperature, pressure and precipitation.

• Sirocco.- This is a hot. dry dusty wind which originates in the Sahara Desert. Though it may
occur at any time of the year, it is most frequent in spring and normally lasts for only a few days.
The Sirocco blows outwards in a southerly direction from the desert interiors into the cooler
Mediterranean Sea. After crossing the Mediterranean Sea, the Sirocco is slightly cooled by the
absorption of the water vapour. Even then, it is still hot and dry with a temperature of over
105°F. The damage is particularly serious when it comes at the times during which vines and
olives are in blossom. The Sirocco is so prominent that it is called by many other local names,
such as Chili in Tunisia, Ghibli in Libya, Leveche in Spain, Khamsin in Egypt and Malta. In
the Adriatic and Aegean Sea, this hot wind, better known as Gharbi, gathers much moisture
causing fog, heavy dew and rain. This may be ‘ blood rain' because the wind is carrying the
red dust of the Sahara Desert.
o Mistral.
▪ the Mistral is a cold wind from the north, rushing down the Rhone valley in violent gusts
between 40 and 80 miles per hour. As a protective measure, many of the houses and
orchards of the Rhone valley and the Riviera have thick row's of trees and hedges planted
to shield them from the Mistral. The velocity of the Mistral is intensified by the funnelling
effect in the valley between the Alps and the Central Massif, and in extreme cases trains
may be derailed and trees uprooted.
▪ Bora - A similar type of cold north-easterly wind experienced along the Adriatic coast is
called the Bora. This usually occurs in winter, when the atmospheric pressure over
continental Europe is higher than that of the Mediterranean Sea. The Bora thus blow's
outwards into the Mediterranean.
▪ This dry, icy wind is even more violent than the Mistral and speeds of over 100 m.p.h. have
been recorded. During strong Boras, ships may be blown aground and agricultural lands
devastated.
▪ Note - Tramontana and Gregale are similar cold winds of the Mediterranean Sea.

Natural Vegetation
• In a land where half the year is dry, one cannot expect the natural vegetation to be luxuriant.
• Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very tall. Though there are many branches
they are short and carry' few leaves.
 • The absence of shade is a distinct feature of Mediterranean lands.
• Growth is thus almost restricted to autumn and spring when the temperature is higher and moisture
is just sufficient. The long summer drought checks the growth.
• The vegetational responses to climatic demands in the Mediterranean are similar to those of the adjacent
deserts and the savanna further south. Plants are in a continuous struggle against heat, dry air,
excessive evaporation and prolonged droughts. They are. in short xerophytic. a word used to describe
the drought-resistant plants in an environment deficient in moisture.

Types of Mediterranean vegetation

• Mediterranean evergreen forests: These are open woodlands with evergreen oaks, of which the cork
oaks of Spain and Portugal are the best known. They are found only in the climatically most favoured
regions with a rainfall of well over 25 inches. The cork oaks are specially valued for their thick barks,
used for making wine-bottle corks and for export around the world.
• Evergreen coniferous trees. These include the various kinds of pines, firs, cedars and cypresses which
have evergreen, needle-shaped leaves and tall, straight trunks. They appear more on the cooler
highlands and where droughts are less severe.
• Mediterranean bushes and shrubs. This is perhaps the most predominant type of Mediterranean
vegetation. Summers are so dry and hot that in places forests give place to short, evergreen shrubs and
bushes.
• In many areas, due to man’s interference in forest depletion, or to overgrazing, the original
woodlands degenerate into a scrub vegetation with scattered, stunted trees and tall bushes.
They are so different from the ordinary woodland or the true desert scrubland that special
names have been given to them to distinguish their location in different parts of the
Mediterranean lands.
• This type of vegetation is called maquis in southern France, and macchia in Italy. In California,
the term chaparral is used and in Australia mallee scrub. In limestone uplands, where the soil
is extremely thin and the scrub deteriorates into highly xerophytic ground creepers, a more
exact term, garrigue, is used.
• Grass - Conditions in the Mediterranean do not suit grass, because most of the rain comes in the cool
season when growth is slow. Slow-growing vegetation, which cannot replenish its foilage readily, and
which is without deep-penetrating roots, is least suited here. Even if grasses do survive, they are so
wiry and bunchy that they are not suitable for animal farming. Cattle rearing is thus unimportant in
the Mediterranean.

Economic Development of the Mediterranean Regions

Despite the semi-arid conditions over many parts of the Mediterranean lands, the climate as a whole is
favorable. It’s warm, bright summers and cool, moist winters enable a wide range of crops to be cultivated.
Orchard farming. - The Mediterranean lands are also known as the world’s orchard lands. A wide range of
citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons, limes, citrons and grapefruit are grown. The fruit trees have long roots
to draw water from considerable depths during the long summer drought.
o The thick, leathery skin of the citrus fruits prevents excessive transpiration and the long,
sunny summer enables the fruits to be ripened and harvested.
 o The various Mediterranean oranges are so distinctive in their shape, size, taste and quality
that they are called by different names in their area of production. Of the Mediterranean
oranges, perhaps, the best known are the Sunkist oranges from California, exported for table
consumption and for making orange squash.
o The Seville oranges of Spain are small but very sweet and are particularly suitable for making
marmalade. Those from Israel, the Jaffa oranges, are equally delicious and are specially grown
for export. In Tangiers, the tangerine is of great local importance.
o In the temperate monsoon lands of China and Japan, which were, in fact, the native home of
the orange, commercial cultivation of the fruit is less significant, and only in recent years has
there been any serious effort made to popularize their export as ‘mandarin oranges.’
o The Mediterranean lands account for 70 per cent of the worlds exports of citrus fruits
Mediterranean cultivated vegetation.
o Crop cultivation.
o Besides orchard fruits, the Mediterranean climate also supports many field crops.
o Cereals are by far the most important. Wheat is the leading food crop. Though conditions for
extensive wheat cultivation are not as ideal as those of the cool temperate regions, the
Mediterranean farmers have utilized the seasonal climatic rhythm to their best advantage.

o The wheat grown is mainly hard, winter wheat. It is suitable for both bread making and other
food-products such as macaroni, spaghetti and vermicelli.
o Barley is the next most popular cereal.
o Summer crops are raised only where irrigation is possible. The water comes mainly from the
melting snow' that feeds the many rivers whose sources are in the highlands.

o Lowlands are intensively cultivated and the hill slopes are terraced. In Spain and Italy, the
edges of the terraces are firmly piled with stones to prevent any soil from being washed away.
o In a few localities, e.g. the Ebro basin in Spain, the Po Valley in Italy and in California, rice has
been successfully cultivated and their yields are some of the highest in the world.
o The mountain pastures, with their cooler climate, support a few sheep, goats and 146 sometimes
cattle. Transhumance is widely practiced.

o Wine production. -This is another specialty of the Mediterranean countries, because the best wine is
essentially made from grapes. Some 85 per cent of grapes produced, go into wine.
o The long, sunny summer allows the grapes to ripen and then they are hand-picked. Viticulture
is by tradition a Mediterranean occupation and the regions bordering the Mediterranean Sea
account for three-quarters of the world’s production of wine.
o Although grapes may be grown in many parts of the temperate lands, commercial viticulture
is almost entirely confined to the Mediterranean regions. The world trade in fresh grapes is
comparatively small mainly from Mediterranean South Africa. Most of the inferior grapes are
preserved as dried grapes and exported. They are known by several names e.g. currants from
the Levantine grapes, raisins from California, and sultanas from Asia Minor.
Distribution
• Bordering the deserts, away from the Mediterranean regions and in the interiors of continents are the
temperate grasslands.
• Though they lie in the Westerly wind belt, they are so remote from maritime influence that the
grasslands are practically treeless. These grasslands are so distinctive in their natural vegetation that,
although those which occur in the southern hemisphere have a much more moderate climate, they
are often dealt with together.
• In the northern hemisphere, the grasslands are far more extensive and are entirely continental. In
Eurasia, they are called the Steppes, and stretch eastwards from the shores of the Black Sea across the
great Russian plain to the foothills of the Altai Mountains, a distance of well over 2.000 miles.

• They are broken in a few places, being interrupted by the highlands. There are isolated sections in the
Pustaz of Hungary and the plains of Manchuria.
• In North America, the grasslands are also quite extensive and are called Prairies. They lie between
the foothills of the Rockies and the Great Lakes astride the American Canadian border.
• In the southern hemisphere, due to the narrowness of the temperate portions of the southern
continents, the grasslands are rather restricted and less continental. In the case of the Pampas of
Argentina and Uruguay, the grasslands extend right to the sea and enjoy much maritime influence.
• In South Africa, the grasslands are sandwiched between the Drakensberg and the Kalahari Desert; and
are further sub-divided into the more tropical Bush-veld in the north, and the more temperate High
Veld in the south.
• The word ‘veld’ is a Dutch word given by the early pioneer Dutch farmers who came to settle here. It
means ‘field' and is pronounced as ‘felt’ .

• In Australia, the grasslands are better known as Downs and are found in the Murray-Darling basin
of southern Australia.
Climate
• Temperature.
• Their location in the heart of continents means that they have little maritime influence.
• Their climate is thus continental with extremes of temperature.
• Summers are very warm ,Winters are very cold in the continental steppes of Eurasia because of
the enormous distances from the nearest sea.
• In contrast, the steppe type of climate in the southern hemisphere is never severe. The winters
are so mild that the mean temperature for am of the winter months is usually between 35° and 55°F.

Precipitation.
• In its continental position, the annual precipitation of the Steppe Climate can be expected to be light.
Most of the winter months have about an inch of precipitation, brought by the occasional depression of
the Westerlies and coming in the form of snow.
• The maritime influence in the steppe type of climate of the southern hemisphere is even better
brought out by the rainfall regime but the dry season is particularly pronounced in temperate
grasslands adjoining deserts, for example in Australia. Mildura. on the fringe of the mallee scrub of
the Great Australian Desert, and also in the rain shadow area of the Great Dividing Range, has an
annual rainfall of only 10.6 inches. Irrigation is essential.
• On the eastern slopes of the Rockies in Canada and U.S.A. a local wind, similar to the Fohn in
Switzerland, called the Chinook, comes in a south westerly direction to the Prairies and has a
considerable effect on the local pastures.
• It is a hot wind and may raise the temperature by 40°F. within a matter of 20 minutes. It melts the
snow-covered pastures and animals can be driven out of doors to graze in the open fields.

Natural Vegetation
• The term ' steppe vegetation' geographically refers to the scanty vegetation in the temperate grasslands
of the mid-latitudes, the Steppes, Prairies, Pampas, Veld and Downs.
• It is natural to expect the steppes to be grass covered, differing only in the density and quality of the
grass. Their greatest difference from the tropical savanna is that they are practically treeless and the
grasses are much shorter.
• Where the rainfall is moderate, above 20 inches, the grasses arc tall fresh and nutritious and are better
described as long prairie grass. This is typical of the grass of the wheat-lands in North America, the
rich black earth or chernozem areas of Russian Ukraine and the better watered areas of the Asiatic
Steppes.
• Where the rainfall is light (less than 20 inches) or unreliable or the soil is poor, as in the continental
interiors of Asia the short steppe type of grass prevails. The grasses are not only shorter but also wiry
and sparse, often found in discontinuous clumps, with bare soil exposed between them. These areas
arc less suitable for arable farming and are used for some form of ranching as in the High Plains of
U.S.A.
 • The climatic requirements of grass are quite different from those of trees. They require less moisture
than trees and an annual precipitation of 10 to 20 inches is adequate. Their growth is not abruptly
checked by summer droughts or winter cold.
• The steppe grass can lie dormant throughout the prolonged drought. They sprout and come to life
as soon as the temperature is warm enough for plant growth (43°F.) and grow steadily with very little
moisture.
• The light rainfall that comes in late spring and early summer greatly stimulates their growth and
there is plenty for the animals to graze.
• In summer, there is so much heat and evaporation that the grass is scorched. The carpet of bluish-
green grass turns yellow and soon brown. Towards autumn, the grass withers and dies, but the roots
remain alive and lie dormant throughout the cold winter.
• The winter is harsh and long, but the snow' is never of great depth. Everything is quiet but with the
next spring, the cycle is repeated and the steppe is alive again
• Polewards, an increase in precipitation gives rise to a transitional zone of wooded steppes where
some conifers gradually appear. Even then, the trees are very scattered and few in number.
• Towards the equator, the steppe grass becomes shorter and sparser, till it merges into the desert with
thorny scrub.

Economic Development
• The temperate grasslands were once the home of grazing animals; wild horses in the Asiatic Steppes,
swift-footed bison in the Prairies and untamed buffaloes in the Pampas. Even as recently, as the last
century, these grasslands were dominated by nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples like the Kirghiz
of the Asiatic Steppes.
• Cultivation was unknown and the region was one of the most sparsely populated parts of the world.
In recent years great changes have taken place in the grasslands.
• The grasslands have been ploughed up for extensive, mechanized wheat cultivation and are now the
‘granaries of the world ' Besides wheat, maize is increasingly cultivated in the warmer and wetter areas.
The tufted grasses have been replaced by the more nutritious lucerne or alfalfa grass for cattle and
sheep rearing. These temperate grasslands are now the leading ranching regions of the globe.
• Nomadic herding.
• This type of migratory animal grazing has almost disappeared from the major grassland. The
herders were wandering tribes e.g. the Kirghiz, the Kazakhs,Tartars and the Kalniuk.
• They used to travel over long distances like the Bedouin of the Arabian Desert, in search of
grass and water for their animals-cattle. sheep, goats and horses.
• Extensive mechanized wheat cultivation.
• The temperate grasslands are ideal for extensive wheat cultivation. The cool, moist spring
stimulates early growth and the light showers in the ripening period help to swell the grains to
ensure a good yield.

• The warm, sunny summer is not only advantageous for harvesting, but also enables the straw
to be dried for farm use.
 • In addition, the levelness of the Steppes and other temperate grasslands all over the world
makes ploughing and harvesting a comparatively easy job.
• In the Prairies, the Argentinian Pampas, the Ukrainian Steppes and the Downs of Australia
combine-harvesters, reap, thresh, winnow and sack the grains almost as soon as the stalks are
gathered.
• One distinct drawback of this form of extensive mechanized farming is the consequent low
yield.
• This is attributed to the greater attention given to a smaller piece of land, which is not practicable
in the extensive wheat-lands where a farmer owns anything from 600 to 40,000 acres as in the
Prairies.
• But if we consider the yield per man. this is very much higher in the extensive farms.
• In this respect, the sparsely populated temperate grasslands of the mid-latitudes produce the
greatest quantity of wheat per capita amongst the world’ s wheat-growing nations.
• They are, naturally the greatest wheat exporters. Three-quarters of Canadas 10 million tons of
annual wheat production is exported, mainly to Europe which does not produce sufficient
wheat to feed her very dense population, despite her high wheat yield.
• Pastoral farming.
• When pioneer settlers first moved into the temperate grasslands, there were very few animals.
The natural conditions suit animal farming. Subsequently, cattle, sheep, pigs and horses were
introduced, and they proved very successful.
• With the development of refrigerated ships in the late nineteenth century, the temperate
grasslands became major pastoral regions, exporting large quantities of beef, mutton, wool.
• The development was particularly spectacular in the southern hemisphere, where the winters
are milder and the rainfall is more evenly distributed.
• The original tuft-grass Was ploughed up and replaced by sown alfalfa. The semi-wild cattle
in the Pampas were either crossed with or replaced by the imported pedigree stock from
Europe. Soon the Pampas became so in voiced with the pastoral industry that it took the lead
in the world' s export of beef.
• Large estancias (ranches) were established, linked to the frigorificos (meat-packing factories) in
the coastal ports by a dense network of roads and railways.

• This is also true of other temperate grasslands. Much beef is produced in the Great Plains of
U.S.A., and Australia became the world' s leading wool exporter, accounting for a third of its
total production.
• In the Eurasian Steppes, too. increasing emphasis is being placed on the ranching of animals for
meat production.
Distribution
• This type of climate is found on the eastern margins of continents in warm temperate latitudes, just
outside the tropics.
• It has comparatively more rainfall than the Mediterranean climate in the same latitudes, coming
mainly in the summer.
• It is, in fact, the climate of most parts of China a modified form of monsoonal climate. It is thus also
called the Temperate Monsoon or China Type of climate.
• In south-eastern U.S.A., bordering the Gulf of Mexico, continental heating in summer induces an inflow
of air from the cooler Atlantic Ocean. Though less pronounced, the overall climatic features resemble
those of the China type. It is sometimes referred to as the Gulf type of climate.
• In the southern hemisphere, this kind of climate is experienced along the warm temperate eastern
coastlands of all the three continents: in New South Wales with its eucalyptus forests; in Natal where
cane sugar thrives; and in the maize belt of the Parana-Paraguay-Uruguay basin.

• As the regions are influenced by the on-shore Trade Winds all the year round, without any monsoon
variations, the climate cannot be described as temperate monsoon .It is sometimes referred to as the
Natal type of climate.

Climate
• The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate is typified by a warm moist summer and a cool Winter.

• The mean monthly temperature varies between 40°F. and 78°F. and is strongly modified by maritime
influence.
• Occasionally, the penetration of cold air from the continental interiors may bring down the
temperature to freezing point. Though frosts are rare they occasionally occur in the colder interiors.
• For most of the time, it is pleasantly warm. The relative humidity is a little high in mid-summer when
the heat becomes oppressive and can be very trying to the white settlers, e.g. in Natal.
• Rainfall is more than moderate, anything from 25 inches to 60 inches.Areas which experience this
climate are very densely populated.
• Another important feature is the fairly uniform distribution of rainfall throughout the year. There is
rain every month, except in the interior of central China, where there is a distinct dry season.
• Rain comes either from convections sources or as orographic rain in summer, or from depressions in
prolonged showers in winter. Local storms, e.g., typhoons, and hurricanes, also occur.

• There is a good deal of variation in detail within the eastern margins and it is essential to examine them
by reference to specific areas, where the local factors affect the climates. We shall sub-divide them into
three main types.
• The China type: central and north China, including southern Japan (temperate monsoonal).
• The Gulf type: south-eastern United States, (slight-monsoonal).
• The Natal type: all the warm temperate eastern margin (non-monsoonal areas) of the southern
hemisphere including Natal, eastern Australia and southern Brazil— Paraguay— Uruguay and
northern Argentina.
• The China type
• This is the most typical climate of the warm temperate eastern margin. The great land mass of
the Asiatic continent with its mountainous interior induces great pressure changes between
summer and winter.
• Intense heating in ‘the heart of Asia’ sets up a region of low pressure in summer and the tropical
Pacific air stream is drawn in as the rain-bearing South-East Monsoon.
• Heavy precipitation occurs in most parts of China, decreasing inland.
• In winter, a steep pressure gradient is set up between the cold interiors of Mongolia and Siberia,
and the warmer Pacific coastlands.

• The North continental polar air stream flows outwards as the -West Monsoon, bitterly cold and
very dry.
• Another characteristic feature of the China-type of eastern margin climate is the great annual
temperature range.
• Another climatic feature associated with the China type of climate in southern China is the
occurrence of typhoons— intense tropical cyclones that originate in the Pacific Ocean, and
move westwards to the coastlands bordering the South China Sea.
• The Gulf type
• The Gulf-Atlantic regions of the United States experience a type of climate similar to that of
central China except that the monsoonal characteristics are less well established.
• There is no complete seasonal wind reversal, for the pressure gradient between mainland
America and the Atlantic Ocean is less marked.
 • The warm Gulf Stream and the on-shore Trade Winds help to bring about this narrow range
of temperature.
• There is no distinct dry period as in monsoon lands, and the abundant moisture has stimulated
extensive cultivation of cotton and maize, in the Cotton and Corn Belts both of which are the
world’s leading areas for these crops.

• Sometimes, violent tornadoes occur, due to intense local heating on land.

• The Natal type
• There are three distinct areas on the eastern coasts of the southern continents, lying just south
of the Tropic of Capricorn which experience this type of climate.
• The narrowness of the continents and the dominance of maritime influence eliminate the
monsoonal elements which characterize the corresponding climates of the northern
hemisphere. The South-East Trade Winds bring about a more even distribution of rainfall
throughout the year.
• The rain comes in prolonged showers. Much of the water seeps into the ground and there is
little run-off. so, the regions are well suited to agriculture and are some of the best settled parts
of the southern continents.
• Another feature to note is the small annual temperature range, without any really cold month.
• However, the southern continents also have violent local storms, which, though not as severe
as the typhoon, hurricane or tornado, are nevertheless, quite significant.
• The Southerly Burster, a violent cold wind blowing along the coast of New South Wales, leads
to a sudden fall in temperature. It is most frequent in spring and summer.
• The corresponding cold wind in Argentina and Uruguay is the Pampero, which is often
accompanied by thunder and lightning besides the rain and dust.

• In southeastern Africa, a hot, dry wind called the Berg Wind comes down from the interior
plateau. It is comparable to the Fohn or Chinook, and brings unpleasantly high temperatures
and oppressive weather.
• The eastern margins of warm temperate latitudes have a much heavier rainfall than either the western
margins or the continental interiors and thus have a luxuriant vegetation.
• The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-leaved forests and deciduous trees quite similar to those of
the tropical monsoon forests.
• On the highlands, are various species of conifers such as pines and cypresses which are important
softwoods.

Economic Development
• The warm temperate eastern margins are the most productive parts of the middle latitudes.
• There is adequate rainfall, no prolonged drought, and the cold season is warm enough for most crops
to survive. Thus, the growing season is almost continuous, though summer is the busiest part of the
farming year.
• Monsoon China together with southern Japan and other parts of the eastern margin climatic zone
accounts for almost a third of the world population. Food has to be raised to feed the teeming
population.

• The hills are terraced, fields are irrigated, and agriculture is extended to the limits of production.
• Besides the widespread cultivation of maize and cotton in the Corn and Cotton Belts of U.S.A. fruit and
tobacco are also grown.

• Rice, tea and mulberries are extensively grown in monsoon China. Elsewhere are found other products
of economic importance, e.g. cane sugar in Natal, coffee and maize in South America and dairying in
New South Wales and Victoria.
• Farming in monsoon China
• Undoubtedly this is the world’s greatest rice growing area. Terraced Land for rice farming in
Japan other food grains are essential.
• The Chinese peasants raise 'wet padi’ or ‘swamp rice' in flooded fields that call for endless hard
labour for the greater part of the year.
• Farming is usually on a subsistence basis. Despite increasing mechanization in padi-cultivation,
very few farmers actually make use of new machines because they are expensive and may be
impractical in some areas.

• The only progress that has been made is towards double or treble cropping, which has increased
the annual total rice production.
• Furthermore, milled rice which forms the stable food of the Orient is a seriously deficient diet;
the people are therefore not only inadequately fed also physically undernourished.
• The muddy irrigation water from the river basins is silty and constantly brings new soil to the
fields.
• The most intensively farmed areas are the basins of the Si-kiang, Yang-tze Kiang and Hwang
Ho, which are also the most densely peopled areas.
• The eastern coastlands arc equally important. As the flat lands are insufficient for rice
cultivation, farmers move up the hill-slopes and grow padi on terraced uplands.
• The artificial terraces retain the excess water as it flows down the slope.
• Besides rice the other important crops are tea. grown for home consumption and mulberry
leaves gathered for feeding silk worms, though sericulture is declining.
• Agriculture in the Gulf states
• Agriculture in the Gulf states of America differs from that of monsoon China, though they have
a similar climate.
• Lack of population pressure and the urge to export, make rice cultivation a relatively
unimportant occupation.
• Americans are bread-eaters and one can well imagine how insignificant is rice in the
economy of the Gulf states. The most important crops are corn, cotton and tobacco.
• Corn
• The chief food crop raised is, in fact corn or maize. The humid air, the sunny summer
and the heavy showers suit the crop well.
• It is grown right from the Gulf coast to the Mid-west south of the Great Lakes, with the
greatest concentration in the Corn Belt of Nebraska, Iowa, Indiana and Ohio.
• The region accounts for more than half the world’s production of com, but only 3 per
cent of the world’s export. This is because most of the com is used for fattening
animals, mostly cattle and pigs.
• The fattened animals are then sold to the meat plants in Chicago and Cincinnati to be
slaughtered and processed into ‘corned beef’ or frozen and chilled beef.
• Very little com is consumed as a staple food in America, though the cereal originated
in America as the food crop of the native Indian people.
• Cotton
• Of the cash crops grown in the Gulf states, none is comparable with cotton.
• The Gulf type of climate is undoubtedly the best for cotton growing.
• Its long, hot growing season with 200 days frost free and a moderately high temperature
of about 75°F. permits the crop to grow slowly and mature within six months.
• In the very south, in the Gulf-lands, the heavy rainfall damages the lint.
• This area is therefore less suitable for cotton and is devoted to citrus fruits, cane sugar
and market gardening, as in Florida

• The commercial cultivation of cotton is now Concentrated only in the most favourable
areas which are the Mississppi flood plains, the clayey Atlantic coastlands of Georgia
and South Carolina, the Black Prairies of Texas and the Red Prairies of Oklahoma.
• Tobacco
• Another interesting crop closely associated with the Gulf type of climate is tobacco,
which incidentally is also a native crop of America.

• Though it is cultivated in many parts of the world, and the finished products range from
Turkish tobacco to Havana cigars and Malaysian cheroots, there is none so universally
known as the Virginia tobacco.
• The humid atmosphere, the warmth and the well-drained soils of the Gulf states, enable
tobacco to be successfully cultivated in many of the eastern states of U.S.A., e.g. Virginia.
• It is the basis of an industry and provides, through duty, a valuable source of income to
the government.
Distribution
• The cool temperate western margins are under the permanent influence of the Westerlies all-round
the year.
• They are also regions of much cyclonic activity, typical of Britain, and are thus said to experience the
British type of climate.
• From Britain, the climatic belt stretches far inland into the lowlands of North-West Europe, including
such regions as northern and western France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, western Norway
and also northwestern Iberia.
• There is so much oceanic influence on both the temperature and the precipitation that the climate is
also referred to as the North-West European Maritime Climate.
• In North America, the high Rockies prevent the on-shore Westerlies from penetrating far inland and
the British type of climate is confined mainly to the coastlands of British Columbia.
• In the southern hemisphere, the climate is experienced in southern Chile, Tasmania and most parts of
New Zealand, particularly in South Island.
• The surrounding large expanses of water have increased the maritime nature of the climate here.
Climate
• Temperature.
• The mean annual temperatures are usually between 40°F. and 60°F.
• The warmest month in London as illustrated in the temperature graph of London is 63°F. and the
coldest month is just around 40°F., thus giving an annual temperature range of only 24°F., which is
comparatively small for its latitude (51°N.) Summers are, in fact, never very warm.
• ‘Heat waves’, as they are popularly called (that is a short spell of warm summer days) are a
welcome feature in such cool temperate latitudes, where people do not often see enough of the
sun.
• It is no wonder that the cool temperate regions are some of the most advanced parts of the world.
Winters are abnormally mild, and no stations actually record mean January temperatures below
freezing-point in north-western Europe.
• This is attributable to the warming effect of the warm North Atlantic Drift and the prevalence of
the South-Westerlies.
• Night frosts do occur and snow falls in winter too. Sometimes, unusual cold spells, caused by the
invasion of cold polar continental air from the interiors, may hit the western margins for a
number of weeks.
• The climate of the maritime regions as a whole may be described as equable with moderately
warm summers and fairly mild winters.
• It is quite apparent from of Hobart, Tasmania that the British type of climate in the southern
hemisphere is even more equable.
• Lack of continental land masses in Tasmania, New Zealand and southern Chile means that
extremes of temperature are not likely at all.
• The annual temperature range is reduced to only 16°F., which is unusual for the middle latitudes.
This is in fact, the average figure for all the maritime stations in the southern continents where
insularity overrides all other factors. Oceanic influences not only keep the winters very mild but
also keep the summers cool.

Precipitation
• The British type of climate has adequate rainfall throughout the year with a tendency towards a slight
winter or autumn maximum from cyclonic sources.
• Since the rain-bearing winds come from the west, the western margins have the heaviest rainfall.

• The amount decreases eastwards with increasing distance from the sea.
• Relief can make great differences in the annual amount.

Natural Vegetation
• The natural vegetation of this climatic type is deciduous forest.
• The trees shed their leaves in the cold season. This is an adaptation for protecting themselves against
the winter snow and frost.
 • Shedding begins in autumn, the ‘fall' season, during which the leaves fall and are scattered by the
winds.
• The golden-brown leaves and the ‘naked’ branches present a very interesting scene.

• When they are in leaf the deciduous trees have typical rounded outlines with thick trunks and out-
spreading branches that yield valuable temperate hardwood.
• Some of the more common species include oak, elm, ash, birch, beech, poplar, and hornbeam.

• In the wetter areas grow' willows, alder and aspen. Elsewhere are found other species, e.g. chestnut.
sycamore, maple, and lime.
• Unlike the equatorial forests, the deciduous trees occur in pure stand and have greater lumbering
value from the commercial point of view.
• The open nature of the forests with useful in logging operations.
• Easy penetration means much cost can be saved in the movement of the logs.

• The deciduous hardwoods are excellent for both fuel and industrial purposes.
• In Tasmania, the temperate eucalypts are also extensively felled for the lumbering industry.
• Higher up the mountains in the Scandinavian highlands, the Rockies, southern Andes and the Southern
Alps of New Zealand, the deciduous trees are generally replaced by the conifers which can survive a
higher altitude, a lower temperature and poorer soils.

Economic Development
• The countries are concerned in the production of machinery, chemicals, textiles and other
manufactured articles rather than agriculture, fishing or lumbering, though these activities are well
represented in some of the countries.
• Fishing is particularly important in Britain. Norway and British Columbia.

Market gardening
• Though market gardening is practiced throughout the world wherever there is a large urban
population, nowhere else is it so highly specialized as in North-West Europe.
• Several factors account for this. All the north-western European countries (Britain, France, West
Germany, Benelux and Denmark) are highly industrialized and have high population densities.
• In north-western Europe intensive market gardening is carried out in many specialized areas e.g., the
Vales of York and Evesham in the United Kingdom where climatic, soil and other factors best suit this
form of agriculture. Farms are normally small, located near large cities or industrial areas.

• Farming is carried out intensively, aiming at high yield and maximum cash returns.
• As the crops are perishable, a good network of transport is indispensable. The produce such as
lettuces, cabbages, cauliflowers, tomatoes, onions, peas and fruits are seldom shipped but
conveyed by highspeed conveyances such as trucks or vans. Perhaps a more appropriate term
to use is truck farming, which is commonly used in the United States. Early vegetables, early
potatoes and tomatoes reach London from the Canary Islands, the Channel Islands, and from
Brittany, in northwest France.
 • There is such a great variety in the farms that the term mixed farming is most aptly applied.
• Amongst the cereals, wheat is the most extensively grown, almost entirely for home consumption
because of the very dense population in north-western Europe.

• At one time, some of the European countries (France, Denmark and the Netherlands) used to be wheat
exporters, but the keen competition from the new wheat-lands of the New World forced most of the
farmers to divert their interest to other more profitable uses of their land such as market gardening,
dairying or an intensive form of mixed farming.
• With the rise of industry, more arable farms are being devoured by factories and wheat is now a net
import item in Europe.
• The next most important cereal raised in the mixed farm is barley.
• The most important animals kept in the mixed farm are cattle.
• North-western Europe was originally the home of many world-renowned cattle breeds, e.g. Guernsey,
Ayrshire and Friesian, which are first class dairy cattle for milk production.
• The countries bordering the North Sea (Britain, Denmark, the Netherlands) are some of the most
advanced dairying countries where cattle are kept on a scientific and intensive basis.

• The temperate western margin type of climate is almost ideal for intensive dairying.

Sheep Rearing
• This is well developed in some parts of the British type of climate.

• Britain is the home of some of the best-known sheep breeds, e.g., Leicesters. Lincolns and
Southdown’s which are dual-purpose, noted for mutton as well as wool.
• With the greater pressure exerted on land by increased urbanization, industrialization and
agriculture, sheep rearing is being pushed further and further into the lcs favoured areas.
• In Britain the major sheep areas are the Pennines, (Swaledale breeds) Scottish Highlands (the Blackface),
the Southern Uplands (Cheviot), the Welsh Mountain: (Black Welsh) and the scarplands of south-
eastern England (Romney Marsh).
• In the southern hemisphere, sheep rearing is the chief occupation of New Zealand, with its greatest
concentration in the Canterbury Plain.
• Many factors have led to this unprecedented growth during the past century including extensive
meadows, a mild temperate climate, well-drained level ground, scientific animal breeding, and last, but
most vital, the development of refrigeration, which enables frozen or chilled Canterbury lamb and
Corriedale mutton to reach every corner of the globe.

Other agricultural activities

• Apart from market gardening and mixed farming which have been singled out for greater individual
treatment, the British type of climate also supports a number of other important crops.
• Amongst the food crops, potatoes feature prominently in the domestic economy of the cool temperate
regions. It is the staple food in supplementing wheat or bread for millions of people.
• But normally a cooler and more northerly latitude is preferred because the crop will be less prone to
the attack of ‘blight’, a virus disease that is particularly infectious in warm and humid countries.
• Today almost two-thirds of the world’s annual production of potatoes comes from Europe, of which
Poland, Germany, France and United Kingdom are the major producers.
• Another interesting crop that is found almost exclusively in north-western Europe (including European
U.S.S.R.) and parts of U.S.A. is beet sugar.
• High prices of imported tropical sugar (from cane sugar) drove many governments of the temperate
lands to think seriously about the vital importance of securing a certain amount of self-sufficiency in
their sugar requirements.

• The first beet sugar factory in Europe was established in 1801.

• Farmers were given subsidies (aids or allowances) to induce them to devote at least part of their farm
to the crop. Since then beet-sugar has become an integral part of many European farms. It is grown
either on special beet farms for cash sales or in conjunction with cereals in crop rotation. The beet is
crushed for sugar and the green tops are used as animal fodder.
• The crop thrives best in the warmer and drier east of Britain and in mainland Europe.
Distribution
• The Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate is experienced only in the northern hemisphere
where the continents within the high latitudes have a broad east-west spread.
• On its poleward side, it merges into the Arctic tundra of Canada and Eurasia at around the Arctic
Circle.
• Southwards, the climate becomes less severe and fades into the temperate Steppe climate .
• The predominant vegetation of this Siberian or “sub-Arctic" type of climate is evergreen coniferous
forest.
• It stretches in a great, continuous belt across North America. Europe and Asia.
• The greatest single band of the coniferous forest is the taiga (a Russian word for coniferous forest)
in Siberia.
• In Europe the countries that have a similar type of climate and forest are mainly in northern Europe ,
Sweden and Finland.
• There are small amounts of natural coniferous forest, due to high altitude, in Germany, Poland,
Switzerland, Austria and other parts of Europe.

• In North America, this sub-Arctic belt stretches from Alaska across Canada into Labrador, and is found
on the high Rocky Mountains farther south.
• The Siberian Climate is conspicuously absent in the southern hemisphere because of the narrowness
of the southern continents in the high latitudes.
• The strong oceanic influence reduces the severity of the winter and coniferous forests are found only
on the mountainous uplands of southern Chile, New Zealand , Tasmania and south-east Australia.

Climate
Temperature
• The climate of the Siberian type is characterized by a bitterly cold winter of long duration, and a cool
brief summer.
• The extremes of temperature are so great in Siberia that it is often referred to as the ‘cold pole of the
earth’.
• Spring and autumn are merely brief transitional periods.
• With such low' temperatures in the cold season, heavy snowfall can be expected.
• Frosts occur as early as August and by September lakes and ponds are already ice-bound. All over
Russia, nearly all the rivers are frozen.
• The number of days in which the rivers are frozen increases from south to north.
• Occasionally cold, northerly polar winds such as the blizzards of Canada and buran of Eurasia blow'
violently at 50 m.p.h. or more and at a temperature of 50°F. below freezing-point.
• The powdery snowflakes are blown around in the lower atmosphere and visibility is greatly reduced.
Precipitation
• The interiors of the Eurasian continent are so remote from maritime influence that annual
precipitation cannot be high.
• Generally speaking, a total of 15 to 25 inches is typical of the annual precipitation of this sub-Arctic type
of climate.
• It is quite well distributed throughout the year, with a summer maximum from convectional rain
when the continental interiors are greatly heated.
• In winter the precipitation is in the form of snow, as mean temperatures are well below freezing all
the time.
• There is no month without some form of moisture.
• In a region where overall temperature is low evaporation is not rapid and the relative humidity is high,
this small amount of precipitation is adequate for tree growth.
• The conifers, which require little moisture, and transpire an equally small amount, are best suited to
this type of sub-Arctic climate.
• The total precipitation of the Siberian climate is determined by such factors as altitude, latitude,
proximity to the poles, amount of exposure to in fluences by Westerlies, (on western parts of continents)
temperate monsoons (on the eastern parts of continents) and the penetration of the cyclones.
• Central Siberia and Canada have about 15 inches, due to their continentality and lack of sea influence.
• Poleward and southwards, the amount again decreases to only 12 inches or less.
• The cold, dry air of the north is incapable of holding moisture, and in the south are the semi-arid
steppes.
• Snow falls nearly everywhere in U.S.S.R. in the long, cold winter.

• The amount varies from place to place. It is heaviest in the northern tundra and in the Siberian taiga,
where a thickness of several feet is common.
• Permanent snowfields like those of the Alps or the Himalayas are absent, because any accumulation
of snow is melted with the return of spring and the warm summer.
• Frozen rivers are thawed, causing a rise in the water level and extensive floods occur.
• The lower courses of the Ob, Lena and Yenisey are marshy and ill-drained.
• On the other hand, the presence of a thick mantle of snow is not without its blessings. Snow is a
poor conductor of heat and protects the ground from the severe cold above, which may be as much
as 30°-50°F. colder!

• It also provides moisture for the vegetation when the snow melts in spring.
• When the ground is ploughed and the leached, acidic podzolic soil is improved, the continental
interiors of the coniferous forest belt are capable of supporting some agriculture.
Natural Vegetation
• No other trees are so well adapted as the conifers to withstand such an inhospitable environment as
the Siberian type of climate.
• The coniferous forest belts of Eurasia and North America are the richest sources of softwood for use in
building construction, furniture, matches, paper and pulp, rayon and other branches of the chemical
industry.
• The world’s greatest softwood producers areU.S.A., Canada and the Fenoscandian countries (Finland,
Norway and Sweden). In the production of wood pulp (by both chemical and mechanical methods),
the U.S.A. is the leader.
• But in the field of newsprint, Canada has outstripped all other producers, accounting for almost half of
the world’s total annual production.
• The more accessible coniferous forests have reached the limit of production but the relatively
inaccessible taiga of Siberia will remain the richest reserve of temperate softwood.

Coniferous forests
• Coniferous forests are of moderate density
o Unlike the equatorial rain forests which are luxuriant and contain trees of various heights, the
coniferous forests are more uniform and grow straight and tall, up to a height of about 100 feet.
o Where the poleward limit of tree growth is approached the trees are widely spaced, and give
way to tundra vegetation.
• Almost all conifers are evergreen.
o The low annual temperature with more than half the year below the growing-point temperature
of 43°F., means that evergreens are at an advantage.

o Growth can begin as soon as growing-point is reached in spring.

o The conifer has a two-year fructification cycle.
o The seeds are pollinated in one year and dispersed in the following year.

o There is no annual replacement of new leaves as in deciduous trees.

o The same leaf remains on the tree for as long as five years.
o Food is stored in the trunks, and the bark is thick to protect the trunk from excessive cold.
• Conifers are conical in shape
o This is another adaption to survive the sub-Arctic climate.
o The sloping branches prevent snow accumulation which may snap the branches.

o It also offers little grip to the winds.

• Leaves are small, thick, leathery and needle-shaped.
o This is to check excessive transpiration.
 o The leaf surface is reduced to the minimum, as transpiration can be quite rapid in the warm
summer due to intense continental heating.
• There is little undergrowth.

o The podzolized soils of the coniferous forests are poor. They are excessively leached and very
acidic.
o The evergreen leaves provide little leaf-fall for humus formation, and the rate of
decomposition of the leathery ‘needles’ in a region of such low temperature is slow.
o All these factors are deterrents to the growth of much under-growth.
o Absence of direct sunlight and the short duration of summer are other contributary factors to
a sparse undergrowth, but where trees are widely spaced near the tree-line, heath and tundra
plants cover the intervening ground.
o Besides the continental interiors of the higher latitudes, coniferous forests are also found in
other climatic regions wherever altitude reduces the temperature.
o The conifers are, in fact, the dominant trees of the mountainous districts in both the
temperate and tropical countries. But on very steep slopes where soils are immature or non-
existent, even the conifer cannot survive.

Economic Development
• The coniferous forest regions of the northern hemisphere are comparatively little developed.

• In Canada, eastern Europe and Asiatic Russia, large tracts of coniferous forests are still untouched. Only
in the more accessible areas are the forests cleared for lumbering.
• The various species of pine, fir, larch and spruce are felled and transported to the saw-mills for the
extraction of temperate soft-woods.
• There is little agriculture, as few crops can survive in the sub-Arctic climate of these northerly lands.
• Only in the more sheltered valleys and the lands bordering the steppes are some cereals (barley, oats,
rye) and root crops (potatoes) raised for local needs.
• Many of the Samoyeds and Yakuts of Siberia, and some Canadians are engaged in hunting, trapping
and fishing.
• Trapping.
• Many fur-bearing animals inhabit the northerly lands of Canada and Eurasia. Wherever the cold
is keenest, the quality and thickness of the fur also increases.
• Consequently, the most severe winters produce the finest furs which fetch the highest prices.
• In Canada trappers and hunters, harmed with modern automatic rifles, reside in log cabins in
the midst of the coniferous forests to track down these animals.

• Lumbering. This is probably the most important occupation of the Siberian type of climate. The vast
reserves of coniferous forests provide the basis for the lumbering industry. The trees are felled for many
purposes.
 • Saw-milling. This processes the logs into sawn timber, plywood, planks, hardboard and other
constructional woods.
• Paper and pulp industry. Timber is pulped by both chemical and mechanical means to make
wood pulp the raw material for paper-making and newsprint. The development of the printing
industry has made paper and pulp indispensable. Canada and U.S.A. are leading producers of
the world’s supplies of newsprint and wood pulp respectively.

o As a fuel. Less than a quarter of the world's softwood is burnt as fuel, because its industrial
uses are far more significant. In contrast, almost three-quarters of the world's hardwoods are
burnt as fuel, particularly tropical hardwoods where the trees occur in mixed stands.
o The conifers are limited in species. Pine, spruce and fir are the most important in the northern forests,
while larch is more predominant in the warmer south.
o In these northerly latitudes, agriculture is almost impossible and lumbering replaces farming in the
continental interiors. Even where crops are cultivated, farmers are idle in the winter months and can
supplement their income by doing part-time lumbering in the forests, as they do in most parts of
Europe.
o Lumbering is normally carried out in the winter when the sap ceases to flow. This makes felling much
simpler. The logs are dragged to the rivers and float to the sawmills downstream when the rivers
thaw in spring. This has greatly assisted the development of the lumbering industry in eastern Canada
and Sweden. Unfortunately, over the greater part of Siberia, all the rivers drain polewards into the
Arctic Ocean which is frozen for three-quarters of the year, and there are few saw-mills there. With
the use of the Northern Sea Route, which links Murmansk and Vladivostok via the Arctic Ocean,
development is increasing.
o Cheap hydro-electricity for driving the saw-mills is harnessed in the mountainous uplands of North
America and Europe and has greatly assisted the lumbering industry.
Distribution
• The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin ( Laurentian) Climate is an intermediate type of climate between
the British and the Siberian type of climate.
• It has features of both the maritime and the continental climates.

• It is apparent from that the Laurentian type of climate is found only in two regions. One is north-eastern
North America, including eastern Canada, north-east U.S.A., (i.e. Maritime Provinces and the New
England states), and Newfoundland.

• This may be referred to as the North American region. The other region is the eastern coastlands of
Asia, including eastern Siberia, North China, Manchuria, Korea and northern Japan.
• It may be referred to as the Asiatic region. In the southern hemisphere, this climatic type is absent
because only a small section of the southern continents extends south of the latitude of 40°S.
• The only possible location is in eastern Patagonia. But the climatic barrier of the southern Andes is
so complete, that the Westerlies hardly ever reach Patagonia.
• The region is subjected to aridity rather than continentality. Its annual precipitation is not more than 10
inches, so that it is a rain-shadow desert.
• Elsewhere in the southern hemisphere, the climate is so equable and the oceanic influence is so
profound that neither the continental nor the eastern margin type of climate exists.

Climate
• The Laurentian type of climate has cold, dry winters and warm, wet summers.
• Winter temperatures may be well blow freezing-point and snow falls to quite a depth.
 • Summers are as warm as the tropics (70°- 80°F.) and if it were not for the cooling effects of the off-
shore cold currents from the Arctic, the summer might be even hotter.
• Though rain falls throughout the year, there is a distinct summer maximum from the easterly winds
from the oceans.

The North American region

• The most remarkable characteristic of the Laurentian climate of the North American region is its, up
(about 3 to 4 inches monthly) with a late summer maximum.
• This uniformity of precipitation is largely due to the Atlantic influence and that of the Great Lakes.

• The warm Gulf Stream increases the moisture content of easterly winds from the open Atlantic. The
prevailing Westerlies which penetrate across the Rockies carry moisture over the Great Lakes to the
New England states. These winds thus promote wet conditions especially in winter, which are vital for
the agricultural activities of north-eastern North America.
• The meeting of the warm Gulf Stream and the cold Labrador Current on coastal waters off
Newfoundland produces dense mist and fog and gives rise to much precipitation.

The Asiatic region

• In contrast, the rainfall attribution of the Asiatic region is far less uniform.
• Winters are cold and very dry while summers are very warm and exceptionally wet.

• The mountainous interior of China has such pronounced continental effects that the intense heating in
summer creates a region of extreme low pressure, and moisture-laden winds from the Pacific Ocean
and the Sea of Japan blow in as the South-East Monsoon.
• The dry, cold wind that blows out from the heart of Asia in winter carries fine, yellowish dust and
deposits it as a thick mantle of loess in Shansi, Shensi and other neighbouring provinces at the bend
of the Hwang Ho.
• Much of the winter precipitation in northern China.

Case of Japan
• Korea and Hokkaido. Japan, is in the form of snow. In the mountainous districts, the snow piles to a
depth of 5 to 10 feet.
• The climate of Japan is modified by its insularity, and also by the meeting of warm and cold ocean
currents.
• It receives adequate rainfall from both the South-East Monsoon in summer and the North West
Monsoon in winter.
• The latter is the dry, cold wind from mainland Asia, but after crossing the Sea of Japan it has gathered
sufficient moisture to give heavy relief rain or snow on the western coasts of Japan.
• The maritime influence also effectively moderates the temperature range. The warm Kuroshio has
played an important part in making the climate of Japan less extreme.
• In meeting the cold Oyashio from the north, it also produces fog and mist, making north Japan a 'second
Newfoundland’.
 • Fishing replaces agriculture as the main occupation in many of the idented coastlands.

Natural Vegetation
• The predominant vegetation of the Laurentian type of climate is cool temperate forest.
• The heavy rainfall, the warm summers and the damp air from fogs, all favour the growth of trees.
• Generally speaking, the forest tend to be coniferous north of the 50°N. parallel of latitude.

• South of latitude 50°N., the coniferous forests give way to deciduous forests. Oak, beech, maple and
birch are the principal trees.
• The increase in the length and severity of the Winter excludes forests that are not adaptable to cold
conditions.

• In the Asiatic region (eastern Siberia and Korea), the coniferous forests are. in fact, a continuation of the
great coniferous belt of the taiga.
• The occurrence of trees in almost pure stands, and the predominance of only a handful of species
greatly enhance the commercial value of these forests.
• As a result, they have been extensively felled for the extraction of temperate hardwood.
• In Canada, due to the greater reserves of coniferous softwoods and their overriding importance in
industrial uses, the annual production of deciduous hardwood is much less significant.

Economic Development
• Lumbering and its associated timber, paper and pulp industries are the most important economic
under-taking.
• Agriculture is less important in view of the severity; of the winter and its long duration.

• Fortunately, the maritime influence and the heavy rainfall enable some hardy crops to be raised for
local needs.
• Potatoes thrive over large areas of the podzolized soils, while hardy cereals like oats and barley can
be sown and successfully harvested before the onset of the , cold winter.
• A number of other interesting crops are produced in the Asiatic region such as soya beans (northern
China, Manchuria and Korea are amongst the world's leading producers), groundnuts, sesame, rape
seeds, tung oil and mulberry.
• In the North American region, arable farming is not carried out on a sizable scale, except in the more
favoured localities.
• Farmers are engaged in dairy farming, hay cultivation and, in mild maritime areas, fruit growing.

• The fertile Annapolis valley in Nova Scotia is the world’s most renowned region for apples.
• Fishing is, however, the most outstanding economic activity of the Laurentian climatic regions.
Fishing
Japan and Fishing Industry
1. Japan is not well endowed with natural resources, for as much as 80 per cent of her land is classed
‘non-agricultural’. She has to take to the sea if she wants to survive. This has compelled the people to
develop the seas, and fishing has for centuries been the traditional occupation of many coastal Japanese.
2. The continental shelves around the islands of Japan are rich in plankton, due to the meeting of the
warm Kuroshio and the cold Oyashio currents and provide excellent breeding grounds for all kinds
of fish including herring, cod, mackerel, bonito, salmon, sardine and tuna, as well as crabs and lobsters.
3. The indented coastline of Japan, provides sheltered fishing ports, calm waters and safe landing
places, ideal for the fishing industry. In Hokkaido, where the Laurentian type of climate is too cold
for active agriculture, fishing takes first place. Hakodate and Kushiro are large fishing ports, complete
with refrigeration facilities.
4. Lack of lowlands and pastures means that only a few animals can be kept to supply meat and other
protein food. Fish, in all its varied forms, fresh, canned, dried, frozen, and in the form of fish pastes,
fish sauce and spiced condiments takes the place of meat as Japan’s primary source of protein food.
There is a great demand for it locally, and for export to other east Asiatic neighbours which lack the
techniques of large scale commercial fishing.
5. The Japanese fishermen began with small fishing boats, using nets, traps and lines. With the progress
made in industries, fishing has also become more scientific, aiming at heavy hauls, high returns and
economy of time, effort and money. Though three-quarters of the fishermen practise off-shore pelagic
fishing either full-time or part-time, in small boats, most of the commercial deep-sea demersal fishing
is now highly mechanized. Powered trawlers and modem refrigeration plants backed by sound
financial organizations have greatly increased the annual fish yield. Japan is now not only a major
producer and exporter of fish and marine products, but also a centre for marine and fishing research.
Distribution
• The polar type of climate and vegetation is found mainly north of the Arctic Circle in the northern
hemisphere.
• The ice-caps are confined to Greenland and to the highlands of these high-latitude regions, where the
ground is permanently snow-covered.
• The lowlands, with a few months ice-free, have tundra vegetation.
• They include the coastal strip of Greenland, the barren grounds of northern Canada and Alaska and the
Arctic seaboard of Eurasia.

• In the southern hemisphere, the virtually uninhabited continent of Antarctica is the greatest single
stretch of ice-cap where the layers of permanent ice are as thick as 10,000 feet.

Climate
Temperature
• The polar climate is characterized by a very low mean annual temperature and its warmest month in
June seldom rises to more than 50°F.
• Normally not more than four months have temperatures above freezing-point! Winters are long and
very severe; summers are cool and brief.
• Within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, there are weeks of continuous darkness. At the North Pole,
there arc six months without light in winter.
• Despite the long duration of sunshine in summer, when the sun does not set, temperatures remain low
because the sun is low in the sky and much of the warmth of its faint rays is either reflected by the
ground snow, or used up in melting the ice.
• It has little power left to raise the air temperature. Water in the soil is frozen to great depths and the
summer heat can only thaw the upper six inches of the soil.
 • The ground remains solidly frozen for all but four months, inaccessible to plants. Frost occurs at any
time and blizzards, reaching a velocity of 130 miles an hour are not infrequent.
• They can be very hazardous for the polar inhabitants.

• In coastal districts, where warmer water meets cold land thick foes may develop.They last for days, and
in many instances it is not possible to see for more than a few feet.

Precipitation
• Precipitation is mainly in the form of snow, falling in winter and being drifted about during
blizzards.
• Snowfall varies with locality; it may fall either as ice crystals or large, amalgamated snow flakes.
• As it takes 10-12 inches of snow to make 1 inch of rain, precipitation in polar regions can be expected to
be light, not more than 12 inches in a year.
• Convectional rainfall is generally absent because of the low rate of evaporation and the lack of
moisture in the cold polar air.

• In regions where winds blowing out from the large anticyclones developed over the ice-caps are
prevalent, rain comes in summer, when more evaporation is possible. But in coastal areas, where
cyclones are more strongly felt, the tendency is towards a winter maximum, for that is when cyclonic
activity is greatest.

Tundra vegetation
• In such an adverse environment as the tundra, few plants survive. The greatest inhibiting factor is the
region’s deficiency in heat.
• With a growing season of less than three months and the warmest month not exceeding 50°F. (the tree-
survival line), there are no trees in the tundra.
• Such an environment can support only the lowest form of vegetation, mosses, lichens and sedges.

• Drainage in the tundra is usually poor as the sub-soil is permanently frozen.

• Ponds and marshes and waterlogged areas are found in hollows.
• In the more sheltered spots, stunted birches, dwarf willows and undersized alders struggle for a
meagre existence.
• Climatic conditions along the coastal lowlands are a little more favourable. Here are found some
hardy grasses and the reindeer moss which provide the only pasturage for the herbivorous animals
like reindeer.
• In the brief summer, when the snows melt and the days are warmer and longer, berry-bearing bushes
and Arctic flowers bloom.

Human Activities
• Human activities of the tundra are largely confined to the coast.
• Where plateaux and mountains increase the altitude, it is uninhabitable, for these are permanently
snow-covered.
 • The few people who live in the tundra live a semi-nomadic life and have to adapt themselves to the
harsh environment. They used to live as hunters, fishers and food-gatherers but in recent years more
and more of them are settling in permanent huts.

The Importance and Recent Development of the Arctic Region

• The Arctic region, once regarded as completely useless, is now of some economic importance.

• Apart from the efforts of the various governments in assisting the advancement of the Arctic
inhabitants the Eskimos, Lapps, Samoyeds etc., new settlements have sprung up because of the
discovery of minerals.
• Gold is mined in Alaska, nickel near Petsamo, U.S.S.R., petroleum in the Kenai Peninsula. Alaska:
and copper at the Rankin Inlet. Canada.
• Coal has been mined in Spitsbergen for a long time and also in Alaska. With the declining reserves of
iron ore around Lake Superior, the Great Lakes industrial concerns arc using more and more iron from
large iron ore deposits in Labrador.
• New railway have been constructed to bring the ores to the St. Lawrence River for subsequent shipment
to the major industrial districts.
• Rich deposits of iron ores at Kiruna and Gallivarc in Sweden have made it possible for Sweden to enjoy
a prosperous export trade in iron and steel and other metallurgical products.
• With the establishment of ports on the Arctic seaboard of Eurasia, it is now possible to ship timber and
fur from Siberia.
• Though the ports, such as Igarka at the mouth of the Yenisey, are not ice-free, modern ice-breakers keep
the passage open most of the time.
• On the Arctic lowlands where the growing season is lengthened by warm currents or higher
temperatures, experiments have been carried out to devise varieties of hardy cereals for local needs.
• It may not be long before the tundra is brought under greater agricultural, especially pastoral, use.
• The healthy air and its preservative qualities (it is practically germ-free) are factors worth consideration
for future colonization.
• Scientists, meteorologists and explorers have lived in the Arctic and Antarctica, making studies of their
geology, weather conditions, plant and animal life, that will be of great significance in years to come.

Explain the factors responsible for commercial fishing more developed in north Europe and
North America as Compared to Asia.
• Commercial fishing is taking fish and other seafood and resources from oceans, rivers, and lakes for the
purpose of marketing them.
• Reasons for more developed Commercial fishing in North America and North Europe as compared
to Asia:
 • Ocean currents: Mixing of cold and warm currents occurs in mid and higher latitudes. Example - North
America results in plankton growth and consequently fish - Newfoundland, the North Sea etc.
• Temperature: The temperature of oceans lower than 20°C are favourable for more developed marine
life. Example - The higher temperatures in Asia means less abundance of plankton and therefore less
developed fishing grounds.

• Climate: The cool temperate climate favors large scale commercial fishing, preservation and storage
of fish. Whereas in tropical region fish can't be stored for a long period due to hot and moist climatic
conditions.

• Continental Shelves: Continental shelves which are not more than 200 meters below the water
surface are perfect for fishing grounds. It is where all kinds of plankton are found in abundance.
Example - This type of continental shelves are found in North America.

• Type of coastline: Coastlines of North America are indented and are backed by strong relief such as
sheltered inlets and estuarine coasts that make them ideal sites for fishing ports and villages whereas
Asia has comparatively smooth coastline. The rugged terrain make agriculture difficult, so, people
can go for fishing as the main economic activity hence its development.

• Economical: Commercial fishing is more profitable in North America because there are fewer fish
varieties which makes their commercial exploitation easier on the other hand Asia have large number
of fish varieties which is not suitable for large scale commercial exploitation.

• Fish quality: Nutrient content of fishes of North America and North Europe is higher than the fishes of
Asia. Also, fishes of Asia have high oil content affecting their taste & commercial Value.

• Availability of Labour: Less cultivable area and long winters result in the availability of cheap labour
for the commercial fishing activities in North America as compared to Asia.

• Capital: Commercial fishing requires advance fishing vessel where fish can be caught, processed and
packed on vessel itself for supply. Example - This type of vessels requires large capital investment
which is readily available in North America.
Note : Please do not forget to write about Exception – Japan.
Impact of Mountain ranges on local weather:
• Local winds: These mountain ranges can lead to formation of local winds by changing the direction
of the winds. Example: Chinook (local wind) is formed when the Westerlies get struck with the
Rockies Mountain and flow downwards as a warm ice eater local wind.
• Desert Formation: The rain shadow zone of the mountain ranges remains dry and eventually might
be converted into desert like condition.
• Example: One of the reasons of Formation of Gobi Desert in the Central Asian region is caused due
to the presence of the Himalayas.
• Precipitation: The orographic rainfall is caused when the alignment of a mountain range is in such
a way that it creates a barrier for the moisture laden winds. Example - Western Ghats come in the
way of the South west monsoon winds causing incessant rainfall in the western side of the range.
• Note : Vegetation: The type of Vegetation always depends on local weather; hence it can be seen
that that vegetation on the leeward side of the mountain is usually dry and thorny whereas on the
windward side, its lush green or evergreen vegetation.
• Example: Thorny and dry vegetation found along the Sahara Desert that lies in the leeward side of
the Atlas Mountains.
 • ONLY REFER TO NCERT CONTENT
Jetstreams – Geostrophic Wind

MONSOON
Seasonal Reversal of Winds

Change in Precipitation

1) Differential heating of Land and Water – India

2) Shift in Position of ITCZ
ITCZ over Ganga Plains

3) Role of Himalayas
4) Tibetian Plateau - Intensely heated Or Snow
5) Tropical Easterly Jetstream

6) High Pressure – East of Madagascar

7) Somalian Current / Jetstream
South West Monsoon
Bay of Bengal Branch and Arabian Branch
Arabian Sea Branch
Case of Tamil Nadu
Advancing Monsoon Season – Burst and Break
Role of Himalayas

Indian Monsoon – North East Monsoon

 1. Differential heating of Land and Water – India

2. Shift in Position of ITCZ – Winters

North East Trade Winds

3. Westerly Jetstream
Case of Tamil Nadu

Case of Islands
SEASONS

Hot Weather Season

Cold Weather Season
Retreating Monsoon

Seasonal Reversal of Winds

EL NINO & LA NINA

South West Monsoon – India

BASICS
Peru Current

Trade Winds

Pacific Ocean
Western Pacific Warm Pool

Concept – Normal Conditions

Concept – La-Nina
REVISE -La -Nina
WALKER CIRCULATION

Concept – Normal Condition

ENSO
EL NINO SOUTHERN OSCILLATION.
Do You Remember ? - EL - Nino

Southern Oscillation
EL - Nino
REVISE - Southern Oscillation

EL NINO MODOKI
LA NINA MODOKI

EL – Nino
Concept – El-Nino –Modoki
MADDEN JULLIAN OSCILLATION
INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE
Indian Ocean Dipole – Positive
Indian Ocean Dipole – Negative
Indian Ocean Dipole – Indian Monsoon
REVISE
Q. La Nina is suspected to have caused recent floods in Australia. How is La Nina different from El Nino?
1. La Nina is characterised by unusually cold ocean temperature in equatorial Indian Ocean whereas El
Nino is characterised by unusually warm ocean temperature in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
2. El Nino has adverse effect on south-west monsoon of India, but La Nina has no effect on monsoon
climate.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
The seasonal reversal of winds is the typical characteristic of
a) Equatorial climate
b) Mediterranean climate
c) Monsoon climate
d) All of the above climates
Q) Consider the following statements:
1. The duration of the monsoon decreases from southern India to northern India.
2. The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of India decreases from east to west.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

Q) With reference to ‘Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)’ sometimes mentioned in the news while forecasting
Indian monsoon, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1) IOD phenomenon is characterized by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical
Western Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean.
2) An IOD phenomenon can influence an El Nino’s impact on the monsoon.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2
 NATURAL VEGETATION
NATURAL VEGETATION TYPES OF FORESTS
• Natural Vegetation refers to a plant Tropical Evergreen and Semi-Evergreen Forests
community that has been left undisturbed • These forests are found in the western slope of
over a long time, so as to allow its individual the Western Ghats, hills of the northeastern
species to adjust themselves to climate and region and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
soil conditions as fully as possible.
• They are found in warm and humid areas
with an annual precipitation of over 200 cm
and mean annual temperature above 22°C.
• There is no definite time for trees to shed their
leaves, flowering and fruition. As such these
forests appear green all the year round.
• Tropical evergreen forests are well stratified
with layers closer to the ground and are
covered with shrubs and creepers, with short
structured trees followed by tall variety of
trees.
• In these forests, trees reach great heights up to
60 m or above.
• Species found in these forests include
rosewood, mahogany, aini, ebony, etc.
• The semi evergreen forests are found in the
less rainy parts of these regions.

Factors Affecting Vegetation • Such forests have a mixture of evergreen and

moist deciduous trees.
• Temperature
• Rainfall • Main species of semi-evergreen type are
• Climate white cedar, Hollock and kail.
• Soil TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FORESTS
• Topography
• These are the most widespread forests in
• Land
India.
• Photoperiod
• They are also called the monsoon forests.
Vegetation in India
• They spread over regions which receive
• Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen forests. rainfall between 70-200 cm.
• Tropical Deciduous forests. • Trees of this forest-type shed their leaves one
• Tropical Thorn forests. a year – Dry Season
• Montane forests. • On the basis of the availability of water, these
• Littoral and Swamp forests. forests are further divided into:

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 • Moist and Dry Deciduous • Important species found are babool, ber, and
• Moist Deciduous Forests wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas, etc.

• The Moist deciduous forests are more MONTANE FORESTS

pronounced in the regions which record • In mountainous areas, the decrease in
rainfall between 100-200 cm. temperature with increasing altitude leads to
• These forests are found in the northeastern a corresponding change in natural vegetation.
states along the foothills of Himalayas, eastern • Mountain forests can be classified into two
slopes of the Western Ghats and Orissa. types,

• Teak, sal, shisham, hurra. mahua, amla, semul, • Northern mountain forests
kusum, and sandalwood etc. are the main • Southern mountain forests
species of these forests. • Northern Forest
• Dry deciduous forest covers vast areas of the • The Himalayan ranges show a succession of
country, where rainfall ranges between 70 -100 vegetation from the tropical to the tundra,
cm. which change in with the altitude.
• As the dry season begins, the trees shed their • Deciduous forests are found in the foothills
leaves completely and the forest appears like a of the Himalayas.
vast grassland with naked trees all around. • It is succeeded by the wet temperate type of
• On the wetter margins, it has a transition to the forests between an altitude of 1,000-2,000 m.
moist deciduous ,while on the drier margins • At higher altitudes, mosses and lichens form
to thorn forests. part of the tundra vegetation.
• These forests are found in rainier areas of the Note :
Peninsula and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and • The southern slopes of the Himalayas carry a
Bihar. thicker vegetation cover because of relatively
• Tendu, palas, amaltas, khair, axlewood, bel higher precipitation than the drier north-facing
are the common trees of these forests. slopes.
TROPICAL THORN FORESTS • In the higher hill ranges of northeastern India,
hilly areas of West Bengal and Uttaranchal
• Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas which
evergreen broad leaf trees such as oak and
receive rainfall less than 50 cm. These consist
chestnut are predominant.
of a variety of grasses and shrubs.
• It includes semi-arid areas of south west • Between 1.500-1.750 m, pine forests are also
Punjab. Haryana. Rajasthan. Gujarat. Madhya well-developed in this zone. with Chir Pine as
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. a very useful commercial tree.

• In these forests’ plants remain leafless for • Deodar, a highly valued endemic species grows
most part of the year and give an expression mainly in the western part of the Himalayan
of scrub vegetation. range.
• Trees are scattered and have long roots • Blue pine and spruce appear at altitudes of
penetrating deep into the soil in order to get 2.225-3,048 m.
moisture. • At many places in this zone, temperate
• The stems are succulent to conserve water. grasslands are also found. But in the higher
Leaves are mostly thick and small to minimize reaches there is a transition to Alpine forests
evaporation. and pastures.

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• Silver firs, junipers, pines, birch and • Article 51 A (g) of the Constitution states that it
rhododendrons. etc. occur between 3.000- shall be the fundamental duty of every citizen
4,000 m. to protect and improve the natural environment
• Southern Forests including forests and Wildlife.
• Article 48 A in the Directive Principles of State
• The southern mountain forests include
policy, mandates that the State shall endeavor
the forests found in three distinct areas of
to protect and improve the environment and
Peninsular India viz, the Western Ghats. the
to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the
Vindhyas and the Nilgiris.
country.
• As they are closer to the tropics, and only 1.500
PRACTICE QUESTION
m above the sea level.
• Vegetation is temperate in the higher regions, Snowline is the altitude in a particular place above
and subtropical on the lower regions of the which some snow remains on the ground through-
Western Ghats. especially in Kerala, Tamil out the year. This snow line is higher for Eastern
Nadu and Karnataka. Himalayas compared to that of Western Himala-
yas. Choose the correct reasons in context with
• The temperate forests are called Sholas in the
the same.
Nilgiris , Annamalai and Palani hills.
1. The altitude of the Western Himalayas is
• Some of the other trees of this forest of economic higher than the Eastern Himalayas
significance include, magnolia, laurel, cinchona
2. Eastern Himalayas receive more precipitation
and wattle.
from south-west monsoon in the summers
LITTORAL AND SWAMP FORESTS than compared to Western Himalayas.
• The mangrove tidal forests are found in the A. Only 1 B. Only 2 C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1
areas of coasts influenced by tides – salt nor 2
tolerant species.
• Mud and silt get accumulated on such coasts.
• Dense mangroves are the common varieties
with roots of the plants submerged under
water.
• The deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the
Krishna, the Godavari and the Kaveri are
covered by such vegetation – Andaman and
Sunderbans. • Eastern Himalaya’s altitude as well as
NOTE - CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS latitudinal location is lower compared to
FOR FORESTS IN INDIA Western Himalayas. Due to higher altitude as
well as latitude the temperature is much less
• Forests and Protection of Wild Animals and
in the Western Himalaya and as a consequence
Birds are included in the Concurrent List in the the snowline in the Western Himalaya is at a
of the Constitution of India. lower altitude than in the Eastern Himalaya.
• Note - Through the 42nd Amendment Act, • Southwest monsoon winds bring more rainfall
1976 Forests and Protection of Wild Animals to Eastern Himalayas than compared to
and Birds were transferred from State to Western Himalayas. Thus monsoon winds can
Concurrent List have moderating effect on Eastern Himalayas
and in turn increasing the altitude of snowline.

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UPSC PYQ 3. All the global wetlands will permanently
disappear
With reference to the wetlands of India, consider
the following statements : 4. Cultivation of cereals will not be possible
anywhere in the world
1. The country’s total geographical area under
the category of wetlands is recorded more in Select the correct answer using the code given be-
Gujarat as compared to other States. low.
2. In India, the total geographical area of coastal (a) 1 only
wetlands larger than that of wetlands.
(b) 1 and 2 only
Which of the statements given above is/are cor- (c) 2, 3, and 4 only
rect?
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(a) 1 only
Given below are two statements, one labelled as
(b) 2 only
Assertion (A) and the other labelled as Reason (R)
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 Assertion (A) : Mangroves are very specialised for-
est eco-systems of tropical and sub-tropical regions
“If rainforests and tropical forests are the lungs bordering certain sea coasts.
of the Earth, then surely wetlands function as its
kidneys.” Which one of the following functions of Reason (R) : They stabilise the shoreline and act as
wetlands best reflects the above statement? bulwark against encroachments by the sea.
(a) The water cycle in wetlands involves surface In the context of the above two statements, which
runoff, subsoil percolation and evaporation. one of the following is correct?
(b) Algae form the nutrient base upon which A. Both A and R are true and R is the correct
fish, crustaceans, molluscs, birds, reptiles and explanation of A
mammals thrive.
B. Both A and R are true but R is not a correct
(c) Wetlands play a vital role in maintaining explanation of A
sedimentation balance and soil stabilization.
C. A is true but R is false
(d) Aquatic plants absorb heavy metals and excess
D. A is false but R is true
nutrients.

The scientific view is that the increase in global Which one of the following regions of India has a
temperature should not exceed 2 C above pre-in- combination of mangrove forest, evergreen forest
dustrial level. If the global temperature increases and deciduous forest?
beyond 3 C above the pre industrial level, what North Coastal Andhra Pradesh
can be its possible impact/ impacts on the world? A. South-West Bengal
1. Terrestrial biosphere tends toward a net carbon B. Southern Saurashtra
source
C. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
2. Widespread coral mortality will occur

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MAINS BASED TOPICS

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www.sleepyclasses.com 8 1800-890-3043
WASTELAND ( UPSC REPEATED THEME ) 4. To conserve the biological resources of the
Define Wasteland land for sustainable use.

Barren and uncultivated land lying unproductive, NEED OF WASTE LAND DEVELOPMENT IN
or which is not being utilized to its potential is INDIA
generally considered as a wasteland. Examples • Impacts Rural Population - A major part of
include barren land, degraded forests, India’s population depends on wastelands for
waterlogged marshy lands, hilly slopes, eroded livelihood. This population is primarily rural
valleys, overgrazed pastures, and drought- and comprises marginalized communities who
struck pastures. have been struggling with poverty.
Formation of Wasteland • Threat to farming Communities - Land
• Wasteland is formed either by natural ways degradation poses a huge threat to sustainable
or by man-made activities. The undulating livelihood security of the farming communities.
upland, sandy area, snow covered area, coastal
Requisite measures are required to reclaim
saline area etc., are natural formation while
degraded and wastelands so that areas which
Gullied or Ravinous land, Jhum or Forest
are becoming non-cultivable due to social
blank, Barren Hill-Ridges etc., are formed by
and economic reasons can be replenished by
man-made activities.
reclaiming these lands and by arresting the
• There are four major anthropogenic activities further loss of production potential. This is
that lead to the formation of wasteland
crucial because land resources are finite
areas viz., deforestation, overgrazing, over
cultivation and unskilled irrigation. The first 1. Income from wastelands: The wastelands
three activities strip the land of its protective contribute around USD 5 billion a year to the
vegetation cover, hastening the process of soil incomes of poor rural households in India.
erosion and land degradation, while unskilled Depleting natural resources negatively
irrigation causes special problems of water impact incomes.
logging and salinity. 2. Example: In Madhya Pradesh’s Barwani
• In addition, both cultivated and uncultivated district, Scheduled Tribes constitute more than
lands suffer from soil erosion and degradation. half of the total population. Barwani is amongst
Mining is another important activity that the most backward districts in India and has
causes deforestation and land degradation too. been identified as an aspirational district by Niti
Desert is one of the major natural wasteland Ayog to improve its socioeconomic indicators.
area and any activity relating to the process of Agriculture and seasonal migration constitute
desertification is considered also to be one of the primary source of livelihood in this district.
the major activities underlying the wasteland Most of the households rear livestock animals.
formation. Bullocks are used for ploughing; cows, goats
• The reclamation and development of wasteland and buffaloes for milk (self-consumption and
has four major ecological objectives: sale). But, the number of livestock animals
1. To improve the physical structure and the reared has been continuously declining because
quality of the soil, of the sparse vegetation on the wastelands in
2. To improve the availability and quality of the vicinity. This has resulted in a lack of fodder
water, for the villagers’ livestock and has impacted
3. To prevent the shifting of soil, landslides their sustenance and income. There are many
and flooding, and such cases from across the country.

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HOW CAN WASTELANDS BE MADE government is providing end-to-end support
PRODUCTIVE? and creating a strong ecosystem to make this
• Rejuvenation of wastelands and conservation scheme successful.
of natural resources can work towards poverty CONCLUSION – QUOTE PROGRESS FROM
alleviation and sustainable livelihood. WASTELAND ATLAS
Modern technologies such as mulching,
Discuss the causes of depletion of mangroves and
greenhouse, net house, and high-density
explain their importance in maintaining coastal
plantation can make the wastelands fertile.
ecology. (UPSC PYQ)
• Robust geospatial data on wastelands can
inform various land development programmes Introduction - In the modern world, the rapid de-
to roll back the wastelands for productive use. pletion of mangroves is a concerning topic. Man-
groves actually play a significant part in maintain-
• For instance, wastelands could be rejuvenated
ing the coastal bio-diversity ecology. They provide
through region-specific agroforestry
protection and lessen cyclone and tsunami-related
(technique of combining agriculture and
calamities. However, the mangrove ecology has
forestry) and policy initiatives. They can be
been damaged by inhuman activity such as exces-
used for the cultivation of horticultural and
sive exploitation, deforestation, land reclamation,
medicinal crops on a large scale with proper
and pollution.
use of agricultural technologies and micro-
irrigation facilities. • Causes of depletion of Mangroves
• The techniques used for wasteland rejuvenation
Natural Causes + Anthropogenic causes + Other
basically focus on stopping or slowing water
Causes
logging, floods and soil erosion; reducing
evaporation and retaining soil moisture; NATURAL CAUSES -
leaching or flushing of saline and alkaline soils.
In regions where rivers meet the sea, mangroves
CASE STUDIES - GUJARAT are more common. To thrive, the system needs a
• The state government initiated the precise equilibrium between sweet and salt. Var-
‘Mukhyamantri Bagayat Vikas Mission’ ious natural calamities, such as cyclones, floods,
in 2021 to double the income of farmers storms, coastal erosion, naturally shifting hydrol-
and develop the wastelands owned by the ogy, climate change, and sea-level rise, may kill
government for horticulture farming so as to out plants and animals even more quickly.
generate employment as well. The government
One of the main factors contributing to the forest’s
has allocated lands in five districts (Kutch,
decline is “top dying,” a disease that affects the
Surendranagar, Patan, Banskantha, and
prominent Sundari trees .
Sabarkantha) under this scheme to cultivate
dragon fruits, mangoes, pomegranates, It was discovered that phosphorus and nitrogen (
bananas, ber, and other unique crops. As part Depletion of nutrients), in particular, were direct-
of this scheme, the government can allot its ly related to the drop in forest cover.
wastelands to different stakeholders such as
Loss of soil fertility, geomorphological alter-
farmers, institutions, companies, individuals,
ations, high salinity ecological succession, in-
and partnership firms on long-term leases on
sufficient regrowth, and low yield are all signs of
nominal rates. The government can decide
forest decline.
to extend the lease term, when it expires,
based on mutual consent. Further, the state

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The mangrove environment may have suffered flows into the ocean, preserving the coastal
some of the worst harm from fire in recent years. ecosystem, including coral reefs.
The largest mangrove forest in the world, located • Mangroves serve as shock absorbers. They
in Napitkhali under the Chandpai mountain, is lessen tidal and wave heights, safeguard
experiencing a rapid tree fire. coastlines from erosion, and lessen the impact
ANTHROPOGENIC CAUSES – of cyclone and tsunami-related calamities.

In order to make place for agricultural land, villag- • For coastal communities, mangroves serve
es, industrial sites, shrimp aquaculture, etc., large as the first line of defence. They create
swaths of mangrove forests have been removed. natural barriers that safeguard coastal areas
from increased storm surge, flooding, and
Fertilizers, pesticides, home sewage spills, and hurricanes as well as stabilize shorelines by
the discharge of industrial effluents carried reducing erosion.
downstream by river systems all pose serious risks
• They help local communities improve their
to mangroves.
standard of living by offering a variety of
Dams constructed over river courses decrease the employment options. They provide locals with
amount of water and sediment that reach man- edible, medicinal, and firewood plants as well
grove forests, changing the degree of salt in certain as timber.
areas. • Conclusion – Therefore , it is crucial for the
preservation and sustainable management
Lack of competent and well-trained officials, the
of the priceless mangrove forests to strictly
failure of institutions and conflicting activities, in-
implement coastal regulation measures, use
adequate planning and a lack of understanding of
scientific management techniques, and involve
coastal land use—as well as the implementation of
the local people in conservation efforts.
a development plan that excludes environmental
protection principles—are causing the mangrove Where do mangrove forests occur in India? De-
forest to disappear. scribe their main characteristics.( UPSC PYQ)

The endemic species of the area are under danger

due to the introduction of alien and non-native
flora and animals. This has caused an ecological
framework to become unbalanced, which has led
to their decline.
• Importance of Mangroves in maintaining
coastal ecology:
• The edge effect that the mangroves exhibit
indicates that they have a higher species
diversity than marine or terrestrial ecosystems.
• Foundation of the complex marine food chain.
Ecological niches are offered by mangroves to
a diverse range of creatures.
• Additionally, mangrove forests serve as water
filters and purifiers. Mangroves filter out a lot
of material as water from rivers and floodplains

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• Introduction - The mangrove biome, often XVIII. Mangroves serve as shock absorbers.
called the mangrove forest or mangal, is They lessen tidal and wave heights, safeguard
a distinct saline woodland or shrubland coastlines from erosion, and lessen the impact
habitat characterized by depositional coastal of cyclone and tsunami-related calamities.
environments, where fine sediments (often
XIX. For coastal communities, mangroves
with high organic content) collect in areas
serve as the first line of Defence. They create
protected from high-energy wave action.
natural barriers that safeguard coastal areas
• The Major mangrove forests are found in - from increased storm surge, flooding, and
I. Sundarban Groves hurricanes as well as stabilize shorelines by
II. Mahanadi Mangroves reducing erosion.

III. Krishna Godavari Mangroves Conclusion - Add data from Latest Forest Report

IV. Mangroves of Gujarat • Forests, which span one-third of the

planet’s surface, are essential for conserving
V. Ratnagiri Mangroves
biodiversity, the hydrological cycle, and
VI. Goa Mangroves climate control.
VII. Cauvery Deltaic Mangroves • Forests are home to more than half of the
VIII. Krishan-Godavari Mangroves world’s land-based species of animals, plants
IX. Andaman Nicobar Mangroves and insects.

X. Characteristics of Mangroves • Limiting the average global temperature

increase to 1.5°C will be impossible without
XI. They are an ecosystem of the littoral forest and
a major role for forests, both because of
are salt tolerant .
the massive emissions reductions that can
XII. Pneumatophores, or blind roots, are present in be achieved by ending deforestation and
them. These trees can breathe in anaerobic soils because of the additional carbon that can
thanks to their roots. be sequestered through improved forest
XIII. Mangroves exhibit edge effect which management and reforestation.
indicates that they have a higher species
• Forests also provide non-carbon services that
diversity than marine or terrestrial ecosystems.
are essential for human societies to thrive: from
XIV. Before they fall, the seeds of mangrove its role in sustaining livelihoods to providing
forest trees germinate inside the tree itself; this water and food security, and regulating global
process of reproduction is known as viviparity. rainfall patterns.
XV. They are restricted to tropical and SIGNIFICANCE
subtropical climates because they require a lot
I. Biodiversity - Ex - The Royal Bengal tiger -
of sun radiation for their roots to filter saltwater
water. mangrove forests of the Sundarbans

XVI. Ecological niches are offered by mangroves II. Ecosystem Services - Flood Control . Soil
to a diverse range of creatures. conservation, and Carbon sequestration. Ex-
Western Ghats + Brahmaputra River floods (
XVII. Additionally, mangrove forests serve as
Deepor Beel)
water filters and purifiers. Mangroves filter
out a lot of material as water from rivers and III. Economic aspect – Ex – Bamboo is called the
floodplains flows into the ocean, preserving poor man’s timber
the coastal ecosystem, including coral reefs. IV. Region specific Agriculture – Jhum Cultivation
in North East

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V. Cultural Aspect – Ex – Tribes foundation of the food web and provide food
ISSUES – EXAMPLES for numerous species of fish, amphibians,
shellfish, and insects include shallow water
Monsoon Forest – Hardwood Trees – Sandalwood and high nutrient levels. Example - Nearly two
Tribals – Excessive Dependence on the forest thirds of the fish caught worldwide is produced
by wetlands, which are very productive
North East – Jhumming Cultivation ecosystems.

Coast- Deforestation of Mangroves + Invasive Spe- • Microbes, plants, and wildlife found in
cies wetlands are involved in the world cycles
of water, nitrogen, and sulphur. Instead of
Unscientific Management releasing carbon dioxide into the sky , wetlands
Western India – Mining Issues in Aravallis store carbon within their plant communities
and soil.
Southern India – Smuggling of Red Sanders
• They serve as a genetic storehouse for several
Uttarakhand – Forest Fires plant species . Example – Rice in Flooded Plains
(Kuttanad below Sea Level Farming )- Kerala
Plant Diseases , Insects and Pests
Mangroves or Sundri Tress in Sunderbans
With reference to ‘Red Sanders’, sometimes seen in • Removal of phosphates and Nitrates carries off
the news, consider the following statements: by run of the river .This takes place only due to
1. It is a tree species found in a part of South India. presence of anaerobic bacteria in wetlands.
2. It is one of the most important trees in the • Wetlands act as natural sponges. They absorb
tropical rain forest areas of South India. rainfall, reducing floods and droughts. They
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? reduce the speed and height of storm surges
and tsunamis, and mitigate the impact
a) 1 only
of hurricanes. They act as riparian buffer
b) 2 Only (shorelines ) against erosion and pollutants .
c) Both 1 and 2 Example – During Brahamaputra Overflow ,
d) Neither 1 nor 2 deepor beel acts as a barrier .
• Cultural Conservation – Keibul Lamjao
Wetlands and their role in the ecological conser-
National Park + Phumdis
vation in India . ( UPSC Repeated theme)
• Acts as a water Source – Example – Hauj Khas
• Define Wetlands - Wetlands are areas where
Lake used as a fresh water source for Delhi
water covers the soil, or is present either at
residents .
or near the surface of the soil all year or for
varying periods of time during the year, • Helps in conservation of endangered species
including during the growing season. Water –Example - Irradway Dolphin in Sunderbans
saturation (hydrology) largely determines how and Gharial in Bhitaranika Mangroves
the soil develops and the types of plant and • Ramsar Conservation - Karikili Bird Sanctuary
animal communities living in and on the soil. (Tamil Nadu):is home to cormorants, egrets,
• The ecology of the watershed is greatly grey heron, open-billed stork, darter, spoonbill,
influenced by wetlands. The optimal conditions white lbis, night herons, grebes, grey pelican
for the growth of organisms that serve as the among others.

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Q. Which of the following National Parks is unique
in being a swamp with floating vegetation that
supports a rich biodiversity? (2015)
(a) Bhitarkanika National Park
(b) Keibul Lamjao National Park
(c) Keoladeo Ghana National Park
(d) Sultanpur National Park

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 SOIL
PROCESS OF SOIL FORMATION
• Soil formation or pedogenesis depends first on
weathering.
• Weathering describes the breaking down
or dissolving of rocks and minerals on the
surface of the Earth.
• It is this weathering mantle (depth of the
weathered material) which is the basic input
for soil to form.
SOIL FORMATION

• First, the weathered material or transported

deposits are colonised by bacteria and other
inferior plant bodies like mosses and lichens.
Also, several minor organisms may take
shelter within the mantle and deposits.
• The dead remains of organisms and plants
help in humus accumulation (Humus is the
dark organic matter that forms in soil when
dead plant and animal matter decays).
• Minor grasses and ferns may grow; later,
bushes and trees will start growing through
seeds brought in by birds and wind.
SOIL
• When humus is in soil, the soil will crumble.
The soil is the topmost layer of the earth’s crust Air and water move easily through the loose
mainly composed of organic minerals and rock soil, and oxygen can reach the roots of plants.
particles that support life. Plant roots penetrate down, burrowing animals

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 bring up particles, mass of material becomes very young and have not matured these show
porous and sponge like with a capacity to strong links with the type of parent rock.
retain water and to permit the passage of air. TOPOGRAPHY
• Finally, a mature soil, a complex mixture of • Topography like parent materials is another
mineral and organic products forms. passive control factor. The influence of
MOSES AND LICHENS topography is felt through the amount of
exposure of a surface covered by parent
materials to sunlight and the amount of surface
and sub-surface drainage over and through the
parent materials.
• Soils will be thin on steep slopes and thick
over flat upland areas. Over gentle slopes
where erosion is slow and percolation of water
is good, soil formation is very favorable.
• Soils over flat areas may develop a thick layer
of clay with good accumulation of organic
matter giving the soil dark colour.
• In middle latitudes, the south facing slopes
SOIL-FORMING FACTORS exposed to sunlight have different conditions
of vegetation and soils and the north facing
Five basic factors control the formation of soils
slopes with cool, moist conditions have some
• Parental material other soils and vegetation.
• Topography CLIMATE
• Climate • Climate is an important active factor in soil
• Biological activity formation.
• Time • The climatic elements involved in soil
PARENT MATERIAL development are :

• Parent materials can be any insitu or on-site • Moisture in terms of its intensity, frequency
weathered rock debris (residual soils) or and duration of precipitation -evaporation
transported deposits (transported soils). and humidity.

• Soil formation depends upon the texture • Temperature in terms of seasonal and diurnal
(sizes of debris) and structure (disposition of variations.
individual grains/particles of debris) as well as • Precipitation gives soil its moisture content
the mineral and chemical composition of the which makes the chemical and biological
rock debris/deposits. activities possible.
• Nature and rate of weathering and depth of NOTE
weathering mantle are important consideration • Excess of water helps in the downward
under parent materials. transportation of soil components through the
• There may be differences in soil over similar soil (eluviation) and deposits the same down
bedrock and dissimilar bedrocks may have below (illuviation).
similar soils above them. But when soils are • Eluviation is the transport of soil material from

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 upper layers of soil to lower levels by downward mechanically broken materials.
precipitation of water across soil horizons, and
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY
accumulation of this material (illuvial deposit)
in lower levels is called Illuviation • The vegetative cover and organisms that
occupy the parent materials from the
• In climates like wet equatorial rainy areas
beginning and also at later stages help in
with high rainfall, not only calcium, sodium,
magnesium, potassium etc. but also a major adding organic matter, moisture retention,
part of silica is removed from the soil. Removal nitrogen etc.
of silica from the soil is known as desilication • Dead plants provide humus, the finely divided
• In dry climates, because of high temperature, organic matter of the soil.
evaporation exceeds precipitation and hence • Some organic acids which form during
ground water is brought up to the surface by humification aid in decomposing the minerals
capillary action and in the process the water of the soil parent materials.
evaporates leaving behind salts in the soil.
Such salts form into a crust in the soil known • Intensity of bacterial activity shows up
as hardpans. differences between soils of cold and warm
climates.
• In tropical climates and in areas with
intermediate precipitation conditions, calcium • Humus accumulates in cold climates as
carbonate nodules (kanker) are formed. bacterial growth is slow.
HARDPANS • With undecomposed organic matter because
of low bacterial activity, layers of peat develop
in sub-arctic and tundra climates.
• In humid tropical and equatorial climates,
bacterial growth and action is intense and
dead vegetation is rapidly oxidised leaving
very low humus content in the soil.
• Further, bacteria and other soil organisms take
gaseous nitrogen from the air and convert it
into a chemical form that can be used by plants.
This process is known as nitrogen fixation.
NOTE Rhizobium, a type of bacteria, lives in the
root nodules of leguminous plants and fixes
• Temperature acts in two ways — increasing or
nitrogen beneficial to the host plant.
reducing chemical and biological activity.
• The influence of large animals like ants,
• Chemical activity is increased in higher
termites, earthworms, rodents etc., is
temperatures, reduced in cooler temperatures
mechanical, but, it is nevertheless important in
(with an exception of carbonation) and stops in
soil formation as they rework the soil up and
freezing conditions.
down. In case of earthworms, as they feed on
• That is why, tropical soils with higher soil, the texture and chemistry of the soil that
temperatures show deeper profiles and in the comes out of their body changes the soil.
frozen tundra regions soils contain largely

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TIME TYPES OF SOIL
• Time is the next important controlling factor
in soil formation.
• The length of time the soil forming processes
operate, determines maturation of soils and
profile development.
• No specific length of time in absolute terms
can be fixed for soils to develop and mature.
• A soil becomes mature when all soil-forming SOIL PROFILE
processes act for a sufficiently long time • A soil profile is a vertical cross-section of
developing a profile. the soil, made of layers running parallel to
• Soils developing from recently deposited the surface. These layers are known as soil
horizons.
alluvium or glacial till are considered young
and they exhibit no horizons or only poorly • The soil profile is composed of a series of
developed horizons. horizons or layers of soil stacked one on top of
the other
On the Basis of Proportions of Particles of Vari-
THE O-HORIZON
ous Sizes
• This layer contains organic matter which
• If soil contains greater proportion of big is either undecomposed or partially
particles, it is called sandy soil. Water can decomposed.
drain quickly through the spaces between
• It contains about 20 to 30% of organic matter.
the sand particles. So sandy soil tend to be
• This horizon of soil is often black brown or
light, well aerated and dry.
dark brown in colour and this is mainly
• If the proportions of fine particles are because of the presence of organic content
relatively higher, then it is called clayey
soil. Clay particles, being much smaller,
pack tightly together leaving little space
for air.
• If the amount of large and fine particles
is about the same, then the soil is called
Loamy soil. The best top soil for growing
plants is Loamy soil, which is a mixture
of sand, clay and another type of particle
known as Silt. Silt occurs as a deposit in
river beds. The size of the silt particles is
between those of sand and clay.
• The loamy soil also has humus in it and
it has the right water holding capacity for
the growth of plants.

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THE A-HORIZON OR TOPSOIL • It is an older layer usually found between the
• This layer is rich in organic material and is A-horizon and the B-horizon.
known as the humus layer. • This layer is composed of nutrients leached
• This layer consists of both organic matter and from the O and A horizons.
other decomposed materials. • This layer is more common in forested areas
• The topsoil is soft and porous to hold enough and has lower clay content.
air and water.
• In this layer, the germination of seeds takes
place and new roots are produced which
grows into a new plant. This layer consists of
microorganisms such as earthworms, fungi,
bacteria, etc.
• Nutrients like iron, aluminium, clay, and
organic matter are sometimes dissolved and
carried out this layer. When the erosion is
more pronounced, an eluviated layer appears
at the subsurface or the base of the A-horizon.
A-HORIZON

THE B-HORIZON OR SUBSOIL

• It is the subsurface horizon, present just
below the topsoil and above the bedrock. It
is comparatively harder and compact than
topsoil.
• It contains less humus, soluble minerals, and
organic matter.
• It is a site of deposition of certain minerals and
metal salts such as iron oxide.
• This layer holds enough water than the topsoil
and is lighter brown due to the presence of clay
soil.
THE E-HORIZON • The soil of horizon-A and horizon-B is often
• It is a light colored eluviated layer, that is mixed while ploughing the fields.
eroded of its nutrients. • It is a zone of illuviation i.e., the nutrients that
• It underwent significant leaching which are leached out of the A-horizon and E-horizon
took away the nutrients like iron, aluminum, get accumulated here. Hence it is rich in
clay etc., leaving behind resistant, dissolvable iron, aluminium oxides, clay, and organic
materials like quartz, sand, and silt. compounds.

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 THE R-HORIZON
• It is a compacted and cemented layer.
• Also known as bedrock, this forms the
bottommost layer of the soil profile.
• It comprises of largely unbroken rock strata,
as a continuous hard mass.
• Different types of rocks such as granite, basalt
and limestone are found here.

The C-Horizon or Saprolite

• Also known as the parent rock, it comprises
of the parent rock material which eroded
from the layers below and got accumulated
in this horizon.
• This layer is devoid of any organic matter
and is made up of broken bedrock. This
layer is also known as saprolite.
• It also acts as a zone of accumulation
of soluble inorganic compounds which CLASSIFICATION
percolate down to this horizon.
• On the basis of Genesis, colour, composition
and location, the soils of India have been
classified into
• Alluvial soils
• Black soils
• Red and Yellow soils
• Laterite soils
• Arid soils
• Saline soils
• Peaty soils
• Forest soils
ALLUVIAL SOILS
• Alluvial soils are widespread in the northern
plains and the river valleys. These soils cover
about 40 per cent of the total area of the
country.

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• They are depositional soils, transported and • In coastal regions some alluvial deposits are
deposited by rivers and streams. Alluvial soils formed due to wave action. In deltas (A river
are formed mainly due to the silt deposited by delta is a landform created by deposition of
Indo-Gangetic Brahmaputra rivers. sediment that is carried by a river as the flow
• The streams and waves bring with them leaves its mouth and enters slower-moving
the products of weathering of rocks from or stagnant water) of Mahanadi, Godavari,
mountains and deposit them in the low-lying Krishna and Cauvery where they are known as
areas. They are immature and have weak Deltaic Alluvium.
profiles due to their recent origin. • The alluvial soils vary in nature from sandy
• Through a narrow corridor in Rajasthan, loam to clay.
they extend into the plains of Gujarat. Some • They are generally rich in potash but poor in
Alluvial soils are found in the Narmada, Tapi phosphorous.
and Northern Parts of Gujarat also.
• Khadar is the new alluvium and is deposited
• In the Peninsular region, they are found in by floods annually, which enriches the soil by
deltas of the east coast and in the river valleys depositing fine silts.
• Bhangar represents a system of older
alluvium, deposited away from the flood
plains. Both the Khadar and Bhangar soils
contain calcareous concretions (Kankars).
These soils are constantly replenished by the
recurrent floods and support uninterrupted
crop growth.
• The chemical properties of alluvial soils
makes the soil as one of the most fertile in the
world.
• Its shades depend on the depth of the
deposition, the texture of the materials, and the
time taken for attaining maturity.
• Alluvial soils are intensively cultivated.
BLACK SOILS
• Several theories have been put forward
regarding the origin of this group of soils but
most pedologists believe that these soils
have been formed due to solidification of
lava spread over large areas during volcanic
activity in the Deccan Plateau thousands of
years ago.
• Black soil covers most of the Deccan Plateau
which includes parts of Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and some
parts of Tamil Nadu.

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• In the upper reaches of the Godavari and the SELF PLOUGHING
Krishna, and the north western part of the
Deccan Plateau, the black soil is very deep.
• These soils are also known as the ‘Regur Soil’
or the ‘Black Cotton Soil’.
• The black soils are generally clayey, deep and
impermeable. This cracks permit oxygenation
of the sufficient depths. They swell and
become sticky when wet and shrink when
dried. So, during the dry season, these soils
develop wide cracks. Thus, there occurs a RED SOILS & YELLOW SOILS
kind of ‘self-ploughing’.
• Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks
• Because of this character of slow absorption
and loss of moisture, the black soil retains the in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and

moisture for a very long time, which helps the southern part of the Deccan Plateau. Most
crops, especially, the rain fed ones, to sustain of the red soils have come into existence due
even during the dry season. to the weathering of ancient crystalline and
metamorphic rocks.
• Chemically, the black soils are rich in lime,
iron, magnesia and alumina. They also contain
• Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat,
potash. But they lack in phosphorous, nitrogen
long stretch of area is occupied by red loamy
and organic matter.
soil.
• The color of the soil ranges from deep black to
grey. • Yellow and red soils are also found in parts
• These soils are best suited for cotton crop. of Orissa and Chattisgarh and in the southern
Hence these soils are called as black cotton parts of the middle Ganga plain.
soils
PLOUGHING • These soils mostly occur in the regions of low
rainfall.

• The red soils are mostly loamy and hence

cannot retain water like the black soils.

• The soil develops a reddish colour due to

a wide diffusion of iron in crystalline and
metamorphic rocks.

• It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated

form

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 • Other regions with red soil include parts
of Karnataka, south-east of Maharashtra,
Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Chota Nagpur plateau;
parts of south Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar
Pradesh and parts of North-Eastern states.
• The red soils, with the proper use of fertilizers
and irrigation techniques, give good yield of
cotton, wheat, rice, pulses, millets, tobacco, oil
seeds, potatoes and fruits

• The fine-grained red and yellow soils are

normally fertile, whereas coarse grained soils
found in dry upland areas are poor in fertility.
• They are generally poor in nitrogen,
phosphorous and humus. They are acidic to a
certain extent mainly due to the nature of the
parent rocks.
• These soils are spread on almost the whole of
Tamil Nadu.

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ARID SOILS
• Arid soils range from red to brown in color.
They are generally sandy in structure and
saline in nature.
• In some areas, the salt content is so high that
common salt is obtained by evaporating the
saline water.
• Due to the dry climate, high temperature and
accelerated evaporation, they lack moisture
and humus
• Nitrogen is insufficient and the phosphate
• Arid soils are characteristically developed in
content is normal.
western Rajasthan, which exhibit characteristic
• Lower horizons of the soil are occupied by arid topography.
‘kankar’ layers because of the increasing
• Occur in arid and semi-arid regions of
calcium content downwards. Rajasthan, west of the Aravallis, northern
• The ‘Kankar’ layer formation in the bottom Gujarat, Saurashtra, Kutch, western parts
horizons restricts the infiltration of water, of Haryana, and the south-western parts of
and as such when irrigation is made available, Punjab.
the soil moisture is readily available for a • There is great possibility of reclaiming
sustainable plant growth. these soils if proper irrigation facilities are
available. The changes in the cropping pattern
“a in the Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area
is a living example of the utility of the desert
soils.
• In large areas of desert soils, only the drought
resistant and salt tolerant crops such as barley,
cotton, millets, maize and pulses are grown.
• Consequently, these soils support a low density
of population
Peaty Soils
• They are found in the areas of heavy rainfall
and high humidity, where there is a good
growth of vegetation.
• Thus, large quantity of dead organic matter
accumulates in these areas, and this gives a
rich humus and organic content to the soil.
• Organic matter in these soils may go even
up to 40-50 per cent. These soils are normally
heavy and black in colour.

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• At many places, they are alkaline also. • Laterite soils are rich in bauxite or ferric
• It occurs widely in the northern part of Bihar, oxides. They are very poor in lime, magnesia,
southern part of Uttaranchal and the coastal potash and nitrogen.
areas of West Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.
Laterite & Lateritic Soils
• Laterite has been derived from the Latin word
‘Later’ which means brick.
• The laterite soils develop in areas with high
temperature and high rainfall. These are
the result of intense leaching due to tropical
rains. They are formed under conditions of
high temperature and heavy rainfall with
alternate wet and dry periods.
• With rain, lime and silica are leached away,
and soils rich in iron oxide and aluminium
compound are left behind. Humus content
of the soil is removed fast by bacteria that
thrives well in high temperature.
• Laterite soils lack fertility due to intensive
leaching.When manured and irrigated, some
laterites are suitable for growing plantation
crops like arecanut, coffee, rubber, cinchona,
coconut, tea, etc
• These soils are poor in organic matter,
nitrogen, phosphate and calcium, while iron
oxide and potash are in excess.
• Hence, laterites are not suitable for
cultivation; however, application of manures
and fertilisers are required for making the soils
fertile for cultivation.
• Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for tree
crops like cashewnut. FOREST & MOUNTAIN SOILS
• Laterite soils are widely cut as bricks for use in • As the name suggests, forest soils are formed
house construction. in the forest areas where sufficient rainfall is
• These soils have mainly developed in the available.
higher areas of the Peninsular plateau. The • The soils vary in structure and texture
laterite soils are commonly found in Karnataka, depending on the mountain environment
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and the where they are formed.
hilly areas of Orissa and Assam.

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• They are loamy and silty on valley sides and
coarse-grained in the upper slopes.
• In the snow-bound areas of the Himalayas,
they experience denudation, and are acidic
with low humus content. The soils found in
the lower valleys are fertile.
• The forest soils are very rich in humus. They
are deficient in potash, phosphorus and lime.
They require good deal of fertilizers for high
yields.
• They are suitable for plantations of tea, coffee,
spices and tropical fruits in Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu and Kerala.
PROBLEMS OF INDIAN SOIL
• Soil erosion
• Deficiency in fertility
• Desertification
• Water logging
• Salinity and alkalinity
• Faulty Methods of Agriculture
• Wasteland
• Over exploitation of soils due to increase in
population and rise in living standards
• Encroachment of agricultural land due to
urban and transport development.
SOIL CONSERVATION
• Contour barriers
• Rock Dam
• Terrace forming UPSC PYQ
• Contour Bunding • The black cotton soil of India has been formed
due to the weathering of
• Intercropping
(a) Brown forest soil
• Afforestation
(b) Fissure volcanic rock
• Checking Overgrazing (c) Granite and schist
• Crop Rotation (d) Shale and limestone
• Mulching • With reference to agricultural soils, consider
• Checking Shifting Cultivation the following statements :
1. High content of organic matter in soil drastically
• Ploughing the Land in Right Direction
reduces its water holding capacity.

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2. Soil does not play any role in the sulphur cycle. Select the correct answer using the codes given be-
3. Irrigation over a period of time can contribute low.
to the salinization of some agricultural lands. (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2 and 3 only

(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only In India, the problem of soil erosion is associated
with which of the following?
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
1) Terrace cultivation
Contour bunding is a method of soil conservation
2) Deforestation
used in –
3) Tropical climate
(a) desert margins, liable to strong wind action
Select the correct answer using the codes given
(b) low flat plains, close to stream courses, liable to
below
flooding
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only
(c) scrublands, liable to spread of weed growth
(c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None of the above
Salinization occurs when the irrigation water accu-
Which of the following statements regarding later-
mulated in the soil evaporates, leaving behind salts
ite soils of India are correct?
and minerals. What are the effects of salinization
1. They are generally red in colour. on the irrigated land?
2. They are rich in nitrogen and potash. (a) It greatly increases the crop production
3. They are well-developed in Rajasthan and UP. (b) It makes some soils impermeable
4. Tapioca and cashew nuts grow well on these (c) It raises the water table
soils.
(d) It fills the air spaces in the soil with water

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Indian Physiographic Divisions
Points to Know
International Land Border – Longest Border
Points to Know
At the juncture of Bay of Bengal and Andaman Sea.
Southward extension of Arakan Yoma Range (Myanmar)
Andaman in the north and the Nicobar in the south

Separated by a water body which is called the Ten-degree channel

Divisions of Andaman Islands
Little Andaman is separated from Great Andaman by Duncan passage.

Barren Island/Narcondam Island

Great Nicobar is the largest island in the Nicobar group and is the southernmost island
Sumatra island of Indonesia.

Six Degree Channel

Amindivi/Cannore/Minicoy

Eleventh degree channel/Nine Degree Channel/Eight Degree Channel

1. 11-degree channel divides Amindivi and Cannanore.
2. The 9-degree channels separate Minicoy and Lakshadweep
3. The 8-degree channel separates the island of Minicoy and Maldives.
Other Important Islands
Basics
Formation of Ganga Plains

Great Plains Of India

Rivers – Ganga, Indus and Brahmaputra

Formation of Ganga Plains

Basic Introduction
Rivers – Ganga, Indus and Brahmaputra

Riverine Island

Riverine Island – Majauli

Geomorphology of The Plains

Ganga Plains
Parallel to the Shivalik foothills at the break-up of the slope

Streams Disappear – Bhabhar - boulders and pebbles brought by the energetic action of
rivers.

Indus to Teesta River

Streams Re-appear – Bhabhar
Terrace like structures

Old - Bhangar and New – Khadar

Khadar and Bhangar

Miscellaneous

Reh
Ganga Yamuna Doab

Regional Divisions of Great Plains of India

Sambhar Lake
Ox – Bow Lakes
Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura, Assam and West Bengal

Basic Introduction
Separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau

Bhutan, China, India, Nepal and Pakistan.

Formation of Himalayas – Young Fold Mountains

Greater Himalayas/Mid Himalayas/Outer Himalayas

Syntaxial Bend
Himalayas
I. Outer Himalayas + Shivalik
II. Lesser Himalayas + Middle Himalaya + Himachal
III. Greater Himalaya + Inner Himalaya + Himadri
IV. Trans Himalayas

Outer Himalayas
 Shivaliks- Located in between the Great Plains and Lesser Himalayas + Unconsolidated
sediments brought down by rivers from the main Himalayan ranges located farther north.

Dunes – Longitudinal valleys

Composed of highly compressed and altered rocks

Pir Panjal, Dhauladhar, Mussorie

Terminates abruptly at the syntaxial bends

Snow Bound
Kanchenjunga
Karakoram , Ladakh, Zaskar
Dafla, Mishimi, Abor , Patkai Bum, Naga Hills, Mizo Hills,Garo,Khasi,Jaitiya
What do we know already?
Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar and Pir Panjal.
Indus & Ganga + Extension of Cold Desert
Namche Barwa.

Patkai Bum, Naga hills, the Manipur hills and in the south as Mizo or Lushai hills
Assignment - Divisions of Himalayas
DIFFERENCE Eastern vs Western Himalayas

• Amount of rainfall in Western Himalayas is less and is ¼th of that of Eastern Himalayas.
• The Natural vegetation reflects the impact of lower rainfall Due to high rainfalls; Eastern Region is
covered with dense forests. The dominant vegetation in the western Himalayas is Coniferous forests
and alpine vegetations.
• Western Himalayas Less biodiversity in comparison to eastern Himalayas.

• The Altitude of the Western Himalayas is higher than the Eastern Himalayas.
• Snowline is Lower Western Himalayas. This difference in snowline is partly due to the increase in
latitude from 28° N in Kanchenjunga to 36° N in the Karakoram.
• Eastern part rises abruptly from the plains, thus peaks are not far away from the plains (Example:
Kanchenjunga). The high mountain ranges in Western part are at a long distance from the plains. Height
of the mountains from the plains in this part rises in a number of stages.
Basic Introduction
They originate in Gujarat (at Palanpur) and extend till Haryana. They terminate in the Delhi
ridge.
 The northern part is sloping towards Sindh Southern towards the Rann of Kachchh

Gurushikhar
Aligned in North-East to South-West direction.

Luni River
The Indian Desert

The Indian desert lies towards the western margins of the Aravalli Hills
Barchans (crescent-shaped dunes)
It was formed due to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land and thus, making it a
part of the oldest landmass.
This plateau consists of two broad divisions, namely, the Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau.

The plateau has broad and shallow valleys and rounded hills.
The part of the Peninsular plateau lying to the north of the Narmada river, covering a major area of the Malwa
plateau, is known as the Central Highlands.
The Vindhyan range is bounded by the Satpura range on the south and the Aravalis on the northwest.

This forms the northernmost boundary of the Deccan plateau.

The further westward extension gradually merges with the sandy and rocky desert of Rajasthan.
The eastward extensions of this plateau are locally known as the Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand.

The Satpura range flanks its broad base in the north, while the Mahadev, the Kaimur hills and the Maikal
range form its eastern extensions
A huge fault was created between the Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau.
An extension of the Plateau is also visible in the northeast, locally known as the Meghalaya, Karbi-Anglong
Plateau and North Cachar Hills.

It is separated by a fault from the Chotanagpur Plateau.

Three prominent hill ranges from the west to the east are the Garo, the Khasi and the Jaintia Hills.
• The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats mark the western and the eastern edges of the Deccan
Plateau respectively.
• Western Ghats - continuous and can be crossed through passes only.
• The Eastern Ghats are discontinuous and irregular and dissected by rivers draining into the Bay of
Bengal.
• The Western Ghats cause orographic rain by facing the rain bearing moist winds to rise along the
western slopes of the Ghats.
The highest peaks include the AnaiMudi (2,695 metres) and the Doda Betta. (2,637 metres).

Mahendragiri (1,501 metres) is the highest peak in the Eastern Ghats.

Shevroy Hills and the Javadi Hills are located to the southeast of the Eastern Ghats.

They extend between Diu island near Gujarat to Kanyakumari in the south.
The Western Ghats of this section is also known as the Sahyadri's.

They are located in Maharashtra.

Mahabaleshwar plateau is the highest region of the Sahyadri’s.

Some of the important passes of this section include the Thalgat gap (the route between Mumbai and Nashik
passes through this) and Borgata gap (the route between Mumbai and Pune passes through this).
 This section runs through the States of Karnataka and Goa.

Bababudan hills of Karnataka are a part of this section. They are famous for their coffee plantations.

Nilgiris are the prominent hills of this section. They rise abruptly at the trijunction of Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, and Kerala to a height of up to 2000m.

Doda betta (2630m) is the highest peak in the Nilgiris.

 • This includes the hill ranges of Annamalai and Cardamom.
Palghat gap (Palakkad gap) is the largest gap in the Western Ghats (about 24km wide). It separates
the Nilgiris from the Annamalai hills.
Anaimudi peak (2690m) is the highest point of Annamalai hills, also the highest point of
peninsular India.
Palani hills are a part of the Annamalai range.
Cardamom hills are to the south of Annamalai hills and are separated from them by the Shenkottai
pass.

It is a chain of highly broken and detached hills starting from the Mahanadi in Odisha to the Vagai in Tamil
Nadu
Nallamala hills are situated in Andhra Pradesh.

To their south are the Velikonda hills, Pala Konda hills, and the Seshachalam range in Andhra Pradesh.

Javadi hills and Sheva Roy hills are situated in Tamil Nadu.
Mahendragiri peak (1501m) is the highest point of Odisha hills.
This range acts as a watershed between the Ganga system and the river systems of south India.
 Satpura range is a combination of Satpura, Mahadeo, and Maikala hills.

Amarkantak plateau is a part of the Maikala hills.

One of the distinct features of the Peninsular plateau is the black soil area known as Decean Trap.
Delhi ridge in the northwest, (extension of Aravalis), the Rajmahal hills in the east, Gir range in the west
and the Cardamom hills in the south constitute the outer extent of the Peninsular plateau
ASSIGNMENT - Hazaribagh plateau, the Palamu plateau, the Ranchi plateau
 DRAINAGE SYSTEM- TERMS
Drainage System
Basics
• The flow of water through well-defined channels is known as drainage and the network of such
channels is known as drainage system.
• The drainage pattern of an area is the result of the geological time period, nature, and structure of
rocks, topography, slope, etc.

Terms
• Distributary is a strean /river which flows away from a large river. It decreases the volume of water
of the main river.
• A tributary, or affluent, is a stream or river that flows into a larger stream or main stem river or a
lake
• A river drains the water collected from a specific area, which is called its ‘catchment area’.
• The catchments of large rivers are called river basins while those of small rivulets and rills are
often referred to as watersheds.
• An area drained by a river and its tributaries is called a drainage basin.
• Any elevated area, such as a mountain or an upland, separates two drainage basins. Such an
upland is known as a water divide

• A river basin is the portion of land drained by a river and its tributaries.
• A watershed is simply the area of land that catches rain and snow and drains or seeps into a marsh,
stream, river, lake or groundwater.
 • Both river basins and watersheds are areas of land that drain to a particular water body, such as a
lake, stream, river or estuary.
• In a river basin, all the water drains to a large river.
• The term watershed is used to describe a smaller area of land that drains to a smaller stream, lake
or wetland. There are many smaller watersheds within a river basin.

Drainage Patterns
• Consequent Streams: Those streams whose courses are the direct consequence of the initial
topography are called consequent streams.
• Subsequent Streams: These are developed after the master consequent.
• Obsequent streams: These flow in opposite direction to the master consequent.
• Resequent Streams: A resequent stream flows in the same direction as that of the initial
consequent stream, but which develops in response to a new base level formed due to inversion
of relief.
• Dendritic: The drainage pattern resembling the branches of a tree is known as “dendritic” the
examples of which are the rivers of northern plain. Examples: Indus, Godavari, Mahanadi, Cauvery,
Krishna.
• Radial: When the rivers originate from a hill and flow in all directions, the drainage pattern is
known as ‘radial’. The rivers originating from the Amarkantak range present a good example of it.
The Narmada, Son and Mahanadi originate from Amarkantak Hills and flow in different
directions.
• Centripetal: When the rivers discharge their waters from all directions in a lake or depression, the
pattern is known as ‘centripetal’. Examples: streams of Ladakh, Tibet, and the Baghmati and its
tributaries in Nepal.
• Trellis: When the primary tributaries of rivers flow parallel to each other and secondary tributaries
join them at right angles, the pattern is known as ‘trellis’.
 DRAINAGE SYSTEM - INDIA
Drainage System
Indian Drainage System
• Indian drainage system may be divided on various bases.
• On the basis of discharge of water (orientations to the sea), it may be grouped into:
o the Arabian Sea drainage
o the Bay of Bengal drainage.
• They are separated from each other through the Delhi ridge, the Aravalis and the Sahyadris.
• Nearly 77 per cent of the drainage area consisting of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, the
Krishna, etc. is oriented towards the Bay of Bengal while 23 per cent comprising the Indus, the
Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and the Periyar systems discharge their waters in the Arabian Sea.

• On the basis of the size of the watershed, the drainage basins of India are grouped into three
categories:
o Major river basins with more than 20,000 sq. km of catchment area. It includes 14 drainage
basins such as the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Krishna, the Tapi, the Narmada, the Mahi, the
Pennar, the Sabarmati, the Barak, etc.
o Medium river basins with catchment area between 2,000-20,000 sq. km incorporating 44 river
basins such as the Kalindi, the Periyar, the Meghna, etc.
o Minor river basins with catchment area of less than 2,000 sq. km include fairly good number of
rivers flowing in the area of low rainfall.
• On the basis of the mode of origin, nature and characteristics, the Indian drainage may also be
classified into the Himalayan drainage and the Peninsular drainage.
• Although it has the problem of including the Chambal, the Betwa, the Son, etc. which are much
older in age and origin than other rivers that have their origin in the Himalayas, it is the most
accepted basis of classification
 • Apart from originating from the two major physiographic regions of India, the Himalayan and the
Peninsular rivers are different from each other in many ways.
• Most of the Himalayan rivers are perennial. It means that they have water throughout the year.
These rivers receive water from rain as well as from melted snow from the lofty mountains.
• The two major Himalayan rivers, the Indus and the Brahmaputra originate from the north of the
mountain ranges. They have cut through the mountains making gorges.
• The Himalayan rivers have long courses from their source to the sea.
• They perform intensive erosional activity in their upper courses and carry huge loads of silt and
sand. In the middle and the lower courses, these rivers form meanders, oxbow lakes, and many other
depositional features in their floodplains. They also have well-developed deltas.

Rift Valleys
Indian Drainage System
• A large number of the Peninsular rivers are seasonal, as their flow is dependent on rainfall.
• During the dry season, even the large rivers have reduced flow of water in their channels.
• The Peninsular rivers have shorter and shallower courses as compared to their Himalayan
counterparts.
• However, some of them originate in the central highlands and flow towards the west.
 HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE & PENINSULAR DRAINAGE
The Himalayan Drainage
Himalayan Drainage
• It mainly includes the Gangs, the Indus and the Brahmaputra river basins.
• Since these are fed both by melting of snow and precipitation, rivers of this system are perennial.
• These rivers pass through the giant gorges carved out by the erosional activity carried on
simultaneously with the uplift of the Himalayas.
• Besides deep gorges, these rivers also form V shaped valleys, rapids and waterfalls in their
mountainous Course.
• While entering the plains, they form depositional features like flat valleys, oxbow lakes. flood plains.
braided channels, and deltas near the river mouth.
• In the Himalayan reaches, the course of these rivers is highly tortuous, but over the plains they
display a strong meandering tendency and shift their courses frequently.
• for example, River Kosi, also known as the 'Sorrow of Bihar' has been notorious for frequently
changing its course. The Kosi brings huge quantity of sediments from its upper reaches and
deposits it in the plains. The course gets blocked, and consequently, the river changes its course

Evolution of The Himalayan Drainage

• Parent materials can be any insitu or on-site weathered rock debris (residual soils) or transported
deposits (transported soils).
• If Is opined that in due course of time Indo- Brahma river was dismembered into three main
drainage systems.
 o The Indus and its five tributaries in the western part.
o The Gangs and its Himalayan tributaries in the central part.
o The stretch of the Brahmaputra in Assam and its Himalayan tributaries in the eastern part.

Reason
• The dismemberment was probably due to the Pleistocene upheaval in the western Himalayas.
including the uplift Of the Potwar Plateau along the Delhi Ridge which acted as the water divide
between the Indus and Gangs drainage systems.
• Likewise, the downthrusting of the Malda gap area between the Rajmahal hills and the
Meghalaya plateau during the mid-pleistocene period, diverted the Ganga and the Brahmaputra
systems to flow towards the Bay of Bengal.

The Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System

• The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan one. Peninsular rivers are
characterised by fixed course ,absence of meanders and nonperennial flow of water.
• NOTE: The Chambal. the Sind. the Betwa. the Ken, the Son, originating in the northern part of
the Peninsula belong to the Gangs over system.

Three major geological events in the distant past have shaped the present drainage
systems of Peninsular India:
• Subsidence of the western flank of the Peninsula leading to its submergence below the sea during
the early tertiary period. Generally, it has disturbed the symmetrical plan of the river on either side
of the original watershed.
• Upheaval of the Himalayas when the northern flank of the Peninsular block was subjected to
subsidence and the consequent trough faulting.The Narmada and The Tapi flow in trough faults
and fill the original cracks with their detritus materials. Hence, there is a lack of alluvial and deltaic
deposits in these rivers.
• Slight tilting of the Peninsular block from northwest to the southeastern direction gave orientation
to the entire drainage system towards the Bay of Bengal during the same period.
Difference Between The Himalayan And The Peninsular River Systems
-

Antecedent Rivers

Superimposed
 INDUS RIVER SYSTEM
The Indus System
Indus River
• It is also known as Sindhu. India got her name from Indus. ‘The Indus Valley Civilization’ was
born around this river.
• The river flows through China (Tibet region), India and Pakistan.
• It originates from a glacier near Bokhar in the Tibetan region in the Kailash Mountain range (near
Mana Sarovar lake).
• In Tibet, it is known as Singi Khambai or Lion's mouth. It is one of the largest river basins of the
world, covering an area of 11,65,000 sq. km (in India it is 321, 289 sq. km and a total length of 2,880
km (in India 1,114 km).
• Just above Mithankot, the Indus receives from Panjnad (Panchnad), the accumulated waters of the
five eastern tributaries—the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj.

It originates from a glacier near Bokhar in the Tibetan region in the Kailash Mountain range (near Mana
Sarovar lake).
The river flows through China (Tibet region), India and Pakistan.

Just above Mithankot, the Indus receives from Panjnad (Panchnad), the accumulated waters of the five
eastern tributaries—the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj.

• After flowing in the northwest direction between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges, it passes through
Ladakh and Baltistan.
• It cuts across the Ladakh range, forming a spectacular gorge near Gilgit in Jammu and Kashmir.
• It enters into Pakistan near Chillar in the Dardistan region.
• The river empties into the Arabian Sea south of Karachi after forming a huge delta.
• The Indus flows In India only through the Leh district in Jammu and Kashmir ( REMEMBER :
BIFURCATION OF THE STATE)
• A little over a third of the Indus basin is located in India in the states of Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh and the Punjab and the rest is in Pakistan.
After flowing in the northwest direction between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges, it passes through Ladakh
and Baltistan.

Disputed Regions

The river empties into the Arabian Sea south of Karachi after forming a huge delta.
The Indus flows In India only through the Leh district in Jammu and Kashmir ( REMEMBER : BIFURCATION
OF THE STATE)

A little over a third of the Indus basin is located in India in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh and the Punjab and the rest is in Pakistan(( REMEMBER : BIFURCATION OF THE STATE))

Himachal and Punjab

Left Bank Vs Right Bank Tributaries
• The Zaskar river, Suru river, Soan river, Jhelum river, Chenab river, Ravi river, Beas river, Satluj
river, are its major left-bank tributaries.
• The Shyok river, Gilgit river, Hunza river, Swat river, Kunnar river, Kurram river and Kabul river
are its major rightbank tributaries.
• They all originate in the Suleiman ranges.
The Zaskar river, Suru river, Soan river, Jhelum river, Chenab river, Ravi river, Beas river, Satluj river, are its
major left-bank tributaries.
The Shyok river, Gilgit river, Hunza river, Swat river, Kunnar river, Kurram river and Kabul river are its major
rightbank tributaries.

They all originate in the Suleiman ranges.

Jhelum
• The Jhelum. an important tributary of the Indus rises from a spring at Verinag situated at the foot
of the Pir Panjal in the southeastern part of the valley of Kashmir.
• It flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before entering Pakistan through a deep narrow
gorge.
• At Muzaffarabad, the river takes a sharp hairpin bend southward.
• Thereafter, it forms the India-Pakistan boundary for 170 km and emerges at the Potwar Plateau near
Mirpur.
• It joins the Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan

Pir Panjal, Dhauladhar,Mussorie

The Jhelum. an important tributary of the Indus rises from a spring at Verinag situated at the foot of the Pir
Panjal in the southeastern part of the valley of Kashmir.
Wular Lake and Srinagar

Wular lake is one of the biggest freshwater lakes in Asia and it was formed as a result of tectonic
activity.

It flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before entering Pakistan through a deep narrow gorge.

It joins the Chenab near Jhang in Pakistan

Chenab
• The Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus – LONGEST TRIBUTARY SATLUJ
• It is formed by two streams the Chandra and the Bhaga, which icon at Tandi near Keylong in
Himachal Pradesh. Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga.
• The Chenab originates from near the Bara Lacha Pass in the Lahul Spiti part of the Zaskar Range.
• It enters the plain area near Akhnur in Jammu and Kashmir.
• From here it through the plains of Pakistani Punjab to reach Panchnad where it joins the Satluj
after receiving the waters of Jhelum and Ravi rivers.
Himachal

The Chenab originates from near the Bara Lacha Pass in the Lahul Spiti part of the Zaskar Range.

Bara Lacha La : Connects Lahul in himachal Pradesh to Leh

Basic Introduction _ Remember
The Himachal And Uttaranchal Himalayas
• It is drained by two major river systems of India, i.e. the Indus and the Ganga.
• The northernmost part of the Himachal Himalayas is an extension of the Ladakh cold desert,
which lies in the Spiti subdivision of district Lahul and Spiti.
• The famous ‘Valley of flowers’ is also situated in this region.
• The places of pilgrimage such as the Gangotri, Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath and Hemkund
Sahib are also situated in this part.
• Some of the important hill stations such as Dharamshala, Mussoorie, Shimla, Kaosani and the
cantonment towns and health resorts such as Shimla, Mussoorie, Kasauli, Almora, Lansdowne and
Ranikhet, etc. were developed in this region
The Chenab originates from near the Bara Lacha Pass in the Lahul Spiti part of the Zaskar Range.

From here it through the plains of Pakistani Punjab to reach Panchnad where it joins the Satluj after
receiving the waters of Jhelum and Ravi rivers.
 Bara Lacha La

Ravi
• It rises west of the Rohtang pass in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows through the
Chamba valley of the state.
• Before entering Pakistan and joining the Chenab near Sarai Sidhu it drains the area lying between
the southeastern part of the Pir Panjal and the Dhauladhar ranges.
It rises west of the Rohtang pass in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows through the Chamba valley
of the state.

Before entering Pakistan and joining the Chenab near Sarai Sidhu it drains the area lying between the
southeastern part of the Pir Panjal and the Dhauladhar ranges.
Beas
• It originates from the Beas Kund near the Rohtang Pass at an elevation of 4,000 m above the mean
sea level.
• It enters the Punjab plains where it meets the Satluj near Harika.
• It is a comparatively small river which is only 460 km long but lies entirely within the Indian
territory.
It originates from the Beas Kund near the Rohtang Pass at an elevation of 4,000 m above the mean sea level.

It enters the Punjab plains where it meets the Satluj near Harika.

It is a comparatively small river which is only 460 km long but lies entirely within the Indian territory.
Satluj
• The Satluj originates In the Rakas lake near Mansarovar at an altitude of 4,555 m in Tibet where
it is known as Langchen Khambab.
• It flows almost parallel to the Indus for about 400 km before entering India and comes out of a
gorge at Rupar.
• It passes through the Shipiki La on the Himalayan ranges and enters the Punjab plains.
The Satluj originates In the Rakas lake near Mansarovar at an altitude of 4,555 m in Tibet where it is known
as Langchen Khambab.

It flows almost parallel to the Indus for about 400 km before entering India and comes out of a gorge at
Rupar.
It passes through the Shipiki La on the Himalayan ranges and enters the Punjab plains.
 THE GANGA SYSTEM
Ganga River
• It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the Uttarkashi district of Uttaranchal.
• Here it is known as the Bhagirathi. It cuts through the Central and the Lesser Himalayas in narrow
gorges.
• At Devprayag - The Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda ; hereafter. it is known as the Ganga.
• The Alaknanda has its source in the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath . The Alaknanda consists of
the Dhauli and the Vishnu Ganga which meet at Joshimath or Vishnu Prayag.
• other tributaries of Alaknanda such as the Pindar Join it at Karna Prayag while Mandakini meets it
at Rudra Prayag.
• The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar
It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the Uttarkashi district of Uttaranchal. Here it is
known as the Bhagirathi. It cuts through the Central and the Lesser Himalayas in narrow gorges. At
Devprayag - The Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda ; hereafter. it is known as the Ganga.

It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the Uttarkashi district of Uttaranchal. Here it is
known as the Bhagirathi. It cuts through the Central and the Lesser Himalayas in narrow gorges. At
Devprayag - The Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda ; hereafter. it is known as the Ganga.
The Alaknanda has its source in the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath . The Alaknanda consists of the
Dhauli and the Vishnu Ganga which meet at Joshimath or Vishnu Prayag.
The other tributaries of Alaknanda such as the Pindar Join it at Karna Prayag while Mandakini meets it at
Rudra Prayag
The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar.

The Five Prayags

• Devprayag, the place of confluence of Bhagirathi river and Alaknanda river.
• Rudraprayag, the place of confluence of Mandakini river and Alaknanda river.
• Nandaprayag, the place of confluence of Nandakini river and Alaknanda river.
• Karnaprayag, the place of confluence of Pindar river and Alaknanda river.
• Vishnuprayag, the place of confluence of Dhauliganga river and Alaknanda river.

Ganga River
• From here; it flows first to the south. then to the southeast and east and flows as the distributary
Hooghly Bhagirathi and the entire river system has a total length of 2,525 km .
 • It flows through the states of Uttarakhand (110 km) Uttar Pradesh (1.450 km). Bihar (445 km) and
West Bengal (520 km).
• The Ganga basin covers about 8.6 lakh se km area in India alone
• The Ganga river system is the largest in India having a number of perennial and non-perennial
rivers originating in the Himalayas in the north and the Peninsula in the south respectively.
From here; it flows first to the south. then to the southeast and east and flows as the distributary Hooghly
Bhagirathi and the entire river system has a total length of 2,525 km .

It flows through the states of Uttarakhand (110 km) Uttar Pradesh (1.450 km). Bihar (445 km) and West Bengal
(520 km).
The Ganga river system is the largest in India having a number of perennial and non-perennial rivers
originating in the Himalayas in the north and the Peninsula in the south respectively.

• It is joined by the Yamuna at Allahabad.

• Near Rajmahal Hills it turns to the south-east. The river finally discharges itself into the Bay of
Bengal rear the Sagar Island.
• The Ganga River is known by different names when it gets joined by different rivers.
• Near Rajmahal Hills it turns to the south of Farraka. It ceases to be known as Ganga.
• It bifurcates itself into Bhagirathi-Hugli in West Bengal.
• It flows as Padma Into Bangladesh where it meets Meghna River. Likewise, the Brahmaputra
upon reaching Bangladesh meets Teesta and known as Jamuna.
It is joined by the Yamuna at Allahabad.
Near Rajmahal Hills it turns to the south-east. The river finally discharges itself into the Bay of Bengal rear
the Sagar Island.

Near Rajmahal Hills it turns to the south of Farraka. It ceases to be known as Ganga. It bifurcates itself into
Bhagirathi-Hugli in West Bengal.

It flows as Padma Into Bangladesh where it meets Meghna River.

Likewise, the Brahmaputra upon reaching Bangladesh meets Teesta and known as Jamuna.

Yamuna River
• Largest and the most important tributary.
• The Yamuna is the western most and the longest tributary of the Ganga.
• It has it source in the Yamunotri glacier on the western slopes of Bander punch range. (6,316 km).
• It joins the Ganga at Triveni Sangam/Prayagraj (Allahabad).
The Yamuna is the western most and the longest tributary of the Ganga. It has it source in the Yamunotri
glacier on the western slopes of Bander punch range. (6,316 km). It joins the Ganga at Triveni
Sangam/Prayagraj (Allahabad).

Peninsular Tributaries
• Most of the Peninsular rivers flow into the Yamuna between Agra and Allahabad.
• Chambal.
• Sind
• Betwa.
• Ken
Chambal
• The Chambal is famous for Its badland topography called the Chambal ravines.
• The Chambal rises in the highlands of Janapao Hills (700 m) in the Vindhyan Range.
• The Chambal flows near Mhow in the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh and flows northwards
through a gorge up wards of Kota in Rajasthan.
• The river flows much below its banks due to severe erosion because of poor rainfall and numerous
deep ravines have been formed in the Chambal Valley, giving rise to badland topography.
The Chambal rises in the highlands of Janapao Hills (700 m) in the Vindhyan Range. The Chambal flows near
Mhow in the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh and flows northwards through a gorge up wards of Kota
in Rajasthan.
The Banas is an important tributary of the Chambal. It alginates in the southern part of the Aravalli Ranges
and joins the Chambal near Sawai Madhopur.

Banas
• The Banas is a tributary of the Chambal.
• It originates in the southern part of the Aravalli Range.
The Banas is an important tributary of the Chambal. It alginates in the southern part of the Aravalli Ranges
and joins the Chambal near Sawai Madhopur.

Betwa River
• The Betwa rises in Bhopal district (Vindhyan Range).
• It has a total length of 590 km.
• The Dhasan is its important tributary.
The Betwa rises in Bhopal district (Vindhyan Range).

Gandak
• The Gandak comprises two streams. namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga.
• It rises in the Nepal Himalayas between the Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest and drains the central
part of Nepal.
• It enters the Gangs plain in Champaran district of Bihar and joins the Gangs at Sonpur near Patna.
The Gandak comprises two streams. namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga . It enters the Gangs plain in
Champaran district of Bihar and joins the Gangs at Sonpur near Patna

Ghaghara
• The Ghaghara originates in the glaciers of Mapchachungo.
• The river Sarda (Kali or Kali Ganga) joins it in the plain before it finally meets the Ganga at
Chhapra.
The Ghaghara originates in the glaciers of Mapchachungo.
The river Sarda (Kali or Kali Ganga) joins it in the plain before it finally meets the Ganga at Chhapra.

Gomati
• It is a left-bank tributary of the Ganga.
• It rises from Gomat Tall in the Pilib hit district of Uttar Pradesh.
• It joins the Ganga at Ghazipur in Uttar Pradesh before flowing through the cities of Lucknow and
Jaunpur.
It rises from Gomat Tall in the Pilib hit district of Uttar Pradesh.
It joins the Ganga at Ghazipur in Uttar Pradesh before flowing through the cities of Lucknow and Jaunpur.

Kosi
• The Kosi is an antecedent river with its source to the north of Mount Everest in Tibet, where its
main stream Arun rises.
• The Kosi river consists of seven streams namely Sut Kosi, Tamba Kosi, Talkha, Doodh Kosi, Botia
Kosi, Arun and Tamber.
• These streams flow through eastern Nepal which is known as the Sapt Kaushik region.
The Kosi is an antecedent river with its source to the north of Mount Everest in Tibet, where its main stream
Arun rises.

The Kosi river consists of seven streams namely Sut Kosi, Tamba
Kosi, Talkha, Doodh Kosi, Botia Kosi, Arun and Tamber.
These streams flow through eastern Nepal which is known as the Sapt Kaushik region.
Damodar
• The Damodar occupies the eastern margins of the Chotanagpur Plateau where it flows through a
rift valley and finally Joins the Hughly.
• Once known as the Sorrow of Bengal the Damodar has been now tamed by the Damodar Valley
Corporation, a multipurpose project.
• Rich in mineral resources, the valley is home to large-scale mining and industrial activity.
• Several dams have been constructed in the valley, for the generation of hydroelectric power. The
valley is called “the Ruhr of India”.
The Damodar occupies the eastern margins of the Chotanagpur Plateau where it flows through a rift valley
and finally Joins the Hughly.

Son
• The Son is a large south bank tributary of the Gangs originating in the Amarkantak plateau.
• The important tributaries of the Son are the Johilla , the Gopat. the Rihand. the Kanhar and the North
Koel.
The Son is a large south bank tributary of the Gangs originating in the Amarkantak plateau.
 THE BRAHMAPUTRA SYSTEM
• The Brahmaputra one of the largest rivers of the world has its origin in the Chemayungdung
glacier of the Kailash range near the Mansarovar lake.
• From here. it traverses eastward longitudinally for a distance of nearly 1,200 km in a dry and flat
region of southern Tibet ,where it is known as the Tsangpo. which means 'the purifier.
• The Rango Tsangpo is the major right bank tributary of this river in Tibet.
• The Brahmaputra makes a deep U-turn near Namcha Barwa.
The Brahmaputra one of the largest rivers of the world has its origin in the Chemayungdung glacier of the
Kailash range near the Mansarovar lake.

From here. it traverses eastward longitudinally for a distance of nearly 1,200 km in a dry and flat region of
southern Tibet ,where it is known as the Tsangpo. which means 'the purifier.
The Brahmaputra makes a deep U-turn near Namcha Barwa.
Syntaxial Bend
 • It emerges as a turbulent and dynamic river after carving out a deep gorge in the Central
Himalayas near Namcha Barwa (7,755 m).
• The river emerges from the foothills under the name of Siang or Dihang.
• It enters India west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh.
• It enters by the names of Siang and Dihang in India.
• And after it is joined by its two main tributaries, the Dibang and the Lohit, it is known by the
name of Brahmaputra.
It enters by the names of Siang and Dihang in India.
And after it is joined by its two main tributaries, the Dibang and the Lohit, it is known by the name of
Brahmaputra.

• Its major left bank tributaries are the Burhi Dihing. Dhansari (South) and Kalang whereas the
important right bank tributaries are the Subansiri , Kameng Manas and Sankosh.
• The Brahmaputra enters into Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows southward.
• In Bangladesh - the Tista pins it on its right bank from where the river is known as the Jamuna.
• It finally merges with the river Padma. which falls in the Bay of Bengal .
The Brahmaputra enters into Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows southward.

Its major left bank tributaries are the Burhi Dihing. Dhansari (South) and Kalang whereas the important
right bank tributaries are the Subansiri , Kameng Manas and Sankosh.

In Bangladesh - the Tista pins it on its right bank from where the river is known as the Jamuna.
It finally merges with the river Padma. which falls in the Bay of Bengal .

It finally merges with the river Padma. which falls in the Bay of Bengal .
 PENINSULAR DRAINAGE SYSTEM
The River Systems of the Peninsular Drainage
The Mahanadi
• The Mahanadi rises in the northern foothills of Dandakaranya near Sihawa in Raipur district Of
Chhattisgarh and runs through Orissa to discharge its water into the Bay of Bengal.
• Fifty-three per Cent of the drainage basin of this over lies in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh
while 47 per cent lies in Orissa.
• It is bounded by the Central India hills on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south and east
and by the Maikala range on the west.

The Mahanadi rises in the northern foothills of Dandakaranya near Sihawa in Raipur district Of
Chhattisgarh and runs through Orissa to discharge its water into the Bay of Bengal.

It is bounded by the Central India hills on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south and east and by the
Maikala range on the west.
Tributaries – Mahandi - Seonath, the Jonk, the Hasdeo, the Mand, the ib, the Ong and the Tel.

Fifty-three per Cent of the drainage basin of this over lies in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh while 47 per
cent lies in Orissa.

Chilka Lake - Chilka Lake is the largest brackish water lake + Asia's largest and world's second largest
lagoon
Narmada
• The Narmada is the largest of all the west flowing rivers of the Peninsular India.
• It originates on the western flank of the Amarkantak plateau at a height Of about 1,057 m in the
Shahdol district of Madhya Pradesh.
• It flows through a rift valley between the Satpura in the south and the Vindhyan range in the north.
• Narmada basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh
having an area ~1 Lakh Sq.km.
• It is bounded by the Vindhyas on the north, Maikala range on the east, Satpuras on the south and by
the Arabian Sea on the west.
It originates on the western flank of the Amarkantak plateau at a height Of about 1,057 m in the Shahdol
district of Madhya Pradesh.

It flows through a rift valley between the Satpura in the south and the Vindhyan range in the north.
Narmada basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh having an
area ~1 Lakh Sq.km.
It is bounded by the Vindhyas on the north, Maikala range on the east, Satpuras on the south and by the
Arabian Sea on the west
Tapi
• The Tapi is the second largest westward flowing river and is known as the twin of the Narmada.
• It originates from Multai on the Satpura plateau in the Betul district Of Madhya Pradesh.
• Nearly 79 per cent of its basin lies in Maharashtra , 15 per Cent in Madhya Pradesh and the
remaining 6 per cent in Gujarat.
• The Tapti (also known as the Tapi) is the second largest west flowing river of the Peninsular India
and is known as ‘the twin’ or ‘the handmaid’ of the Narmada.
It originates from Multai on the Satpura plateau in the Betul district Of Madhya Pradesh.

Nearly 79 per cent of its basin lies in Maharashtra , 15 per Cent in Madhya Pradesh and the remaining 6 per
cent in Gujarat.
Tapi
• The Tapi is the second largest westward flowing river and is known as the twin of the Narmada.
• It originates from Multai on the Satpura plateau in the Betul district Of Madhya Pradesh.
• Nearly 79 per cent of its basin lies in Maharashtra , 15 per Cent in Madhya Pradesh and the
remaining 6 per cent in Gujarat.
• The Tapti (also known as the Tapi) is the second largest west flowing river of the Peninsular India
and is known as ‘the twin’ or ‘the handmaid’ of the Narmada.

Luni
• Luni is the largest river system of Rajasthan.
• It is known for its brackish nature of water.
• It originates near Pushkar in two branches which join with each other at Govindgarh.
• From here, the river comes out of Aravali and is known as luni.
• The entire river system is ephemeral.
It originates near Pushkar in two branches which join with each other at Govindgarh. From here, the river
comes out of Aravali and is known as luni.
Sabarmati River
• The Sabarmati is the name given to the combined streams the Sabar and Hathmati.
• The Sabarmati basin extends over states of Rajasthan and Gujarat having an area of 21,674 Sq. km.
• The basin is bounded by Aravalli hills on the north and north-east, by Rann of Kutch on the west
and by Gulf of Khambhat on the south.
• Left bank tributaries: the Wakal, the Hathmati and the Vatrak. Right bank tributaries: the Sei.
The Sabarmati basin extends over states of Rajasthan and Gujarat having an area of 21,674 Sq. km.

The basin is bounded by Aravalli hills on the north and north-east, by Rann of Kutch on the west and by
Gulf of Khambhat on the south.
Mahi River
• The Mahi basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat having total area
of 34,842 Sq. km.
• It originates from the northern slopes of Vindhyas at an altitude of 500 m in Dhar district of Madhya
Pradesh.
• It is bounded by Aravalli hills on the north and the north-west, by Malwa Plateau on the east, by
the Vindhyas on the south and by the Gulf of Khambhat on the west.
It originates from the northern slopes of Vindhyas at an altitude of 500 m in Dhar district of Madhya Pradesh.
It is bounded by Aravalli hills on the north and the north-west, by Malwa Plateau on the east, by the
Vindhyas on the south and by the Gulf of Khambhat on the west.
The Mahi basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat having total area of 34,842
Sq. km.
The Godavari
• The Godavari is the largest Peninsular river system.
• It rises in the Triambakeshwar Plateau of North Sahayadri hills near Nasik district of
Maharashtra and discharges its water into the Bay of Bengal.
• It is 1,465 km Long with a catchment area spreading over 3.13 lakh sq km. 49 per cent of this lies in
Maharashtra and the rest lies in the states of Madhya Pradesh ,Chhattisgarh Andhra Pradesh
,Telangana , Orissa and Karnataka.
• It receives a large number or tributaries from the left as well as from the right.
• But the left bank tributaries are more in number and larger in size than the right bank tributaries.
It rises in the Triambakeshwar Plateau of North Sahayadri hills near Nasik district of Maharashtra and
discharges its water into the Bay of Bengal.

It is 1,465 km Long with a catchment area spreading over 3.13 lakh sq km. 49 per cent of this lies in Maharashtra
and the rest lies in the states of Madhya Pradesh ,Chhattisgarh Andhra Pradesh ,Telangana , Orissa and
Karnataka.
• The Manjra is the only important right bank tributary.
• The Penganga. the Wardha. the Wainganga. tne Indravati ,the Pranhita. and the Sabari are its
principal left bank tributaries.
• The Godavari is the largest river system of the Peninsular India and is revered as Dakshina Ganga.
• The basin is bounded by Satmala hills, the Ajanta range and the Mahadeo hills on the north, by the
Eastern Ghats on the south and the east and by the Western Ghats on the west.
The Manjra is the only important right bank tributary. The Penganga , the Wardha , the Wainganga , tne
Indravati ,the Pranhita, and the Sabari are its principal left bank tributaries.

The basin is bounded by Satmala hills, the Ajanta range and the Mahadeo hills on the north, by the Eastern
Ghats on the south and the east and by the Western Ghats on the west.

The Krishna
• The Krishna is the second largest east flowing Peninsular river.
• It rises near Mahabaleshwar In Sahyadri.
• The Koyna. the Ghatprabha. the Malprabha, the Tungabhadra and the Bhima the Musi and the
Muneru are its major tributaries.
• The total catchment area of Krishna river is spread across the states Of Maharashtra , Karnataka ,
Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
It rises near Mahabaleshwar In Sahyadri.

The total catchment area of Krishna river is spread across the states Of Maharashtra , Karnataka , Andhra
Pradesh and Telangana.
The Koyna. the Ghatprabha. the Malprabha, the Tungabhadra and the Bhima the Musi and the Muneru are
its major tributaries.
Kolleru Lake - Kolleru lake is located between the deltas of the Krishna and Godavari rivers in Andhra
Pradesh.

Pulicat Lake - It is the second-largest brackish water ecosystem in the country after the Chilika Lake
The Kaveri
• The source of the river is Tala Cauvery on the Brahmagiri hills of Coorg district in Karnataka.
• This river is unique in the sense that its upper catchment area receives rainfall during summer by
the southwest monsoon and the lower catchment areas during the winter season by the retreating
northeast monsoon .It is therefore an 'almost" perennial river with comparatively less
fluctuations. km.
• Left Bank: the Harangi, the Hemavati, the Shimsha and the Arkavati.
• Right Bank: Lakshman tirtha, the Kabbani, the Suvarnavati, the Bhavani, the Noyil and the
Amaravati joins from right.
The source of the river is Tala Cauvery on the Brahmagiri hills of Coorg district in Karnataka

Vembanad Lake - Longest Lake in India – Vembanad lake, Kerala

 • Textile is a broad term which includes cotton, jute, wool, silk and synthetic fibre textiles. The textile
sector occupies an important place in terms of employment generation. Textile sector provides
employment to 45 million persons in India alone.
• Textile is one of India’s oldest industries and has a formidable presence in the national economy as
it contributes to about 14 percent of manufacturing value-addition, accounts for around one-third of
our gross export earnings and provides gainful employment to millions of people.

Black Soil

Cotton Growing Areas

Bombay State

History
● India held a world monopoly in cotton textiles, since almost 1500 BC.
● Indian cloth was in great demand in the European market. Muslins of Dhaka, Chintzes of
Masulipatnam and Calicos of Calicut are world famous. But the advent of modern mills during
Industrial Revolution and British India’s discriminatory policy led to its collapse.
● The present cotton textile industry is an indigenous industry, since it was started and developed
predominantly on Indian capital and entrepreneurship.

Incipient Phase (Up to 1900)

Year Establishments

1818 1st modern mill established at Fort Gloster near Calcutta – soon closed

1854 Parsi entrepreneur Kawasji Dhabar started the first successful cotton textile
mill in Mumbai – NCERT – Cotton Textile Mill

1860s Shahpur Mill in 1861 and Calico Mill in 1863 set up in Ahmedabad.

1870s The real expansion of the cotton textile industry began, 60% of the cotton
textile industry was located in Mumbai alone.

Why was Bombay the main focal point of development in the incipient stage?
● Parsi merchants had huge finances from trade activities.

● Technical expertise was offered by European firms.

● Large cotton growing areas made raw materials easily available for new mills.
● Port facility allowed for the import of machinery, chemicals etc.
● Development of railways in and around the Mumbai region
● Availability of cheap unskilled labor.
● Climate advantage was there, humidity helped spinning without breakage.
 ■ Market Impact – The Hooghly region in West Bengal emerged as a major region for
the Cotton Textile Industry.
■ Some diffusion also took place in Eastern and Central UP at Lucknow, Varanasi, etc.
The industry reached to almost all states after independence.
○ Southward diffusion – Coimbatore, Madurai, Tirunelveli were major centers of diffusion.
○ Its diffusion to the South, particularly Tami Nadu and Kerala is basically related to the
following factors:
■ Development of Hydroelectricity e.g. Pykara project.
■ Readiness of industrialists .
■ Raw cotton farming in the Madurai-Coimbatore region
■ Market availability.
■ Industry also shifted from regions of higher labour cost to those of low labor costs e.g.
Madurai, Ujjain, and Agra, etc.
Problems of cotton textile industry
Osaka – NCERT
• It is an important textile centre of Japan, also known as the ‘Manchester of Japan’.
• The textile industry developed in Osaka due to several geographical factors.
• The extensive plain around Osaka ensured that land was easily available for the growth of cotton
mills.
• Warm humid climate is well suited to spinning and weaving.
• The river Yodo provides sufficient water for the mills. Labour is easily available. Location of port
facilitates import of raw cotton and for exporting textiles.
• The textile industry at Osaka depends completely upon imported raw materials. Cotton is imported
from Egypt, India, China and USA.
• The finished product is mostly exported and has a good market due to good quality and low price.
• Though it is one of the important textile cities in the country, of late, the cotton textile industryof Osaka
has been replaced by other industries, such as iron and steel, machinery, shipbuilding, automobiles,
electrical equipment and cement
 • The Jute industry occupies an important place in the national economy of India. It is one of the major
industries in the eastern region, particularly in West Bengal.
• Jute, the golden fibre, meets all the standards for safe‘ packaging in view of being a natural, renewable,
biodegradable and eco-friendly product.
• It is estimated that the jute industry provides direct employment to 0.37 million workers in organized
mills and in diversified units including tertiary sector and allied activities and supports the livelihood
of around 4.0 million farm families. In addition there are a large number of persons engaged in the
trade of jute.
• The principal varieties of jute in India are:
• Tossa (Corchorus Olitorious) and
• White jute (Corchorus Capsularis).
The Story of Jute textile industry in India
Pre-Independence
• Beginning of large scale industry: Jute manufacturing existed as a handloom industry but the large-
scale industry started in 1855 in Rishra near Kolkata – First Jute Mill
• Power looms and exports: Then power looms were started and spinning, as well as weaving, was
 undertaken. It was an export-oriented industry and it made rapid progress.
Post-Independence
• Partition: The partition of the country in 1947 created a peculiar problem for jute industry. Almost all
mills remained in India but 80% of jute producing area went to erstwhile East Pakistan.
• The import of raw material from East Pakistan was cut off due to the political differences between the
two countries.
Present Status
• It is traditionally in an export-oriented industry and its survival largely depends upon its export
performance.
• The rise and fall of the industry is closely linked with the demand for goods in the international and
national markets.
Jute textiles, Raw Jute and Fluctuations
• Raw jute crop is an important cash crop to the farmers. Cultivation of raw jute crop provides not only
fibre which has industrial use, but jute stick which is used as fuel and building material by the
farming community.
• There is always significant fluctuation in the area under jute cultivation in India.
The year to year fluctuations arise out of factors namely:
• Fluctuation in rainfall during the sowing season - The average raw jute prices realized during the
previous jute season, and the returns realized from competing crops during the previous season.
• A significant area under jute competes with paddy during the same season.
• Hence, year to year fluctuations in the prices of jute relative to the prices of paddy would generally
influence the relative allocation of land between the two crops.
• Raw jute is produced mainly in the state of West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh,
Tripura and Meghalaya.
Jute textile production has also been fluctuating
• Labour unrest: Jute industry suffers a lot from different political interference, labour problem leading
to challenging the sustainability of the jute industry.
• Fluctuating demand: Jute industry faces stiff competition with the synthetic industry for similar
packaging material, as the synthetic material is much cheaper in nature.
• Non–availability of raw material: Most of the jute-producing areas went to Bangladesh (erstwhile
East Pakistan) resulting in an acute shortage of raw jute. Although successful efforts have been made
to increase the supply of raw jute since Independence, it still falls short of our current requirements .
Jute textile industry- Locational factors

What makes West Bengal an ideal location ?

• Water: Flowing water of Hoogly River, Water is also required for Retting, Washing, dyeing etc.
• Transportation: Hooghly River provides cheap transportation for the industry, Inland waterways
• A dense network of road and railways has also helped in flourishing jute industry in Eastern
region.
• Raw material
• Ganga Brahmaputra delta grows about 90% of India’s jute production
• Raw jute source regions: Brahmaputra Valley, West Bengal, Tarai and E. Coastal Plains and all
regions around Calcutta.
• New hybrid varieties like JRO – 632, JRO – 753 are being grown, with better outputs.
• Market: Rich hinterland of Calcutta and industrial development around it provide a ready market for
the jute industry.
• Development of the sugar industry in neighbouring U.P and Bihar also boosted demand for
gunny bags. Govt. Issued an order under jute packaging materials, 1987 under which a
mandatory percentage of packaging of sugar (50%) and food grains (60%) in jute bags also
helped the industry.
• Historical inertia
 • Last but not least, rarely start of the industry by East India Company in this region enjoys the
growth in letter periods.
• The needs of jute bags in industrializing Europe during 19th century gave an impetus to the
jute industry. British enterprise and capital played a great role in initial development and
expansion.

Dispersion
After independence, there has been some limited dispersion of the industry, are 4 other regions of Jute
• North East India – here the industry has emerged principally due to favourable environmental
conditions.
• North–east plains of Bihar – here rainfall and soil conditions are favourable.
• Tarai regions of UP.
• Eastern Coastal region.
Reasons of dispersion
• There has been some dispersion, due to increasing demand from the sugar industry in UP and cement
industry in MP.
• Also, with the increasing trend of mixing jute with other fibres, dispersion of jute industry has been
to areas where there is the availability of such fibre e.g. Mesta grown in South India especially in
Andhra Pradesh.
• Apart from WB, there are jute mills at Guntur, Visakhapatnam and in Andhra Pradesh, Kanpur,
Gorakhpur in UP, Purnea, Katihar, Samastipur, Darbhanga, Gaya in Bihar, Raigarh in Chhattisgarh,
and Cuttack in Orissa, Assam, and Tripura also have one mill each.
Problems and Measures
Other Issues
● Problems of jute industry
● Low overall demand for jute in the international market.
● Cost of Indian jute products is comparatively higher.
● Stiff competition within the jute goods market. Example: New mills in Bangladesh are producing
better quality goods which are diminishing the competitiveness of Indian mills . Also, Bangladesh mills
are competing along with China with better quality goods.
● Availability of local fibres like Mesta (especially in Andhra Pradesh) etc, have reduced jute demand .
● This specific industry is also using the age-old machinery to produce jute yarns and fabrics (except 2-
3 countable industries). No modernization has been made in machinery development and automation.
● Infrastructural bottlenecks, power, transportation, and capital also pose several threats to the
sustainability of the Jute industry.
● Raw material-Even after substantial increase in area and yield in jute production, India falls short of
requirement which lead to underutilization of installed capacity of jute industry.
Geographical requirements for wool industry
● Introduction
• India is the seventh-largest producer of wool .
• Due to the less domestic production, India depends on imports for raw wool, particularly
on Australia and New Zealand.
• Rajasthan is the largest wool producer and is known for its superior carpet grade Chokla and Magra
wool.
Majority of wool production comes from southern hemisphere: Australia, NZ, Argentina and South Africa
because
● Climate factor

• Damper, cooler condition in the temperate areas of the Northern Hemisphere, which is not so good
for wool production -
• Dry warmer climates of Southern hemisphere provide better conditions for wool production- in hot
climates, the sheep produce short, coarse wool. Therefore, moderate temperatures are the best. Eg -
Interior Australia, South Africa and the rain shadow area of Patagonia in Argentina. -
Land
• Large land size is available for commercial sheep rearing - Sheep are best kept in grassland regions.
• Both richer grasslands of New Zealand or Britain and poorer bunchy grasslands of interior Australia
or Patagonia are suitable - Therefore, sheep rearing provides the best economic use of the land for
the farmers.
• In Australia, Sheep rearing is done on a large scale so there is lower cost of production.
• This enables wool producers from southern hemisphere to compete with Indian, European or North
American producers despite the added cost of transporting wool from South to North hemisphere.
Problems of Woollen Textile Industry in India
1. Shortage of Raw Wool: India does not produce sufficient quantity of fine quality raw wool. Also
productivity of Indian sheep is very low. Larger proportion of wool produced in India is of inferior
quality and does not conform to international standards.
2. Lack of market: Most parts of India have tropical and subtropical climate which restricts the demands
for woollen clothes. Southern part of country enjoys warm weather throughout the year. Even in
northern India, winter lasts only for 4 to 5 months. For practical purposes, woollen textile industry is
a seasonal phenomena in India.
3. Lack of Modern Equipment: Most of the equipment in woollen textile industry is obsolete and
outdated as a result of which its products are not able to cope with the design and patterns of
international market.
 4. Low Quality: Indian woollen goods are considered to be of low quality in the international markets
which results in lack of demand.
5. Fall in use of Indigenous Wool: In the 10 years till 2020, wool consumption by the country’s
processing units increased by 50%, but the use of indigenous wool fell to almost 10% of the total
current sales in Bikaner (Rajasthan).
6. Decrease in Pastures: Pastures are diminishing across the country with the increase in plantations as
well as urbanisation .In Rajasthan, grazing land fell from 1.7 million hectares (ha) in 2007-08 to 1.6
million ha in 2017-18, according to state agriculture department data.
7. Shift in Farmers focus: Farmers’ focus has shifted from wool to meat. Telangana promotes the meat-
producing Nellore breed through a subsidised sheep distribution scheme and the breed now comprises
51% of the state’s sheep.

Introduction
• India has been famous for production of silk since ancient times. India enjoys distinction of being
the only country producing all the five know commercial varieties of silk. Viz, Mulberry, Tropical
Tasar, Oak Tasar, Eri and Muga (of which golden yellow Muga is unique to India).
• India accounts for 17 percent of world’s total silk production and ranks as the second largest producer
of raw silk, next only to China.
• Among five varieties, Mulberry silk accounts to 80 percent of country’s total silk.
Production of Raw Silk
• Karnataka,
• Andhra Pradesh,
• Assam
Indian Context
 ● India
● Mulberry plants can be grown in any type of soil even in forest fringes, hill slopes and can withstand
drought.
● Karnataka
● Mulberry grows easily due to climate.
● Bombay variety of silk worm can be reared throughout the year.
● Karnataka uses hybrids of silkworm. It can harvest five to six times a year.
● Sericulture does not involve hard labour. Silkworms can be reared by women and old people
in Eastern States. Farmers earlier used to grow Jute but Jute demand declined so they shifted
to Sericulture.
● NOTE - Kanchi - Generations of silk weavers, so skilled labour is abundant + Market still has
great demand for this industry.

Distribution
● Mulberry sericulture is mainly practised in states such as Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, West
Bengal, Jharkhand and Tamil Nadu who are the major silk producing states in the country.
● North East has the unique distinction of being the only region producing four varieties of silk viz.,
Mulberry, Oak Tasar, Muga and Eri. Overall the NE region contributes 18% of India's total silk
production.
● NOTE : The demand for superior quality bivoltine silk is increasing in India for domestic consumption
as well as value added silk products for the export market.
● Mulberry plants can be grown in any type of soil even in forest fringes, hill slopes and can withstand
drought.
● Karnataka
● Mulberry grows easily due to climate.
● Bombay variety of silk worm can be reared throughout the year.
● Karnataka uses hybrids of silkworm. It can harvest five to six times a year.
● Sericulture does not involve hard labour. Silkworms can be reared by women and old people
in Eastern States. Farmers earlier used to grow Jute but Jute demand declined so they shifted
to Sericulture.
● NOTE :
● Kanchi - Generations of silk weavers, so skilled labour is abundant + Market still has great
demand for this industry.
Factors leading to the development of Silk Industry in China
● China
● Climate suitable for growth of silk varieties - Lower Yangtze valley has the finest white mulberry silk.
 ● Chinese scientists developed hybrid varieties using Japanese and European silkworms. It is possible
to rear silkworms seven times a year.
● China was the first country to start sericulture. So labour is abundant and skilled.
● Sericulture is done via cooperatives (Silk Communes), so there is more efficient and standard
production as compared to individual farmer.
● Government provides extension service, training etc.
● In the 90s, Chinese government upgraded silk machinery with imported parts = improved quality of
silk yarn.
Why the Silk industry has immense potential in India?
Reason
• Leveraging human capital as Sericulture does not involve hard labour. Silkworms can be reared by
women and old people.
• Sericulture being cottage industry plays an important role in employment generation and poverty
alleviation.
• Substitute for jute: In eastern States, Farmers earlier used to grow Jute but Jute demand declined so
they shifted to Sericulture.
• Suitable climatic conditions, for example: Mulberry grows easily due to climate and Bombax variety
of silk worm can be reared throughout the year.
• Diversification of income and income security for small and marginal farmers as it works on simple
technology and no sophisticated equipment is needed.
• Demand: Silk sarees are still popular in India.
Existence of institutions –
• Central Silk board located at Bangalore: The Central Silk Board has been entrusted with the
overall responsibility of developing the silk industry covering the full gamut of sericulture
activities in the country from development of food plants to silk cocoons for production of silk
yarn including formation of policies governing Import & Export of silk.
Why can't we easily wipe out China from India’s silk weaving industry?
• Qualitative difference: The difference in quality between Chinese threads and threads from
Karnataka is in the finish and thickness. Reeling is how the raw silk filaments are drawn out from the
cocoon. And the machines in India do not give the smoothness or the shine that Chinese threads have.
This leads to thicker threads which can be used on hand looms, but not on the warp in powerloom
because of the speed with which the yarn is woven — and the chances of the breaking are greater.
• Extent of wastage: The cost of Chinese silk threads is almost the same as that from Karnataka, which
is anywhere between Rs 3,500 to Rs 5,000 per kg. However, with locally-made threads there is 25 per
cent wastage after washing the threads.
• Silk threads are always washed to get rid of the cocoon coating, while Chinese threads do not require
 any washing.
• Lack of support to silk farmers by the state.
• Result : Nearly 80 per cent of the silk threads that weavers use across the country come from China.
Of the rest, 10 percent comes from Karnataka, and the rest from Bihar and Assam.
Introduction
• Sugar can be produced from sugarcane, sugar-beet, or any other crop having sugar content. But in
India, Sugarcane is the main source of sugar.
• This is the second largest agro based industry in India after cotton textile industry.
• At present,. India is second largest producer of sugarcane after Brazil and second largest producer of
sugar after Cuba.

• Localisation of Sugar Industry

• Raw material: Sugar industry is based on sugarcane which is heavy, low value, weight losing and
perishable raw material. Sugarcane cannot be stored for long as the loss of sucrose content is
inevitable.
• Transport: Besides, it cannot be transported over long distances because any increase in transportation
cost would raise the cost of production and sugar may dry up on the way. Easy availability of
Transport increases productivity.
• Climate: Warmer Climate provides better yield from sugarcane.
• Soil: - Black Lava soil, which is fertile and retains water, is good for sugarcane production.
Distribution of Sugarcane Industry
• During British-raj, North India used to cultivate indigo as cash crop but then invention of synthetic
dyes forced farmers to adopt sugarcane.
• In South India, farmers have better cash-crop alternatives for instance cotton, tobacco, coconut,
groundnut etc.
• During the colonial era 90% of the industries were located in the North ,Whereas, currently there is a
north to south shift with South India producing 65% of sugar because:
• Tropical climate which provides more sucrose content and increases the crushing periods.
• Most of the mills here are new, advanced and well managed.
• Proximity to the Ports ex. Mumbai, Chennai, Vizag port to export the sugar produced.
• In South India there is no loo, no frost so there is a moderating effect of ocean which is ideal for
sugarcane growth.
• There has also been migration of skilled labours from north India to South India in search of
employment opportunities.
• Availability of irrigation infrastructure for water intensive sugarcane crop.
Maharashtra
• Common cotton failures and indebtedness.
• Maharashtra grows thicker variety of sugarcane.
• Sugar crushing season is longer.
• Black lava soil is fertile and retains water which is good for growth.
• Mills use bagasse as fuel.
• Mumbai Port helps in export.
• Labour is also available.
Uttar Pradesh
• Potash-lime in soil which helps in growth.
• Upper Gangetic plain so soil is very fertile.
• Ganga, Yamuna and their numerous tributaries.
• Dense road network.
• Seasonal and migratory labour available so cost of production is low.
• Large population so there is high demand for Gur, Khand sari, sugar.
Suitability of Kaveri basin
• Longer growing season of sugarcane.
• Tropical variety with high sucrose content.
 • Provision of irrigation as sugarcane is water intensive crop.
• Labour culture more suited to work in cooperatives.
Sugar Industry – Problems
Iron and Steel industry –
Raw Material + Cheap Labour + Tech + National Steel Policy + FDI + Steel Consumers
Council
Note :
Export-oriented
Locational factors
Iron and Steel industry
TISCO – Jharkhand

BOKARO – Jharkhand Kiriburu Jharia DVC, Bokaro Largest I&S

(Orissa) & Damodar plant
(Keonjhar) rivers Calcutta port
connected
Through NH2
 VISW – Karantaka Kemmangundi Sharavati Mangalore
(Chikmaglur, power, port
Karnataka) Bhadra NH4
river

BHILAI - Daili Rajhara Korba Korba Calcutta-

Chattisgarh Kargali Thermal Nagpur
power Rail,
plant, NH6
Mahanadi
Basin

Visveswaraya Steel Plant- shore-based steel plant in the country

BHILAI – Chhattisgarh

ROURKELA-Orissa Sundargarh Jharia Hirukud Calcutta-

Talchar HEP, Nagpur
Keonjhar Sankh-south Rail,
koal river NH6
 DURGAPUR- West Mayurbhanj Jharia, DVC, Calcutta
Bengal Ranigan Damodar port,
river Calcutta
Asansol
Rail,
NH2

ROURKELA-Orissa

DURGAPUR- West Bengal

Why are the tropics a bad destination – Tropics/Temperate
• Due to digitalization, the consumption of graphic paper is reducing. But, this is counter-balanced by
growth in packaging and hygiene papers.
• The price of capital equipment needed for paper industry is very high – Cost of Power + Coal +
Royalties - Sickness in small paper units.
• Tariff barriers and protectionist subsidies for competitive products create an uneven playing field.
• Export duties and taxes on wood exports are raising concerns. For instance, fibrous raw material
represents the highest share of production costs, so its availability at affordable prices is essential for
the sector.
Plantation Crops
Plantation Crops
What factors have led to the development of coffee production in Kerala?
Why most of the coffee production is limited within the tropical zone around the world?

Coffee Belts
What factors have led to the phenomenal rise of Brazilian coffee industry?
Introduction
• Sugar can be produced from sugarcane, sugar-beet, or any other crop having sugar content. But in
India, Sugarcane is the main source of sugar.
• This is the second largest agro based industry in India after cotton textile industry.
• At present,. India is second largest producer of sugarcane after Brazil and second largest producer of
sugar after Cuba.

• Localisation of Sugar Industry

• Raw material: Sugar industry is based on sugarcane which is heavy, low value, weight losing and
perishable raw material. Sugarcane cannot be stored for long as the loss of sucrose content is
inevitable.
• Transport: Besides, it cannot be transported over long distances because any increase in transportation
cost would raise the cost of production and sugar may dry up on the way. Easy availability of
Transport increases productivity.
• Climate: Warmer Climate provides better yield from sugarcane.
• Soil: - Black Lava soil, which is fertile and retains water, is good for sugarcane production.
Distribution of Sugarcane Industry
• During British-raj, North India used to cultivate indigo as cash crop but then invention of synthetic
dyes forced farmers to adopt sugarcane.
• In South India, farmers have better cash-crop alternatives for instance cotton, tobacco, coconut,
groundnut etc.
• During the colonial era 90% of the industries were located in the North ,Whereas, currently there is a
north to south shift with South India producing 65% of sugar because:
• Tropical climate which provides more sucrose content and increases the crushing periods.
• Most of the mills here are new, advanced and well managed.
• Proximity to the Ports ex. Mumbai, Chennai, Vizag port to export the sugar produced.
• In South India there is no loo, no frost so there is a moderating effect of ocean which is ideal for
sugarcane growth.
• There has also been migration of skilled labours from north India to South India in search of
employment opportunities.
• Availability of irrigation infrastructure for water intensive sugarcane crop.
Maharashtra
• Common cotton failures and indebtedness.
• Maharashtra grows thicker variety of sugarcane.
• Sugar crushing season is longer.
• Black lava soil is fertile and retains water which is good for growth.
• Mills use bagasse as fuel.
• Mumbai Port helps in export.
• Labour is also available.
Uttar Pradesh
• Potash-lime in soil which helps in growth.
• Upper Gangetic plain so soil is very fertile.
• Ganga, Yamuna and their numerous tributaries.
• Dense road network.
• Seasonal and migratory labour available so cost of production is low.
• Large population so there is high demand for Gur, Khand sari, sugar.
Suitability of Kaveri basin
• Longer growing season of sugarcane.
• Tropical variety with high sucrose content.
 • Provision of irrigation as sugarcane is water intensive crop.
• Labour culture more suited to work in cooperatives.
Sugar Industry – Problems
Iron and Steel industry –
Raw Material + Cheap Labour + Tech + National Steel Policy + FDI + Steel Consumers
Council
Note :
Export-oriented
Locational factors
Iron and Steel industry
TISCO – Jharkhand

BOKARO – Jharkhand Kiriburu Jharia DVC, Bokaro Largest I&S

(Orissa) & Damodar plant
(Keonjhar) rivers Calcutta port
connected
Through NH2
 VISW – Karantaka Kemmangundi Sharavati Mangalore
(Chikmaglur, power, port
Karnataka) Bhadra NH4
river

BHILAI - Daili Rajhara Korba Korba Calcutta-

Chattisgarh Kargali Thermal Nagpur
power Rail,
plant, NH6
Mahanadi
Basin

Visveswaraya Steel Plant- shore-based steel plant in the country

BHILAI – Chhattisgarh

ROURKELA-Orissa Sundargarh Jharia Hirukud Calcutta-

Talchar HEP, Nagpur
Keonjhar Sankh-south Rail,
koal river NH6
 DURGAPUR- West Mayurbhanj Jharia, DVC, Calcutta
Bengal Ranigan Damodar port,
river Calcutta
Asansol
Rail,
NH2

ROURKELA-Orissa

DURGAPUR- West Bengal

Why are the tropics a bad destination – Tropics/Temperate
• Due to digitalization, the consumption of graphic paper is reducing. But, this is counter-balanced by
growth in packaging and hygiene papers.
• The price of capital equipment needed for paper industry is very high – Cost of Power + Coal +
Royalties - Sickness in small paper units.
• Tariff barriers and protectionist subsidies for competitive products create an uneven playing field.
• Export duties and taxes on wood exports are raising concerns. For instance, fibrous raw material
represents the highest share of production costs, so its availability at affordable prices is essential for
the sector.
Plantation Crops
Plantation Crops
What factors have led to the development of coffee production in Kerala?
Why most of the coffee production is limited within the tropical zone around the world?

Coffee Belts
What factors have led to the phenomenal rise of Brazilian coffee industry?
 RESOURCES
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Basics
• Geothermal energy uses the heat generated by the Earth's core to produce clean energy
• The natural examples of geothermal energy are given below – Geysers + Lava Fountain + Hot
Springs
• Hydrothermal Heat Source: In this, heat is carried from below to the surface by water, which is then
heated by hot rock that has been heated by seismic or volcanic activity. Water is recharged into the
earth by rain or surface bodies (such as rivers, lakes, or glaciers).An illustration of this is the existence
of hot springs in Iceland, the Himalayas, and the Alps. For the system to be recharged and for the
hot water to rise up, the area's lithology needs to be permeable in order to allow water to flow easily.
• The second method of resource extraction is Deep/Enhanced Geothermal systems, in which the hot
base rock is reached by digging a deep borehole, which is then filled with water to create steam that
is used to power a turbine.

Examine the availability of geothermal energy as a sustainable energy source in India.

Discuss the challenges in its deployment.
• Geothermal energy uses the heat generated by the Earth's core to produce clean energy. A series of
wells is used to generate steam from the Earth’s internal heat energy and fed to the power plant
to generate electricity.

Geothermal Energy as sustainable energy source in India

• Huge Potential - Geological Survey of India has identified about 340 geothermal hot springs in the
country. Most of them are in the low surface temperature range from 370C to 900C, which is suitable
for direct heat applications. The potential for power generation at these sites is about 10,000 MW.
• Continuous Supply - It is the only renewable energy sources that is unaffected by day-night or
seasonality variance and is available 24x7.
 • Environmentally Friendly - Geothermal energy is more environmentally friendly than
conventional fuel sources such as coal and other fossil fuels. In addition, the carbon footprint of a
geothermal power plant is low.
• Reliability - Energy generated from this resource is easy to calculate since it does not fluctuate in
the same way as other energy sources, such as solar and wind. This means we can predict the power
output from a geothermal plant with a high degree of accuracy.

Challenges
• Location Restricted - The largest single disadvantage of geothermal energy is that it is location
specific. Geothermal plants need to be built in places where the energy is accessible, which means
that some areas are not able to exploit this resource. Of course, this is not a problem if you live in a
place where geothermal energy is readily accessible, such as Iceland.
• Environmental Side Effects - Although geothermal energy does not typically release greenhouse
gases, there are many of these gases stored under the Earth’s surface which are released into the
atmosphere during digging. While these gases are also released into the atmosphere naturally, the
rate increases near geothermal plants.
• Earthquakes - Geothermal energy also runs the risk of triggering earthquakes. This is due to
alterations in the Earth’s structure as a result of digging. This problem is more prevalent with
enhanced geothermal power plants, which force water into the Earth’s crust to open up fissures to
greater exploitation of the resource.
• High Costs - Geothermal energy is an expensive resource to tap into, with price tags ranging from
around $2-$7 million for a plant with a 1 megawatt capacity.
• Sustainability- In order to maintain the sustainability of geothermal energy fluid needs to be
pumped back into the underground reservoirs faster than it is depleted. This means that geothermal
energy needs to be properly managed to maintain its sustainability.

Government Program for Tapping Geothermal Energy

• Draft Geothermal Energy National Policy - The scheme’s objective is to establish India as a global
leader in geothermal power by deploying 1000 MWth of geothermal energy capacity. The initiative
would examine the country’s geothermal resource potential and promote R&D projects for power
generation and geo-exchange pumps.
• National Geothermal Energy Programme - The programme aims to identify and explore potential
geothermal sites, as well as to develop appropriate technologies and methodologies for geothermal
exploration and exploitation.
• Geothermal Resource Assessment - The Geological Survey of India (GSI) has conducted several
studies to assess the geothermal potential of various regions in the country. The GSI has identified
several potential geothermal sites in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, and the North-Eastern region of India.
 • International Collaboration - The Indian government has collaborated with other countries such as
the United States, the Philippines, Indonesia, Mexico, and New Zealand in order to accelerate
geothermal energy deployment through international investment promotion, customised capacity
building, and technical assistance.
• Recently, the Government announced that the State-run explorer Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
(ONGC) will be participating to generate electricity through Geothermal Energy at Puga, a remote
valley located in Ladakh, off the road to Chumar on the de-facto border with China.
• Geothermal energy is a promising renewable energy source for India with significant potential. The
Indian government’s efforts to tap into this potential, combined with growing investment in the
sector, make it an exciting time for geothermal energy in India.
• With its reliability and low carbon footprint, geothermal energy has the potential to play a significant
role in India’s energy mix. The challenges of limited technical expertise and high upfront costs can
be overcome with the right policies and investments, making geothermal energy a sustainable and
viable option for India’s energy future.

Provinces in India
Major sites for Geothermal energy in India
 HYDROELECTRICITY
Benefits
• Unlike to conventional fossil fuel energy sources, using hydropower to generate electricity results
in no pollution of the air or water.
• Hydropower is a renewable energy source since it depends on the water cycle, which is fueled by
sunlight.
• For a long period of time, hydroelectric plants offer affordable and dependable power. Although
they require expensive initial construction, they are more financially viable in the long run
because to the lengthy duration of the projects and their low maintenance expenses.
• Large-scale benefits like the provision of irrigation and drinking water are related with hydropower
developments.
• Hydropower plants based on reservoirs or storage help to control flooding. Fishing and other
activities in the reservoirs can be beneficial to the neighbourhood. Huge hydropower projects also
aid in the development of leisure and tourism.
• Many economic activities, such as those in manufacturing, utilities, business services, construction,
transportation, energy systems, water management, tourism, etc., are supported by hydroelectric
projects, which also result in more jobs in these sectors.
• India's hydroelectric potential is substantial. Using the potential can save foreign exchange reserves
and lessen reliance on fossil fuels .

Issues
• Hydroelectric plants have a number of detrimental environmental effects even if they emit little
or no emissions. The storage/reservoir-based dams can alter the chemistry and temperature of
rivers as well as their flow. The flow of beneficial sediments downstream may be decreased.
Moreover, it may result in landslides, sedimentation, and erosion, all of which harm the local
ecology.
• The production of hydroelectricity is not entirely emission-free. Research have revealed that the
reservoirs made by river dams release greenhouse gases. Decomposing organic matter in the
reservoir water, such as dead plants and other organic matter, releases carbon dioxide and
methane, two potent greenhouse gases.
• Large hydropower plant construction typically entails changing the way rivers flow naturally. It
frequently prevents rivers from flowing naturally and obstructs fish migration paths.
• Dams operate as a buffer and collect extra water during periods of severe rainfall, which helps to
prevent flooding. The intensity of floods, however, could worsen in cases of extreme weather or
dam failure.
 • Due to lengthy land acquisition and resettlement processes, difficult planning procedures, a lack
of enabling infrastructure, such as transmission, an inadequate market size, and long-term finance,
many contemporary hydropower projects have experienced delays.Many hydroelectric projects
(HEPs) in India are inactive as a result of legal disputes over the environment, local unrest,
financial strain, and uninterested buyers.
• Conflicts between riparian States frequently cause the building of HEPs to be delayed because water
and water power are State matters.

Run-of-river hydroelectricity project

• Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity is a type of hydroelectric generation whereby the natural flow and
elevation drop of a river are used to generate electricity. Power stations of this type are installed on
rivers with a consistent and steady flow, either natural or through the use of a large reservoir at the
head of the river.

Concept:
• Power stations on rivers with great seasonal fluctuations require a large reservoir in order to operate
during the dry season, resulting in the necessity to impound and flood large tracts of land. In
contrast, run of river projects do not require impoundment of water. Instead, some of the water is
diverted from a river, and sent into a pipe called a penstock. The penstock feeds the water
downhill to the power station's turbines.
• Due to the difference in altitude, potential energy from the water up river is transformed into kinetic
energy while it flows downriver through the penstock, giving it the speed required to spin the
turbines that in turn transform this kinetic energy into electrical energy. The water leaves the
generating station and is returned to the river without altering the existing flow or water levels.
• Most run-of-river power plants will have a dam across the full width of the river in order to utilize
all the river's water for electricity generation. Such installations will have a reservoir behind the dam
but since flooding is minimal, they can be considered "run-of-river".
• Another type of run-of-river power plants is floating in the water.
For a run-of-the-river system to be possible in a given location, there needs to be two
specific geographical features:
• A substantial flow rate, either from rainfall or a melting snowpack.
• There must be enough of a tilt to the river to speed the water up significantly.
• The main difference between a run-of-river hydroelectricity project and other types of hydroelectric
projects, such as conventional hydroelectric dams or pumped storage hydroelectricity, is that a run-
of-river project does not require the creation of a large reservoir. Instead, it uses the natural flow of
the river to generate electricity. This makes run-of-river projects more environmentally friendly,
as they have a lower impact on river ecosystems, and they don't require the flooding of large areas
of land.

Other advantages of run-of-river hydroelectricity projects include:

• Run-of-river projects often have cheaper capital expenditures than other types of hydroelectric
projects since they don't need to build a sizable dam or reservoir.
• As they don't need to build a major dam or reservoir, run-of-river projects can be developed more
quickly than other kinds of hydroelectric projects.
• Run-of-river projects are able to vary their production to suit changes in demand or variations in
river flow because they can react to changes in river flow more quickly than other types of
hydroelectric facilities.
 OCEAN BASED ENERGY
India has a long coastline with the estuaries and gulfs which can be fully used to harness
ocean-based energy. Elucidate.
• The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy has recently declared Ocean Energy as renewable
energy and that all forms of ocean energy will be eligible for meeting the non-solar Renewable
Purchase Obligations (RPO).
• India has a coastline of approximately 7,500 km, and therefore, has significant potential for ocean
energy. The potential for ocean energy in India is estimated to be around 40 GW, which is nearly
one-third of India's current installed power capacity.

Potential for Ocean Energy in India

• Tidal Energy - Tidal power is harnessed by converting energy from the natural rise and fall of ocean
tides and currents to electricity.
o Tidal power has great potential in areas like the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat, Gulf of Cambay
and Sunder ban area of West Bengal where the height of the tide is sufficient for construction
and economical functioning of tidal power plants - Total identified potential of Tidal Energy is
about 12455 MW
• Wave Energy - Similarly, the wave energy potential along the Indian coats is estimated to be around
40,000MW. However, pilot projects that we set up, were later decommissioned, such as the 150kw
wave energy plant in Kerala. There is limited information on the scope of other ocean energy
technologies for India.
• Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) : Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion uses ocean
temperature differences from the surface to depths lower than 1,000 meters, to extract energy. A
temperature difference of only 20°C can yield usable energy. Large amounts of solar energy are
stored in the oceans and seas. - OTEC has a theoretical potential of 180,000 MW in India subject
to suitable technological evolution.
• Recently, the National Institute of Ocean Technology, an autonomous institute under the Union
Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) is establishing an Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion Plant
with a capacity of 65 kilowatts (kW) in Kavaratti, Lakshadweep.
• There are only few projects currently in the pipeline such as a new 1MW wave energy plant at
Vizhinjam, Kerala and a 65kw ocean thermal energy conversion plan in Lakshadweep for tapping
the huge potential for Ocean energy in India.

Challenges for Development of Ocean-based Energy

• High capital costs - The cost of power from such tidal power plants is too high. The normative cost
of installation of one MW solar, wind, biomass, hydro and thermal power plant is Rs 3.5 crore, Rs
5.5 crore, Rs 6 crore, Rs 10- Rs 15 crore and Rs 5 crore respectively.
 • Environmental disruption - Any large mechanical device placed into an active ocean ecosystem is
going to be problematic. Spinning blades may injure or kill aquatic species. A coastal barrage for
tidal energy might upset an entire estuarial ecosystem. Mechanical devices also can leak lubricants
and emit noises that make trouble for fish and aquatic mammals.
• Corrosion and bio-fouling - Devices strong enough to convert waves into energy typically require
the strength of metal alloysThat requires an extra level of care at the design, construction, and
installation phases to fend off the ef. The trouble is that saltwater is so corrosive to tough,
economical alloys like steel. fects of corrosion.
• Uncertainty in energy generation: Ocean-based energy technologies are highly dependent on the
availability of the resource, such as waves or tides. The unpredictability of these resources can make
it difficult to estimate the potential energy output, which in turn can make it challenging to secure
financing for these projects.
• Infrastructure - Infrastructural issues such as power evacuation using submersible electricity
carrying cables, distance of the plant from the shore, provisioning of offshore platform for plant
installation also increases the overall cost of electricity generation.
• Basic R&D is being looked after by National Institute of Ocean Technology, Chennai under the
Ministry of Earth Sciences but more inputs by other prominent institutions will help us
understand and develop the technologies faster.
• Installing more ocean energy also gives a boost to other carbon-free, renewable-energy sources, such
as wind and solar power. The sea is always on the move, meaning that ocean energy is perfectly
positioned to stabilise the power supply when the sun isn’t shining, or when the wind doesn’t blow.
• Ocean energy systems are still at an early stage of development, with a number of prototype wave
and tidal current devices being explored. Ocean energy has the potential to easily exceed present
human energy requirements.

Ocean Resources
• Oceans cover 70 percent of Earth’s surface, host a vast variety of geological processes responsible for
the formation and concentration of mineral resources, and are the ultimate repository of many
materials eroded or dissolved from the land surface. Hence, oceans contain vast quantities of
materials that presently serve as major resources for humans.
• Countries around the world need metals and minerals to satisfy burgeoning demands for
technology and electronics.
• The ocean beds contains critical energy sources (petroleum and gas) and raw materials (sand and
gravel, phosphorite, corals and other biogenic carbonates, heavy metal ores) which can fulfil this
demand.

Resources:
• Fishery
• Minerals
 • Energy Resources
• Salts
• Manganese Nodules

Impact
• Food Security
• Energy Security
• Sustainable Development
• Employment Generation
• Climate Change
• Ecology
• Deep Sea Mining
• Climate Change
 NUCLEAR ENERGY
Distribution of Uranium – India
No significant reserves of Uranium.

Distribution of Uranium - World

• Largest viable deposits - Australia, Kazakhstan, and Canada.
o Olympic Dam and the Ranger mine – Australia
o Athabasca Basin region - Canada.
o Chu-Sarysu basin - Kazakhstan

Major Sources of Uranium Across the World

• Australia - Australia possesses around 30% of the world's known recoverable uranium reserves.
Olympic Dam and the Ranger mine in Southern Australia are important mines in Australia.
• Kazakhstan - Kazakhstan contains about 13% of the world's recoverable uranium, with 50 known
deposits and around 20 operating uranium mines, so it's a key player in the uranium market. The
Chu-Sarysu basin in central Kazakhstan alone accounts for over half of the country’s known uranium
resources
 • Canada - Canada also accounts for around 9% of the world's recoverable uranium.High-grade
deposits are only found in the Athabasca Basin region of Canada. Cigar Lake, McArthur River basin
in Canada are other important uranium mining sites.

Distribution Thorium
United States, Australia, and India have particularly large reserves of thorium.

Q. With reference to India, consider the following statements:

1. Monazite is a source of rare earths.
2. Monazite contains thorium.
3. Monazite occurs naturally in the entire Indian coastal sands in India.
4. In India, Government bodies only can process or export monazite.”
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1, 2 and 3 only
B. 1, 2 and 4 only
C. 3 and 4 only
D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: B
• Tarapur - 1969 – Maharashtra + First nuclear reactor of India + Oldest nuclear facility
• Kaiga – Karnataka - Built on the banks of River Kali
• Kakrapara – Gujrat - lies in the proximity of Mandvi , Surat and Tapi river in the state of Gujarat.
• Rawatbhata- Rajasthan Atomic Power Station + Chambal River + Rana Pratap Sagar Dam
• Narora – Uttar Pradesh
• Kalpakkam – Madras Atomic Power Station + India’s first fully indigenously constructed nuclear
power station + World's first thorium-based nuclear plant, "Bhavni," using Uranium-233 - is being
set up + Experimental thorium plant "Kamini" already exists
• Kudankulam - Highest Capacity nuclear power generation complex of India + Russia
New Sites – Nuclear Energy Sites

Nuclear Energy has serious potential to solve India's energy crisis. Discuss in context of
availability of essential resources for nuclear energy development.
• Nuclear power is the use of nuclear reactions to produce electricity. Nuclear power can be obtained
from nuclear fission, nuclear decay and nuclear fusion reactions. Presently, the vast majority of
electricity from nuclear power is produced by nuclear fission of uranium and plutonium in nuclear
power plants.
• The present installed nuclear power capacity in the country is 6780 MW comprising of 22
operational nuclear power reactors. Among all the developing nations, India is the only one to have
generated electricity using indigenously developed, demonstrated, and deployed nuclear reactors.

How Nuclear Energy can potential to solve energy crisis in India

• Unlike renewables, nuclear sources can provide bulk energy in a certain manner (without
uncertainty) to the base load. The Kudankulalm power projects’ two reactors have added 2000 MW
electricity to the southern states.
• Nuclear energy enhances energy independence and energy security especially with the potential
use of domestically available thorium input use.
 • Nuclear power is a clean and environment friendly base load source of electricity generation,
which is available 24X7. It also has a huge potential and can provide the country long term energy
security in a sustainable manner.
• Nuclear power plants are designed to operate continuously for long periods of time, often up to a
year or more between refueling. This makes nuclear energy a reliable source of electricity that can
help to meet base-load demand.

Raw Material in India

• Import of Uranium - Ever since India accessed to the global nuclear fuel market in 2008, the country
has been one of the major nuclear fuel buyers. India imports most of the required Uranium from
countries including Russia, Kazakhstan, and France and lately the deal with Canada and Australia
have further enhanced India’s avenues to get Uranium from overseas.
• Jharkhand: Jharkhand is the largest producer of uranium in India, accounting for over 60% of the
country's total production. The major uranium mines in Jharkhand are Jaduguda, Bhatin,
Narwapahar, Turamdih, and Banduhurang.
• Andhra Pradesh: Andhra Pradesh is the second-largest producer of uranium in India, accounting
for around 20% of the country's total production. The major uranium mines in Andhra Pradesh are
Tummalapalle and Lambapur-Peddagattu.
• Meghalaya: Meghalaya is a new uranium producing state in India. The major uranium deposits in
Meghalaya are in the Domiasiat area.
• Rajasthan: Rajasthan has significant uranium reserves, but production is currently limited. The
major uranium deposits in Rajasthan are in the districts of Sikar, Alwar, and Udaipur.
• India has the largest deposits of Thorium in the world and is trying hard to get on to the third stage
of nuclear fuel consumption in order to get self-reliant in the nuclear fuel supply.
• Overall, these raw materials are critical to the generation of electricity from nuclear power plants. It
is important to ensure that these materials are sourced responsibly and used safely, with proper
regulation and oversight, to minimize the risks associated with nuclear energy.
• India’s nuclear power could provide a reliable solution to India’s power demand as against wind
and solar that is not available round the clock. This could further lead to a reduction in India’s
contribution to global Green House Gases (GHG) which stood at 6.55%, with energy sector
contributing a little over two-third towards it.
• India’s current nuclear power capacity of 6,790 MW is expected to increase to 22,480 MW by 2031.
This in turn is going to assist the country in meeting zero energy targets along with other clean
energy sources.
With growing scarcity of fossil fuels, the atomic energy is gaining more and more
significance in India. Discuss the availability of raw material required for the generation
of atomic energy in India.
• The pressure of climate commitments and dwindling investment in oil, gas and coal means high
prices are here to stay. For a country that imports more than 80 % of its fossil oil requirement,
dependence on it is not advisable. Also with the current utilization pace, we will run out of fossil
fuels by the end of the century.
• Atomic energy significance for India:

Nuclear energy has to play an important role in India’s energy scenario from three angles.
• First is that, unlike renewables, nuclear sources can provide bulk energy in a certain manner
(without uncertainty) to the base load.
• Secondly, nuclear energy is a clean energy source and hence is very important to attain a carbon-
free energy economy.
• Thirdly, nuclear energy enhances energy independence and energy security, especially with the
potential use of domestically available thorium input use.

Raw Material in India

• Import of Uranium - Ever since India accessed to the global nuclear fuel market in 2008, the country
has been one of the major nuclear fuel buyers. India imports most of the required Uranium from
countries including Russia, Kazakhstan, and France and lately the deal with Canada and Australia
have further enhanced India’s avenues to get Uranium from overseas.
• Jharkhand: Jharkhand is the largest producer of uranium in India, accounting for over 60% of the
country's total production. The major uranium mines in Jharkhand are Jaduguda, Bhatin,
Narwapahar, Turamdih, and Banduhurang.
• Andhra Pradesh: Andhra Pradesh is the second-largest producer of uranium in India, accounting
for around 20% of the country's total production. The major uranium mines in Andhra Pradesh are
Tummalapalle and Lambapur-Peddagattu.
• Meghalaya: Meghalaya is a new uranium producing state in India. The major uranium deposits in
Meghalaya are in the Domiasiat area.
• Rajasthan: Rajasthan has significant uranium reserves, but production is currently limited. The
major uranium deposits in Rajasthan are in the districts of Sikar, Alwar, and Udaipur.
• India has the largest deposits of Thorium in the world and is trying hard to get on to the third stage
of nuclear fuel consumption in order to get self-reliant in the nuclear fuel supply.
Reasons for the lower performance of nuclear energy despite available resources:
• Since its entry into the global nuclear fuel market in 2008, India has been a major buyer of nuclear
fuel. India imports the majority of the Uranium it requires from countries such as Russia,
Kazakhstan, and France, and recent agreements with Canada and Australia have expanded India's
options for obtaining Uranium from other countries.
• Uranium extracted from ore is first stored as uranium oxide concentrate, also known as
yellowcake, before being enriched into Uranium-235 isotope, a fuel that can be used in nuclear fuel
assemblies as. As a result, it cannot be used directly in reactors. The yellow cakes are being
imported.
• India's nuclear power plants have been unable to deliver the projected amount of electricity due
to a disruption in the supply of Uranium from various countries. And nuclear power plants made
the least contribution, failing to meet even half of the target in the first four years of the 12th Five
Year Plan.
• Thorium, like uranium, is a fertile element, but it is not a fissile element on its own. It takes work to
make a nuclear reactor usable. The process of making Thorium usable in the reactor is a three-stage
process.

Conclusion
• India’s nuclear power could provide a reliable solution to India’s power demand as wind and solar
that is not available round the clock. This could further lead to a reduction in India’s contribution to
global Green House Gases (GHG) which stood at 6.55%, with the energy sector contributing a little
over two-thirds towards it. This in turn is going to assist the country in meeting zero emissions
targets along with other clean energy sources.
 GAS BASED ECONOMY
While the focus on a gas-based economy is well intended, it faces several challenges.
Comment.
• India will emerge as the third largest energy consumer behind the US and China by 2030,
according to IEA’s recently released India Energy Outlook.
• Natural gas is expected to be the fastest growing fossil fuel, in sync with the government’s aim of
developing a gas-based economy, raising its share from 6 per cent to 15 per cent by 2030.

Benefits of Gas Based Economy

• Cleaner Fuel - Natural gas is a cleaner-burning fuel. According to the International Energy Agency,
gas-fired power plants emit between 45% and 55% lower greenhouse gas emissions than coal-
fired plants.
• Lower cost - Gas-based power plants are typically cheaper to build and operate compared to coal-
based power plants. This can result in lower electricity prices for consumers.
• Energy security: Natural gas can play a supporting role in expanding the use of renewable energy
sources. For many renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, a major challenge is
reliability. Using natural gas as a backup power source allows more reliable energy production,
making renewable resources more practical to adopt
• Fuel flexibility - Gas is a flexible fuel that can be used for a wide range of applications, including
power generation, transportation, and industrial processes.
• Job creation - It contributes to the economy at many levels, from the jobs of those who find, produce,
and deliver natural gas to the businesses that depend on it as a clean fuel source for industrial
operations and as a feedstock for the chemicals industry.

Challenges with Gas

• Infrastructure - Gas pipelines are currently limited to regions where domestic gas production and
LNG import terminals are located.
• Multiple Regulators - Progress has been hampered by jurisdictional conflicts between multiple
regulators. The directorate General of Hydrocarbons monitors upstream operations. In the
downstream sector, the Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board (PNGRB) regulates the
laying/expanding of transmission pipelines for gas and petroleum and city/local gas-distribution
networks.
• Pricing and Tax Issues – The pricing regime remains unattractive for new investments and existence
of two different prices makes accurate demand forecasts difficult . At current prices, producers are
unlikely to invest in new exploration and production
• ONGC under APM - In India, 80% of natural gas produced by ONGC and Oil India Limited falls
under Administered Price Mechanism (APM) which means the government controls its price.
• Import - India, the world’s third-largest energy consumer and fourth-largest importer of LNG,
depends on imports to cover 45% of its gas demands.
Government Initiatives
• A series of policy initiatives in the last two years, including open access to the pipeline network,
launch of a gas exchange and marketing reforms, points to the government’s commitment to move
towards cleaner fuels.
• According to the Minister of Petroleum and Natural Gas, an estimated $60 billion will be invested
for developing “One Nation One Gas Grid”. Pipeline length will double over the next few years to
exceed 32,000 km. In addition, city gas distribution (CGD) currently supplies to 7 million customers
and is expected to expand.
• The government is also pushing for multiple market reforms to facilitate transparency in pricing and
to provide a levelised field for competitive adoption across natural gas consumer sectors.
• The recently launched India Gas Exchange and the proposed unified pipeline tariff system are
intended to make the gas market open for constructive competitiveness.

Conclusion
• Gas-based economy ought to be fuelled by increased domestic production, enabled by pricing
and taxation reform. The infrastructure build presents the country with a unique opportunity to lead
the world in a sustainable architecture with minimal leakage, and with provisions for increasing use
of clean technologies such as renewables and electrolytic green hydrogen produced from renewables
 SOLAR ENERGY
Solar Power Parks – Important

Q. Despite the steps takes by India to utilize its solar potential, there is room for more strategic
interventions to fully realize India’s solar potential. Analyze.
Introduction
• Solar power is a major prong of India’s commitment to address global warming according to the
terms of the Paris Agreement, as well as achieving net zero, or no net carbon emissions, by 2070.
In this regard, the government has taken a number of steps to utilize the solar potential.
• India is endowed with vast solar energy potential. About 5,000 trillion kWh per year energy is
incident over India's land area with most parts receiving 4-7 kWh per sq. m per day. Solar
photovoltaics power can effectively be harnessed providing huge scalability in India.
• Note: Rajasthan - Great Indian Desert - The state has the fewest cloudy days, making it perfect for
solar power generation.
Steps taken by India to utilize its solar potential
• Schemes /Policy Initiatives:
o Sustainable rooftop implementation of Solar transfiguration of India (SRISTI) scheme to promote
rooftop solar power projects in India.
o National Solar Mission is a major initiative of the Government of India and State Governments
to promote ecologically sustainable growth while addressing India's energy security challenge.
o Renewable purchase obligation for Power Distribution Companies.
o Establishment of solar parks and ultra-major solar power project and enhancing grid
connectivity infrastructure.
• R& D
o National institute of solar energy is created as autonomous institution under MoNRE which is
apex body for R&D.
 • Workforce Development:
o Surya Mitra Programme to prepare qualified workforce.
• Institutions/Ministry:
o Ministry of new and renewable energy is the nodal agency to tackle India's renewable energy
issues.
o The Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) is a Non-Banking Financial
Institution under the administrative control of this Ministry for providing term loans for
renewable energy and energy efficiency projects.
• International Associations:
o International Solar Alliance (ISA) established by India and France at COP-21 in 2015 is a global
platform to bring countries together to facilitate collaboration on issues such as mobilizing
investments, capacity building, program support and advocacy and analytics on solar energy.
Technology sharing and finance could also become important aspects of ISA in the future,
allowing a meaningful cooperation between countries in the solar energy sector.

India has not been able to fully realize its potential due to the following reasons:
• Consumer awareness and Market acceptance: Consumer awareness about the roof-top photovoltaic
(RTPV) and its market acceptance is the most significant challenge in promoting solar energy. In
developing country like India affordability in residential sector is much lower than in an
advanced country.
• Misplaced Policy Focus: The policy focus has largely been on the solar plant installation with a
view to increase the solar capacity. However, India is yet to make appropriate policy push towards
solar panel manufacturing.
• Huge Import burden: India lacks a local supply chain to support its solar generation capacity.
Thus, it has largely depended on the imports from China.
o In 2021, India imported solar cells and modules worth $3.52 billion (~₹262.6 billion), an increase
of 641% compared to 2020.
Note: Pandemic Induced Issues: Factors impeding rooftop solar installation include pandemic-
induced supply chain disruption.
• Cost and T&D Losses: Solar PV is some years away from true cost competitiveness and from being
able to compete on the same scale as other energy generation technologies. Adding to the cost are
T&D losses that at approximately 40 percent make generation through solar energy sources highly
unfeasible.
• Land Scarcity: Per capita land availability is very low in India, and land is a scarce resource.
Dedication of land area near substations for exclusive installation of solar cells might have to
compete with other necessities that require land.
 • Finances: Funding of initiatives like the National Solar Mission is a constraint given India’s huge
requirements. The Finance Ministry has explicitly raised concerns about funding an ambitious
scheme like NSM. The need for better financing infrastructure, models, and arrangements to spur
the PV industry and consumption of PV products.
• The lack of closer industry-government cooperation for the technology to achieve scale.
• Inadequate Training and development of human resources to drive industry growth.
• Complexity of subsidy structure & involvement of too many agencies like MNRE, IREDA, SNA,
electricity board, and electricity regulatory commission makes the development of solar PV projects
difficult.

Note – The Hindu

• India is likely to miss its 2022 target of installing 100 gigawatts (GW) of solar power capacity, largely
due to inadequate uptake of rooftop solar, according to a report by JMK Research and the Institute
for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis (IEEFA).
• Factors impeding rooftop-solar installation include pandemic-induced supply chain disruption to
policy restrictions, regulatory roadblocks; limits to net-metering (or paying users who give back
surplus electricity to the grid); taxes on imported cells and modules, unsigned power supply
agreements (PSAs) and banking restrictions; financing issues plus delays in or rejection of open
access approval grants; and the unpredictability of future open access charge – The Hindu

Further Strategic interventions needed includes:

• Promote hybridization of solar and wind energy and build ancillary markets: The synergy in a
hybrid wind and solar plant will help reduce variability in power generation. The combination of
wind and solar has the advantage that the two sources complement each other because the peak
operating times for each system occur at different times of the day and year Hybrid projects would
also have much higher capacity utilization factors, thus practically eliminating the intermittency
challenge. Such projects have the additional benefit of reducing the costs associated with the
sharing of transmission lines.
• Build enhanced evacuation infrastructure: We need investment in high-voltage transmission lines
to transport bulk energy over vast distances quickly and efficiently from power-rich to power-
scarce states. This is all the more important in a scenario where storage solutions are not well
developed.
• Invest in digitalization: There is huge potential for advanced software solutions that can optimize
grid-level operations besides impacting consumer behaviour. The creation of demand response
programmes, for example, can prod industries to shift their loads to times during the day when more
energy is available on the grid.
• The industry-academia linkage at the university levels is required for high tech research. Similarly,
the ITIs and vocational education centres could be tapped into to make the technical know-how
scalable.
• Develop battery storage solutions: As battery storage costs continue to fall precipitously, they will
become an increasingly important tool for managing the fluctuating pattern of renewable energy
generation. Grid operators can store electricity generated from renewable projects in large battery
systems in low-demand situations, and then promptly release that electricity into the grid when
demand increases.
 ENERGY BASED QUESTIONS
Q. What are the causes and conswquenes of energy crisis in India? Suggest measures to solve
the Problem.
• India is 4th largest consumer of energy after USA, China, and Russia, but it is not endowed with
abundant energy resources. It must, therefore, meet its development needs by using all available
domestic resources
• Meeting energy needs of achieving 8% economic growth, while also meeting energy requirements
of the population at affordable prices, presents a major challenge. It calls for a sustained effort at
increasing energy efficiency, while increasing domestic production as much as possible.

Causes of Energy Crisis

• Generation
o It is estimated that up to a third of India's power generation capacity, both thermal and gas
generators, is lying idle due to fuel scarcity. Problems in Land acquisition and environmental
clearances, as well as for laying rail transport lines.
o Misalignment of energy prices poses both microeconomic (under-pricing energy to consumers
reduces the incentive to be energy efficient and promotes leakage of subsidized products for sale
in open market) and macroeconomic (hits either producers or leads to excessive import
dependence with implications for Balance of Payment) challenges.
o Transmission and Distribution losses account for 27% of electricity generated. At least two-thirds
of the national average distribution losses (which is 23 %) are commercial losses, mostly in the
form of billing deficiencies or pilferage.
o Failure to attract international investment in domestic hydrocarbon exploration
o Indo-US nuclear helped fuel domestic power plants and give India access to critical technologies
in strategic areas but deal did not lead to India setting up foreign-built reactors.
• Accessibility
o In rural areas, biomass accounts for 90% of total primary fuel consumption for cooking. This has
serious health impacts on the rural people.
o Lack of continuously supply of quality electricity in remote areas due to infrastructural
inefficiencies.
• External Challenges
o India's fragile energy security is under severe pressure from its rising dependence on imported
oil, regulatory uncertainty, international monopolies and opaque natural gas pricing policies. For
example, recent differences with OPEC + on production cuts in crude oil generation.
o Failure to get onboard all interested parties in IPI (Iran-Pakistan-India) gas pipeline and TAPI
(Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India) gas pipeline for assured supply of natural gas.
 • Measures to solve the problem
o Agriculture power reforms assume great urgency. Farm connections would be metered and
agriculture tariffs fixed. Each farmer would pay his monthly electricity bill, whereupon he would
be reimbursed the previous month's bill to the extent of the free unit’s consumable.
o Tariff policy needs to be depoliticised. Discom reforms as suggested by Shunglu Committee
should be done.
o Underground cabling to improve safety and theft. Smart grid. Prepaid metres for those
consumers with chronic defaults.
o Encourage decentralized solar power by roof top solar power generation with subsidies.
o Diversify energy supply with a web of energy relationships in the extended neighbourhood
covering Myanmar, Vietnam in the east, with Central Asian countries like Kazakhstan and Gulf
countries in the west.
o Speed up construction of strategic energy reserves to create cushion to deal with any energy crisis
in future.
o Promote innovation to create infrastructure in storage and distribution of green energy with cost
efficiency.
• India needs to ensure long term planning to ensure universal energy access and meeting its
commitment under Paris Agreement to ensure sustainable and inclusive growth.

Q. Bring out the need for India to tap sustainable energy resources. Also, elaborate on the steps
taken by India by India in this regard.
Introduction
• The India Energy Outlook 2021 report of the International Energy Agency (IEA) mentions energy
use in India has doubled since 2000, with 80% of demand still being met by coal, oil and solid
biomass. Pandemic-related disruptions, however, prevented the stock-up of coal.
• Mining operations were halted to curb the spread of the virus. Despite the gradual easing into
operations, mining activities were hampered during the monsoons, delaying arrival of stocks.
• With household demand for power picking up and the arrival of summer, combined with the
sudden acceleration in economic activity, it has resulted in a demand-supply mismatch and a
subsequent coal crisis. The coal crisis was a stark reminder of developing sustainable energy
resources.
Need for India to tap Sustainable Energy Resources
• The structure of global energy demand is undergoing a rapid transformation.
o According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the share of renewable energy in the
global energy mix is expected to increase sharply, from the current 11 per cent to over 20 per cent
by 2040.
• Drivers of transition: While the transformation was already happening, driven mainly by climate
change mitigation, the Covid-19 pandemic has hastened its pace globally.
 o According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), Covid-19 lockdown measures have
resulted in weekly electricity demand decreasing by 10-35% across affected regions, increasing
the overall share of variable renewables to meet this demand.
• Portfolio diversification across market: Sectoral oil and gas companies are increasingly
transforming into energy companies, with a strong renewables business vertical. Globally, this
portfolio diversification is a significant trend to be noticed.
o For instance, Oil majors such as BP have set ambitious targets while some Asian energy majors
are already into renewables in a big way. For instance, Royal Dutch Shell is involved in bio-
methane, biofuels and hydrogen.
• The energy market dynamics have overnight tilted favourably towards renewables such as wind,
solar and hydropower -
o For instance, independent oil companies (IOCs) across the world are accelerating towards this
transition. With sustainability as the key driver, the world is witnessing a major shift in the
overall share of global energy spending towards clean energy technologies.
o Oil majors across the world are now reshaping their portfolios, by expanding into solar and wind
power generation
• Paris Agreement obligations: Being a signatory to the Paris Climate Agreement, the share of
renewables has been increasing significantly - Meeting national targets:
• Economics of transition: According to estimates by the World Economic Forum, by shifting towards
renewables, India can save over $90 billion in imports between 2021 and 2030; this, even if half the
generated renewable power is used to replace imported coal.
• Tapping India’s potential: India has seen an exponential growth in its renewable energy sector in
the past few years. Though our installed renewable energy capacity is already the fifth largest in
the world, there is much more potential in this sector.
o India currently ranks fifth after China, U.S., Japan and Germany in terms of installed solar power
capacity.
• Reduction in production cost: With continuous reduction in the cost of production of renewable
energy, it is becoming affordable, which is an encouraging sign for a growing economy like India.
Steps taken by India in this regard
• SOLAR ENERGY
o Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM): To reduce the cost of solar power
generation in the country through long-term policy, large scale deployment goals, aggressive
R&D and the domestic production of critical raw materials, components and products.
• TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION
o Green Energy Corridor Project: For evacuation & integration of the renewable energy (RE) from
generation points to the load centres i.e., to enable the flow of renewable energy into the National
Grid Network.
 • BIOMASS
o Scheme For Biomass Based Cogeneration Projects: It aims to support Biomass based
Cogeneration Projects in Sugar mills and Other Industries for power generation in the country.
• HYDROGEN ENERGY
o Hydrogen Mission: The goal to make India a global hub for Green Hydrogen production and
export.
• WIND ENERGY
o National Wind-Solar Hybrid Policy: The main objective of the National Wind-Solar Hybrid
Policy, is to provide a framework for promotion of large grid connected wind-solar PV hybrid
systems for optimal and efficient utilization of wind and solar resources, transmission
infrastructure and land.

Issues and Challenges

However, the sustainable solutions do come with their own set of challenges, although not unsurmountable,
yet considerable.
• Energy storage is one of the major problems with renewable energy generation is that supplies are
far more variable than other means of energy generation -- Fluctuations in sunlight levels and wind
mean that supplies are less consistent than those derived from fossil fuels.
• The transition away from carbon is a massive shift, and like any major shift, comes with a huge
financial cost.
• Inadequate servicing and maintenance of facilities and low reliability in sustainable technology
decreases customer trust in some renewable energy technologies and hence prevent their selection.
• Political posturing, isolationism, popularism, and anti-science rhetoric all pose a threat to the
renewable energy sector. For e.g. protests against Kudankulam Nuclear plant in Tamil Nadu
• Infrastructural challenges such as lack of reliable large-scale energy grids, grid stabilisation etc are
posing hardships in even developed nations.
• Renewable energy projects such as solar, wind, hydroelectric etc require huge land area. But with
increase in population, balancing of land requirements for housing, food production etc with
sustainable energy solutions is important

Conclusion
• Countries like Iceland and Paraguay are already at 100% renewables and India can also take its
inspiration from them and the energy transition and industry decarbonization must go hand in
hand. A concerted effort at the hands of politicians, technocrats, businesses, industry and individuals
is a must to save our planet. The transformation in terms of conserving oil and gas and producing
more renewable energy through standalone endeavour as well as through collaboration across the
energy verticals, will make India more saksham and “self-reliant” as far as its energy needs are
concerned.
Q. Why there is a need for energy diversification in India? Also, account for the prospects of
energy diversification in India.
The need for energy diversification arises due to the following reasons:
• Energy security:
o While oil and gas sources are limited to certain regions of the world, renewable is available
everywhere and is domestically available in India. India has sources of power generation
starting from conventional sources such as coal, lignite, natural gas, oil, hydro and nuclear
power to viable non -conventional sources such as wind, solar and agricultural and domestic
waste. It is high time that India starts diversifying its energy basket particularly from Fossil Fuel
to Renewable Energy.
o In order to fulfil its energy requirements, India is heavily reliant on foreign imports of fossil
fuels. It is anticipated that by the year 2030, India's dependence on foreign energy imports will
reach 53 percent of the country's total energy consumption. These imports are susceptible to
global price swings, which, in turn, have an impact on our nation's energy supply as well as
our economy.
o Ex: Impact on Fuel Prices – Geopolitical Crisis
o As a result, increasing the variety of sources from which we derive our energy can both ensure
a stable supply of energy and lessen our reliance on sources from other countries.
• Environment Sustainability & Climate Change:
o India's energy profile continues to be highly dominated by sources that are based on fossil
fuels: by the year 2040, 42 percent of the new demand will be fulfilled by coal, and the country
is anticipated to be among the major oil consumers.
o The generation of electricity through the use of fossil fuels is accountable for fifty percent of
India's total CO2 emissions.
o In light of this, it is imperative that we diversify our energy profile with clean energy sources
such as renewables, nuclear, and others if we are to achieve environmental sustainability,
particularly in this age of climate change.
• Growing Competitiveness:
o The price volatility of alternative energies such as gas, fossil fuels, and other sources poses a
danger not only for the operators of power plants but also for end consumers.
o The field of renewable energy, on the other hand, has seen enormous progress across the board
in recent years, particularly in terms of the technological leap made possible by innovation.
o With this and the government's support for the start-up sector, it is possible that more and more
new projects may be planted across the geography in order to reach a point where India's
demand for energy can be satisfied by renewable energy sources.
o Ex: Green Tariff’s
 • India is better placed for energy diversification:
o India now has a fantastic opportunity in front of it to create the energy mix that it uses.
Contributing aspects include supporting government policies, together with incentives and
infrastructure and investment promotion, are being taken to serve the purpose of contributing
to the social and economic progress of the country through the utilisation of renewable energies.
o As a direct result of this, the renewable energy sector is becoming a more appealing
investment opportunity for power utilities that are developing new long-term capacity
projects.
o Ex: Renewable purchase obligation for Power Distribution Companies.
• Renewable energy a safe bet for the long run:
o Renewables are being heavily encouraged by policy makers.
o This is because the average wind or solar farm is built for up to 25 to 30 years of operation,
which is even longer in case of hydro power plants. The operators of these power plants are
aware that the equipment will be refurbished once its shelf life is over and that the newly
upgraded solar module or wind turbine will be relatively more cost effective and efficient.
• Paves the Road for Sustainable Growth:
o Consequently, renewables have the capacity to continue generating electricity maintaining its
efficiency that further boosts competitiveness.
o The seventh Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) emphasises the need of diversifying our
energy sources by requiring that all people have access to energy that is both affordable and
clean.
Prospects of energy diversification in India
ENERGY POTENTIAL POLICIES
Solar energy • 5th largest installed capacity of solar power • International Solar
in the world. Alliance (ISA),
• As of 2021, India has an installed solar National Solar
capacity of 40 GW which is very low Mission, Mega solar
• when compared with the target of 100 GW by parks, PM-KUSUM,
2022. Atal Jyothi Yojana
(AJAY) and Suryamitra
program
Wind energy • India is at 4th position in terms of installed • National wind-solar
wind power capacity. hybrid policy, National
• Government set an ambitious target of 175 offshore wind energy
GW power capacity from clean renewable policy, Wind bidding
energy resources by 2022. scheme
• Out of this, 60 GW target is set for wind
power.
 Geothermal • Over 350 geothermal regions across the
energy length and breadth of the country, from
which around 10 GW of geothermal energy
can be harnessed.
Hydro power • India is blessed with immense amount of • DHARMA, DRIP, new
hydro-electric potential and ranks 5th in policy on hydro power
terms of exploitable hydro-potential on development, Special
global scenario. Focus on North and
• India is currently generating 45GW from Northeast regions.
hydropower, which is only 31% of the total
potential.
Nuclear • Despite having Uranium and vast untapped • In 2019, Department of
energy thorium reserves, Nuclear power contributes Atomic Energy
only a little over 2% of our total power announced for 21 new
generation. nuclear plants with a
total generating
capacity of 15.7 GW by
2031.
Biomass • India has high potential of biomass about 500 • GOBARDHAN Scheme,
based energy metric tons per year availability. As per Cogeneration projects,
MNRE around 17,500 MW power can be National Biofuel Policy
generated by this available biomass and
additional power about 5000 MW can be
produce by surplus available biomass which
is around 120–150 MT.

However, despite these growth opportunities the entire segment is dealing with a bunch
of challenges
• grid integration, curtailment, counterparty risk, cost of finance, imbalance costs etc. With these
existing pain points, market creation has not been easy but with the rising awareness of
environmental, economic and social benefits, public opinion has been positive for energy
diversification.
Conclusion:
• The stability of the energy supply is a critical factor in the expansion of the economy. In addition,
all of the other Sustainable Development Goals are connected to SDG 7, which aims to ensure that
all people have access to energy that is both affordable and clean. Using renewable energy sources
not only helps in diversifying our energy basket and ensuring energy security, but it also leads
the way for sustainable development, which is a growing issue in light of the mounting evidence
that the use of fossil fuels contributes to global warming. As the saying goes ‘never put all your
eggs in one basket’ and this sector is not an exception.
 Day 4 – Industries
Broader Themes for the Crash Course
1. Physical Geography (World)
2. Physical Geography (World)
3. Physical Geography (India)
4. Industries
5. Natural Resources
6. Agriculture
7. Energy
Q. What are the factors Responsible for concentration of Pharmaceutical
Industries in the western part of India?
Introduction
According to Economic Survey 2022-2023 - The Indian Pharmaceuticals industry plays a
prominent role in the global pharmaceuticals industry. India’s domestic pharmaceutical market
is estimated at US$ 41 billion in 2021 and is likely to grow to US$ 65 billion by 2024 and is
further expected to reach US$ 130 billion by 2030 . India is ranked 3rd worldwide in the
production of pharma products by volume and 14th by value. The nation is the largest provider
of generic medicines globally, occupying a 20 per cent share in global supply by volume, and is
the leading vaccine manufacturer globally with a market share of 60 per cent..
Though the pharmaceutical industry is footloose in nature and can be established anywhere,
preponderance of this industry in Western region may be explained due to a number of factors
like:
 Historical Presence: The western region of India, particularly the state of Maharashtra,
has a long-standing history of pharmaceutical manufacturing. Mumbai has been a hub for
the pharmaceutical industry for many decades. This historical presence has attracted
further investment and development in the region.
 Capital Availability: The western part of India has traditionally been the hub of trade and
capital.
 Infrastructure: The western part of India has well-developed infrastructure, including
transportation networks, ports, and airports. This facilitates the movement of raw
materials and finished products, both domestically and internationally. Ex - The
presence of major ports such as Mumbai Port and Jawaharlal Nehru Port Trust (JNPT)
enables easy import and export of pharmaceutical goods to other nations in
Africa, Europe etc.
 Raw Materials: Proximity to petrochemical hubs which form the raw materials. Example:
Jamnagar, Gujarat; Bombay high, Maharashtra.
 The ports on western coast help to import raw materials required for the manufacturing
of drugs.
 Markets: The western region of India has easy access to both domestic and international
markets. The presence of major cities like Mumbai and Ahmedabad provides proximity to
the large consumer base in India, while the well-connected ports facilitate export to global
markets. Ex - In global markets, Africa for long has been an important market for India’s
Generic Drug Industry and proximity to west coast reduces the cost of transportation to
African national .
 Policies of the government:
o Stable policies of state government, provision of infrastructure, easy land availability,
SEZs, power etc. help in ease of doing business. For instance, Stable policies of Gujarat
and Maharashtra.
 o Opening up of the FDI upto 100% in pharma has attracted a lot of investments from
foreign countries.
Extra Note:
 Legal mechanisms:
o The Indian Patents Act, 1970 and its strong protection of IP rights have helped the
industries sustain their loyalties.
o Evergreening (Sec 3(d)) (Novartis v. Union of India.) and Compulsory licensing (Sec
84) (Bayer Pharma vs UoI) judgements of Supreme Court has strengthened the
confidence of Indian Pharma industries against the foreign conglomerates.
o The focus on Biotechnology in the last 25 years has grown leaps and bounds.

 Clustering Effect: The concentration of pharmaceutical companies in a specific geographic

area creates a clustering effect. The presence of established pharmaceutical companies
attracts suppliers, service providers, and ancillary industries, forming a robust ecosystem
that supports the overall pharmaceutical sector.
Conclusion:
 It is important to note that while the western part of India has a significant concentration
of pharmaceutical industries, other regions such as the southern and northern parts of the
country also have a considerable presence in the pharmaceutical sector. The factors
mentioned above are not exclusive to the western region but contribute to its
prominence in the industry.

Extra Points:
I. Challenges:
Drug Dev Process + Regulatory Compliances + R & D expenditure + Lack of Funding
+ Pricing Pressure (Price Capping) + Skill and Talent Gap + Infra and Supply Chain +
China Factor (Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients)
II. Way Forward
Collaboration and Partnerships + Embracing Digital Technologies + Market Expansion
+ Drug Pricing Policy
III. Prospects: E – Pharmacy + Huge Manufacturing Base + Trained pool + Western India
being the hub
IV. Scheme:
o Eco Survey - Strengthening the Pharmaceutical Industry (SPI), was launched on 11th
March 2022 with a total financial outlay of ₹500 crore for five years from FY22 to FY26
with multiple objectives.
  First, it aims to strengthen the existing infrastructure facilities by providing financial assistance
to pharma clusters to create common facilities.
 Second, it upgrades the production facilities of MSMEs to meet national and international
regulatory standards by providing interest subvention or capital subsidy on their capital loans.
 Third, it also promotes knowledge and awareness about the pharmaceutical and medical devices
industry by undertaking studies, building databases, and bringing industry leaders, academia and
policymakers together to share their knowledge and experience.

Way Forward
 Developing our R&D sector to reduce dependency on foreign countries for raw materials
 Using multilateral organisations like WTO against the illegal trade practices.
 Funding for the pharma companies might be a way to move forward.
 IPR Think Tank formed by the Government to draft stronger national IP policies.
Q. Critically analyse the challenges faced by Indian Textile Industry.
Introduction
 The textile industry occupies a unique position in the Indian economy because of its
significant contributions towards industrial production, employment generation, and
foreign exchange earnings. Additionally, it is the only industry which self-reliant and
complete in its value chain
 Note :
 As per Eco Survey 2022-23 - The Textile industry is one of the country’s most significant
sources of employment generation, with an estimated 4.5 crore people directly engaged
in this sector, including a large number of women and the rural population.
 In the current financial year, the textile industry has been facing the challenge of
moderating exports compared to FY22.
 FDI inflows into the textile sector are yet to recover to pre-pandemic levels.
Challenges Faced by The Industry
 Fragmented Industry
Indian Textile Industry is highly fragmented Industry that is led by several small-scale industries.
Because of this, there is lack of Industry Leadership. These small companies do not have fiscal
resources to invest in technological up-gradation and they are not able to generate economies of
scale. This leads to inability to establish a world-class competitive player.
 Fluctuating Raw Material Costs: The price volatility of raw materials, particularly cotton,
affects the profitability of textile manufacturers. From dyestuff and acetic anhydride, to
caustic soda and sodium bicarbonate – the prices of practically all textile industry raw
materials are rising in the global markets (for some, there has been a 3X increase).
 High Power Tariff
o After raw material, power cost is the most significant cost in the whole supply chain.
High power cost and erratic supply hampers the production in India.

 Global Competition + High Cost of Capital: The Indian textile industry faces intense
competition from other countries, particularly low-cost manufacturing nations like China,
Bangladesh, and Vietnam. These countries often have lower production costs, better
infrastructure, and more favorable trade policies, making it difficult for Indian textile
manufacturers to compete on price.
 Limited FTA’s
o Bangladesh, Cambodia, Pakistan, Turkey, etc. enjoy duty-free access to all the major textile
markets of the US and the EU. India still lacks FTA advantages to major markets making Indian
produce much more expensive compared to that of its competitors

 Skill and Labor productivity

o Though Industry has cheap and skilled manpower but they are less productive comparative to
other south Asian countries.For ex – China has better training infrastructure than India . Low
Labor productivity due to lack of skills and modernised infrastructure is making Indian textile
industry less productive than other competitor nations.

 Lack of technical manpower

o There are only around 3 programmes at graduate engineering (including diploma) levels
graduating nearly 1000 students – this number is insufficient for bringing about significant
technological change in the textile sector; there is serious dearth of trained operators and
supervisors in India.

 Goods & Services Tax (GST)

o By design, it was meant to transform the previous indirect tax system of the country from the
origin-based model to a consumption-based model. But, GST has created distortions in the
Textile and Apparel sector in India, impeding its competitiveness. The man-made fibre yarn is
now taxed at more rates, while the fabric is taxed at less rates . The small businesses which buy
yarn and produce fabric are directly impacted by this imbalance, affecting their sustainability.

 Legacy of government policy

o Government followed protectionist policy for handlooms (labour intensive and seen as a means
to sustain employment) vis-à-vis power looms & mills. India had antiquated labour laws. The
companies have often broken their business down into small units to avoid any trouble created
by labour unionisation. India also maintained capacity restrictions for a long time because
government wanted to incentivise Small-scale industries. The Land and urbanisation laws
resulted in closure of urban mills and lack of import subsidies on advanced machinery resulted
on limited technology advancement.
o Environmental Concerns: The textile industry is known for its significant environmental impact
due to water pollution, chemical usage, and high energy consumption. Ex - A wide range of ionic
chemicals, acids, industrial enzymes, and alkaline solutions are used in the day-to-day
operations of the textile industry.

 Lack of Fiber neutrality

o Manmade textiles in apparel industry have a substantially big demand, worldwide. Despite
being the second largest textile exporter in the world, India lags far behind in this category, due
to limited availability of manmade fibres at competitive prices.
Lack of Innovation and Design Capabilities: While India has a rich heritage of textiles and craftsmanship,
there is a need to enhance innovation and design capabilities to cater to changing consumer preferences.
Indian textile manufacturers often struggle to adapt to evolving fashion trends and lack the necessary design
infrastructure and support.
 Lack of foreign investment
o Due to challenges given above the foreign investors are not very enthusiastic about investing in
the textile sector which is also one of the areas of concern.

Opportunities For the Industry

 Rising Domestic Demand
 Favorable Demographics
 Government Initiatives- Ex: SAATHI Scheme
 Sustainable and Ethical Manufacturing
 Technical Textiles and Value-Added Product
 Global Textile Trade

Steps Taken by The Govt

As per Economic Survey 2022-23
 To develop integrated large-scale and modern industrial infrastructure facilities for the
entire value chain of the textile industry, the government approved the setting up of seven
PM Mega Integrated Textile Region and Apparel (PM MITRA) Parks. The parks will not
only reduce logistics costs and improve the competitiveness of Indian Textiles but also
boost employment generation, attract domestic investment and FDI, and position India
firmly in the global textile market. The parks are expected to create a total of one lakh
direct and two lakh indirect employment
 Further, to boost the production capacity, the government launched the Textile PLI
Scheme with an approved outlay of ₹10,683 crore over five years starting from 1st January
2022 to promote investments and increase the production of Man-Made Fibre (MMF)
Apparel, MMF Fabrics and Products of Technical Textiles. This will enable the textile
sector to achieve size and scale, enhancing export competitiveness. In the approved 64
applications so far, the proposed total investment commitment is ₹19,798 crore, with
projected turnover and employment generation of ₹1.9 lakh crore and 2.5 lakh,
respectively.

Way Forward ( In case Blue Print is asked in the exam)

 Firstly, build scale, as the industry is currently highly fragmented and lacks scale. Being
highly labour intensive, introduce flexible labour laws; job linked support schemes,
innovative hub and spoke models for apparel/textile parks to employ labour in
hinterlands and introduce PPP models for industry to provide scale and create jobs.
  Secondly, bridge the operating cost gap, especially on synthetics. Simplified tax
structures and neutral implementation of GST for both cotton and synthetic products will
give the much-required boost to the industry.
 Thirdly, infrastructure, especially at ports, import facilities and clearance procedures
should be streamlined to cut turnaround times. Signing FTAs with major markets like the
European Union can equalise market access positions with key competitors like
Bangladesh.
 Fourthly, increased investments in technology, especially processing and technical
textiles, either through capital subsidy or technology partnerships, can help in quick and
efficient production.
 Fifthly, to actualise ‘Make in India’ movement, government can create a comprehensive
umbrella of support schemes under the ‘Make in India’ banner. Entrepreneurs need to
advertise the made-in-India aspect aggressively, over-invest in quality and make their
products worthy of putting up ‘Proudly Indian’ labels.
 Lastly, Indian entrepreneurs need to invest both financial and human resources on
technology and innovation to address the constantly evolving markets. Investments are
required in technical textiles, processing, and apparel making in particular. India needs to
create its own ‘silicon-valleys’ for technical textiles, with a full ecosystem of investors,
start-ups, production facilities and ultra-fast clearances. Ease of doing business is equally
critical for innovation.
Conclusion
 The future for the Indian textile industry looks promising, buoyed by both strong domestic
consumption as well as export demand. Addressing the challenges mentioned above
requires a multi-faceted approach involving government support, industry collaboration,
investment in technology and skills development, and a focus on sustainability.
Overcoming these challenges can help the Indian textile industry regain its competitive
edge and achieve long-term growth and success.
Q. Discuss the various factors affecting the location of Iron and steel
Industries in India?
Introduction
 Rapid industrialisation of the country requires rapid development of iron and steel
industries. The development of agriculture, consumer goods industry, transport, machine
and tools making industry, are all to depend on the development and expansion of iron
and steel industries of the country.

Factors Affecting the Location of Iron and Steel Industries in India

 Historical Factors: Establishment of early steel plants and industrial clusters, can shape
the concentration of iron and steel industries in certain regions. For example, Jamshedpur
in Jharkhand and Rourkela in Odisha were established by Tata Steel and have grown
into major steel manufacturing centers.
 Government Policies + Industrial Policy:
o India, being a democratic country aims at bringing about economic growth
with balanced regional development.
o Example : Establishment of iron and steel industry in Bhilai and Rourkela were
based on decision to develop backward tribal areas of the country.

 Raw materials: Proximity to iron ore mines ensures a steady and cost-effective supply of
raw materials. Example - Regions with abundant coal reserves, such as Jharkhand,
Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and West Bengal, are favourable for steel production due to the
availability of coking coal for the production of coke.
 Labour: Most of the plants in Chota Nagpur region find abundant supply of cheap labour
in the region.
 Markets: The output here is heavy & bulky. Also, transportation cost is high. Being close
to major consumption centers and transportation networks reduces logistics costs and
ensures efficient distribution. Since Therefore, nearness to market is important.
o Example: Visakhapatnam steel plant located near the coast has excellent import export
facility.

 Availability of water for cooling: Example : Visheshwarya steel plant in

Bhadravati, Karnataka is near river Bhadra.
  Nearness to Industrial Town: Mini steel plants, that use scrap metals as input,
require recycling of waste metals and are located mostly near industrial towns.
 Power: Example : TISCO and Bokaro steel plant get hydroelectricity from Damodar Valley
Corporation (DVC).

Conclusion
 While these factors continue to play a role in the location of iron and steel industries in
India, the industry has now expanded beyond these conventional boundaries.
Technological advancements, improved transportation networks, and the growing
emphasis on sustainable practices have enabled the establishment of iron and steel plants
in regions that were previously considered less favorable. As the industry continues to
evolve, a more geographically dispersed landscape for iron and steel production is
emerging, with new opportunities arising in various parts of the country.

Additional Points :
 Near Coalfields: Appalachian-Pennsylvania in the United States
 Near Iron Mines: Kuznetsk Basin in Western Siberia.
 Near to Coastal Areas: Chicago in America
 Coastal Areas Japan’s Osaka-Kobe region and steel plants in Visakhapatnam, Ratnagiri
Economic Survey :

 Steel Sector plays a pivotal role in crucial sectors such as construction, infrastructure, automobile,
engineering, and defence. Over the years, the steel sector has witnessed tremendous growth. The
country is now a global force in steel production and the 2nd largest crude steel producer in the
world..
 The steel sector’s performance in the current fiscal year has been robust, with cumulative production
and consumption of finished steel at 88 MT and 86 MT, respectively, during April-December 2022,
higher than the corresponding period during the previous four years.
 Iron and steel exports moderated in the first eight months of the current fiscal owing to a
slowdown in the global economy, particularly in Europe and China, and export duty levied to
enhance domestic availability. Yet, iron and steel exports are higher by 20 per cent over the
corresponding pre-pandemic levels of FY20.
 In the future, the government’s thrust towards infrastructure projects, pick-up in construction and
real estate activity, and healthy demand from the automobile sector augur well for the demand for
steel products. However, export demand may remain subdued with the global slowdown.
Q. Explain the factors Responisble for Commerical fishering more
developed in North Europe and North America as compared to Asia?
Introduction
 Commercial fishing is taking fish and other seafood and resources from oceans, rivers, and lakes for
the purpose of marketing them.

Reasons for more developed Commercial fishing in North America and North
Europe as compared to Asia:

 Ocean currents: Mixing of cold and warm currents occurs in mid and higher
latitudes. Example - North America results in plankton growth and consequently fish -
Newfoundland, the North Sea etc.
 Temperature: The temperature of oceans lower than 20°C are favourable for more
developed marine life. Example - The higher temperatures in Asia means
less abundance of plankton and therefore less developed fishing grounds.
 Climate: The cool temperate climate favours large scale commercial fishing,
preservation, and storage of fish. Whereas in tropical region fish can't be stored for
a long period due to hot and moist climatic conditions.
 Continental Shelves: Continental shelves which are not more than 200 meters below the
water surface are perfect for fishing grounds. It is where all kinds of plankton are found
in abundance. Example - This type of continental shelves are found in North America.
  Type of coastline: Coastlines of North America are indented and are backed by
strong relief such as sheltered inlets and estuarine coasts that make them ideal sites for
fishing ports and villages whereas Asia has comparatively smooth coastline. The rugged
terrain make agriculture difficult, so, people can go for fishing as the main economic
activity hence its development.
 Institutional Framework: North European and North American countries have
established robust institutional frameworks to regulate and manage fisheries effectively.
These include comprehensive policies, regulations, and licensing systems to ensure
sustainable fishing practices, protect fish stocks, and prevent overfishing.
 Technological Advancements: North Europe and North America have historically been
at the forefront of technological advancements in fishing techniques, equipment, and
vessel design.
 Capital: Commercial fishing requires advance fishing vessel where fish can be
caught, processed and packed on vessel itself for supply. Example - This type of vessels
requires large capital investment which is readily available in North America.
 Availability of Seasonal Labour: Less cultivable area and long winters result in the
availability of cheap labour for the commercial fishing activities in North America as
compared to Asia.
 Economical: Commercial fishing is more profitable in North America because there
are fewer fish varieties which makes their commercial exploitation easier on the
other hand Asia have large number of fish varieties which is not suitable for large
scale commercial exploitation.
 Trends with the Fish quality: Nutrient content of fishes of North America and North
Europe is higher than the fishes of Asia. Also, fishes of Asia have high oil content
affecting their taste & commercial Value.

Note - But Japan is an exception in Asia .

Factors :
 Meeting of warm Kuroshio and cold Oyashio helps in high planktons growth.
 Sea of Japan has shallow water and high plankton growth.
 Lack of agricultural prospect
 Development of export market
 Indented coastline
 Government Support and Research
 Cultural and Dietary Factors- Seafood
 Well-Developed Fishery Management
 Technological Leadership
Conclusion –
 Recognizing and understanding these factors can inform policymakers and stakeholders in
Asia to address the gaps and promote sustainable development in the commercial fishing
sector.
Q. Give an Account of Electronics Industry in India. Also mention the
steps taken to rejuvenate the sector as a growth Driver?
Introduction
 The electronics industry in India has witnessed significant growth and development in
recent years. It encompasses various sectors, including consumer electronics,
telecommunications, industrial electronics, and electronic components.

Here is an account of the electronics industry in India:

 Market Size and Growth: The Indian electronics industry has experienced robust growth,
driven by factors such as increasing consumer demand, rapid urbanization, rising
disposable incomes, and government initiatives. The market size of the industry has
expanded significantly, with the consumer electronics segment being the largest
contributor.
 Manufacturing and Production: The "Make in India" campaign has encouraged local
manufacturing, leading to increased production capacities.
 As per Economic Survey - India has become the second-largest mobile phone manufacturer globally,
with the production of handsets going up from 6 crore units in FY15 to 29 crore units in FY21.
 Research and Development: The electronics industry in India is increasingly focusing on
research and development (R&D) activities. The government has established centers of
excellence, innovation labs, and technology incubators to promote indigenous R&D in
electronics. Collaborations between industry and academia are being fostered to drive
innovation, develop cutting-edge technologies, and enhance product quality.
 Export Potential: The electronics industry in India has shown promising export potential. The
country has been exporting electronic goods to various regions, including the Middle East, Africa,
Europe, and the United States. The government has implemented schemes like the Export
Promotion Capital Goods (EPCG) scheme and the Merchandise Exports from India Scheme
(MEIS) to boost electronics exports.
 As per Eco Survey 2022-23: Electronic goods were among the top five commodity groups exhibiting
positive export growth in November 2022, with the exports in this segment growing YoY by 55.1 per
cent.

As per Economic Survey 2022-23 - The electronics industry continues to ascend in importance as its
applications become pervasive, particularly in the socio-economic development of a country. Electronics,
supported by continuously improving communication services, will significantly enhance productivity,
efficient service delivery, and social transformation. The domestic electronics industry, as of FY20, is valued
at US$118 billion. India aims to reach US$300 billion worth of electronics manufacturing and US$ 120
billion in exports by FY263 , supported by the vision of a US$ 1 trillion digital economy by 2025.

Issues/Challenges
  Global Competition: India faces competition from countries such as China, Taiwan, and
South Korea, which have well-established electronics manufacturing ecosystems,
economies of scale, and strong research and development capabilities.
 Dependency on Imports: India has been heavily dependent on imports for electronic
components, including semiconductors and display panels. The lack of a strong domestic
manufacturing base for critical components poses challenges in terms of supply chain
resilience, cost competitiveness, and technological advancements.
 Less Upstream Capabilities: Most of the production takes place in final assembly line
units where value addition is only 5 to 15 percent while chip design and production,
production of display etc, which are higher up the value chain, still is absent.
 Competitive market: About 92% of the $180 billion in electronics items used in the nation
are produced by international brands; only 8% of this rapidly expanding market is made
up of Indian electronics products.
 Regulatory Framework: Regulatory challenges include compliance with multiple
regulations, bureaucratic hurdles, and inconsistencies in policies across different states.
 Infrastructure Issues: These include high cost of land acquisition, lack of investment and
a well organised component ecosystem.
 Tariff and Trade : With less favourable conditions in existing Free trade agreements
and highly uncertain tariff structure, export growth has remained docile.
 Environmental Sustainability: The electronics industry is associated with environmental
concerns, including e-waste management and energy consumption. E-waste management
and disposal present significant challenges due to the increasing volume of electronic
waste generated.

Steps Taken
 Production Linked Incentive Scheme : for Large Scale Electronics Manufacturing
provides an incentive of 4% to 6% to eligible companies on net incremental sales (over
base year) involved in mobile phone manufacturing and manufacturing of specified
electronic components..
 Make in India Campaign: The Make in India campaign promotes domestic
manufacturing and positions India as a global manufacturing hub. The campaign provides
a conducive environment for investment, streamlines regulatory processes, and offers
financial incentives.
 The Semicon India Program with an incentive outlay of ~$ 10 Bn was launched with the
vision to develop a sustainable semiconductor and display ecosystem in the country.
  Infrastructure Development: The government is investing in the development of
infrastructure to support the electronics industry. Ex : Electronics Manufacturing Cluster
and Modified EMC 2.0 Scheme: Provides support for creation of world class
infrastructure along with common facilities and amenities, including Ready Built Factory
(RBF) sheds / Plug and Play facilities for attracting major global electronics manufacturers
along with their supply chain to set up units in the country.
 Other Steps : 100 % FDI under automatic route, Electronics development Fund ,
simplified tariff structure etc have also been taken keeping in mind the need to augment
production and export.

Conclusion: With continued efforts and collaboration between the government, industry, and
other stakeholders, the electronics industry in India has the potential to become a global leader,
driving economic growth, job creation, and technological advancement.
Q. Can the strategy of regional-resource based manufacturing help in
promoting employment in India?
 As a measure to counter premature deindustrialisation in India, as per various Economic surveys,
we must focus towards low to medium skilled labour intensive and resource-based manufacturing
activities to generate employment.

Regional Resource Based industry and employment

 Raw material availability: Bamboo Industry can be developed in north east India as India
possesses 30 % of bamboo resources but only 4% share in global market. Manufacturing
of mobile phone covers, bags, baskets, furniture etc can employ more than 20000 people
in Tripura alone.
 Entrepreneurship and Ancillary industries : Additionally, the sector fosters prospects
for entrepreneurship and employment in auxiliary industries and tertiary and
secondary service sectors. For example, if jute industry is streamlined to produce finer
quality jute, it can help develop industries like retail chains, showrooms and open more
opportunities in the transport and logistics sector.
 Harness Local Expertise for marketing : One District One Product scheme of
Government of India is an example where regional products are promoted with a twin
objective of promoting manufacturing investment and create employment for locals.
 Export Orientation: The demand for coir products in international markets can spur the
industries to become more organised and employ larger number of people in coastal
districts. With 80 percent of present labour force in Coir Products comprising women, it
could also boost India’s otherwise dismal female labour force participation rate.
 Skill Development Centres and training institutes: With development of regional
resource based industry and technology based manufacturing, requirement of
skilled manpower increases and can lead to development of training institutes. For
example, Jamshedpur became a centre of technical, managerial and vocational training
after the development of iron and steel industry.

Conclusion:
 Thus, regional resource-based manufacturing can be an important tool to harness demographic
dividend. But it needs to be supported with increased ease of doing business, better logistics and
holistic skill development initiatives.
Q. Why is there a growing concern in the Jute Industry in India. Analyze.
Also highlight the steps taken by the Government to counter the
challenges.
Introduction
 The jute industry in India, once a thriving sector, is currently grappling with a range of challenges
that have raised concerns regarding its sustainability and growth. This answer analyzes the key
issues affecting the jute industry and highlights the steps taken by the Indian government to address
these challenges.

Issues
 Decreasing Demand for Traditional Jute Products: The traditional demand for jute products like
sacks and bags has witnessed a decline due to the emergence of alternative packaging materials. This
shift in consumer preferences has impacted the jute industry's revenue and employment
opportunities.
 Diminishing Jute Industry : Low overall demand for jute in the international market.
 Declining Production: The jute industry in India has witnessed a decline in production due to
factors such as outdated machinery, lack of technological upgradation, and low productivity
levels. This decline has led to a reduced market share and increased competition from other
countries.
o Infrastructural bottlenecks, power, transportation, and capital also pose several
threats to the sustainability of the Jute industry.
 Raw material-Even after substantial increase in area and yield in jute production, India falls short of
requirement which lead to underutilization of installed capacity of jute industry.
Note : Cyclone Amphan : The events of Cyclone Amphan and subsequent rains in major jute
producing States led to lower acreage, which in turn led to lower production and yield compared
to previous years.
 Stiff competition within the jute goods market. Cost of Indian jute products is comparatively
higher. Example: New mills in Bangladesh are producing better quality goods which are
diminishing the competitiveness of Indian mills. Also, Bangladesh mills are competing along with
China with better quality goods.
 Competition from Synthetic Fibers: The advent of synthetic fibers, which offer cost-effective and
versatile alternatives, has posed a significant challenge to the jute industry.
 Procurement Process Issue: These Mills do not acquire their raw material directly from the farmers
because: The farmers are far-off from the mills locations and Mills would have to go to multiple
farmers to acquire the requisite quantity as no single farmer produces enough to fulfill the
requirements of the entire mill. The procurement now flows through middlemen or traders.
 As a standard practice, the middlemen charge mills for their services, which involves procuring jute
from farmers, grading, bailing and then bringing the bales to the mills.
  Inadequate Research and Development: Insufficient R&D support has restricted the industry's
ability to tap into new markets and create value-added jute products

Prospects:
 Increasing Global Demand for Sustainable Materials+ Expansion of Value-Added Jute Products +
Government Initiatives and Support + Export Potential + Employment Generation and Rural
Development + Employment Generation and Rural Development

Steps by the Govt:

 Jute SMART: The Indian government launched the Jute SMART (Sustainable, Multipurpose, and
Eco-friendly Application of Jute) program to promote the use of jute in diversified products. This
initiative aims to enhance the demand for jute by exploring new applications across sectors such as
construction, automotive, geotextiles, and non-woven textiles.
 Mandatory Jute Packaging: The government has made the use of jute packaging mandatory for
certain commodities, including food grains, sugar, and fertilizer. This policy decision aims to
increase the demand for jute products and provide support to jute farmers and manufacturers.
 Financial Support: The government has implemented various financial support schemes, such as
the Jute Technology Mission and the Jute ICARE (Improved Cultivation and Advanced Retting
Exercise) scheme, to provide financial assistance, infrastructure development, and capacity building
to jute farmers and manufacturers.
 International Cooperation: The Indian government has engaged in bilateral and multilateral
cooperation with countries such as Bangladesh, which is also a major jute producer.

Way Forward - There is an urgent need for the domestic jute market to diversify.
 Efforts in R&D to strengthen the jute industry and implement newer technologies, diversified
products, and improved machinery through intensive modernization.
 Innovative ways of bleaching, dyeing, and finished goods processes the jute industry now provides
finished jute products that are softer and have to luster with aesthetic appeal.
 Creating environmental awareness and influencing people to switch to jute products from plastic.

Conclusion:
 With continued efforts, it is expected that these initiatives will help overcome the challenges and
ensure a brighter future for the jute industry in India.

Note :
What makes West Bengal an ideal location?
 Water: Flowing water of Hoogly River, Water is also required for Retting, Washing, dyeing etc.
 Transportation: Hooghly River provides cheap transportation for the industry, Inland waterways
A dense network of road and railways has also helped in flourishing jute industry in Eastern region.
 Raw material
o Ganga Brahmaputra delta grows about 90% of India’s jute production
  Raw jute source regions: Brahmaputra Valley, West Bengal, Tarai and E. Coastal Plains and all
regions around Calcutta.
o New hybrid varieties like JRO – 632, JRO – 753 are being grown, with better outputs.

Market:
 Rich hinterland of Calcutta and industrial development around it provide a ready market for the
jute industry.
 Development of the sugar industry in neighbouring U.P and Bihar also boosted demand for gunny
bags. Govt. Issued an order under jute packaging materials, 1987 under which a mandatory
percentage of packaging of sugar (50%) and food grains (60%) in jute bags also helped the industry.

Historical inertia
 Last but not least, rarely start of the industry by East India Company in this region enjoys the growth
in letter periods.
 The needs of jute bags in industrializing Europe during 19th century gave an impetus to the jute
industry. British enterprise and capital played a great role in initial development and expansion

Dispersion After independence, there has been some limited dispersion of the industry,
are 4 other regions of Jute
 North East India – here the industry has emerged principally due to favourable environmental
conditions.
 North–east plains of Bihar – here rainfall and soil conditions are favourable.
 Tarai regions of UP.
 Eastern Coastal region.
Q. Give a detailed account of distribution of rubber industries around
the world with special emphasis on India. Also highlight the issues faced
by this industry in India .
 The rubber industry plays a crucial role in the global economy, catering to diverse sectors such as
automotive, healthcare, construction, and consumer goods.
The major regions with rubber industries include -
 Southeast Asia - This region is the world's largest producer of natural rubber, with countries like
Thailand, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Malaysia being major producers.
 China - China is one of the largest rubber-producing countries in the world, and the industry is
mainly located in the southern provinces of Hainan, Yunnan, and Guangdong.
 Africa - Countries such as Liberia, Ivory Coast, and Nigeria are major producers of natural rubber
in Africa.
 Latin America - Brazil is the largest producer of natural rubber in the Americas, and the industry is
mainly located in the Amazon region.
 United States - The United States is a major producer of synthetic rubber, with the industry
concentrated in the states of Texas, Louisiana, and Ohio.

The location of rubber industry in India include -

 Kerala - Kerala is the largest producer of natural rubber in India accounting for over 80% of country’s
natural rubber. The first rubber plantations in India were set up in 1895 on the hill slopes of Kerala.
However, rubber cultivation on a commercial scale was introduced in 1902.
 Tamil Nadu - Nilgiri, Madurai, Kanniyakumari, Coimbatore and Salem are the chief rubber
producing districts of Tamil Nadu.
 Karnataka - Chikmagalur and Kodagu are the main producing districts.
 Tripura, Assam, Andaman and Nicobar, Goa etc are some other rubbers producing states where
industries are located.

The rubber industry in India faces several challenges, including -

 Raw Material - India is deficient in both natural rubber and synthetic rubber production so import
of raw materials is necessary to meet the needs of domestic manufacturing. Much higher import
duties on raw materials such as natural and synthetic rubbers than on finished rubber goods have
imp-acted the export competitiveness of the rubber sector in India.
 MSME Sector - Mostly, the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) are engaged in rubber
production segment. Currently, the MSMEs are facing the heat of rising cost of credit. Also, the
falling prices of natural rubber adversely affect the financial health of SMEs.
 Fluctuating prices - The price of rubber is highly volatile and depends on several factors, including
global demand and supply, currency exchange rates, and weather conditions. This makes it
difficult for rubber manufacturers to predict costs and plan production.
  Climate Change and Disease Outbreaks: Rubber cultivation is vulnerable to climate change, which
can disrupt productivity. Note - Additionally, diseases like South American Leaf Blight and
Pestalotiopsis leaf disease pose significant threats to rubber plantations, affecting production.
 Skilled Labour - Trained rubber tappers and rubber machinery operators are not only expensive
but also scarce. They are often reluctant to manually enter smokehouses to load and remove sheets
for they are exposed to harmful fumes and smoke. The operational difficulties faced by estate owners
due to insufficient human resources are increasing by the day.
 Competition from synthetic materials - The rise of synthetic materials, such as synthetic rubber,
has posed a significant challenge to the natural rubber industry. Synthetic materials are often
cheaper and can be manufactured more efficiently, making them more attractive to customers.
 Market Competition: The rubber industry faces fierce competition from countries with low
production costs and high productivity. Indian manufacturers must strive to enhance efficiency,
quality, and value-added production to remain competitive globally.
Steps Taken by the Govt:
 The Indian government has introduced several policies and initiatives to support the growth of the
rubber industry in the country, such as the Rubber Production Incentive Scheme, which provides
financial support to rubber growers. The government has also launched the National Rubber
Policy, aimed at enhancing the productivity, competitiveness, and sustainability of the rubber
industry.

Conclusion
 The rubber industry has a global presence, with significant contributions from Southeast Asia,
Africa, Latin America, and India. India, in particular, has emerged as a major player in natural rubber
cultivation and rubber product manufacturing. However, the industry faces challenges such as price
volatility, climate change impacts, technological limitations, environmental concerns, and intense
market competition. Addressing these challenges through sustainable practices, innovation, and
supportive policies can foster the growth and competitiveness of the rubber industry, both globally
and within India.
Q. Discuss the factors for distribution of the automobile industry in
India. What are the headwinds faced by the Indian automobile industry?
 In 2022, India became fourth largest country in the world by valuation of automotive industry.
Currently India's auto industry is worth of more than US$100 billion and contributes 8% of the
country's total export and accounts for 2.3% of India's GDP.

Note: PIB –
 The automotive industry in India is one of the main pillars of the economy. With strong backward
and forward linkages, it is a key driver of growth.
 India aims to double its auto industry size to Rs. 15 lakh crores by end of year 2024. There has been
an FDI inflow of $33.77 billion in the industry from April 2000 till September 2022 which is around
5.48% of the total FDI inflows in India during the same period.

 Over the next decade, the automotive industry is likely to see some significant transformations at a
global level. Principal transformations being the shift of growth in demand for automobiles from
developed nations to developing nations (mainly BRICS); a dramatic increase in the share of
electronics in automobiles, making them a “computer on wheels and connected to the Internet”; a
relentless pursuit of economies of scale and scope in design and engineering of automobiles and
components, while also pursuing low-cost manufacturing destinations.
Factors responsible for distribution of automobile industry in India include
 Proximity to Raw Materials and Suppliers: Areas close to raw material sources, such as steel plants,
rubber plantations, and electronics manufacturing hubs, offer logistical advantages and cost
savings. Port sites are also found to be favourable because of import and export facilities offered
by such places.
 Market Demand: The distribution of the automobile industry in India is also driven by market
demand. The presence of a large consumer base, growing middle class, and increasing disposable
income have fueled the demand for automobiles across the country. Major cities and urban areas
with higher purchasing power exhibit a higher concentration of automobile manufacturers and
dealerships.
 Market nearness, generally in outskirts of urban areas to reduce transport cost and onsite assembly.
Under the government plan of decentralization of industries, some locations in remote and industrial
backward areas are given priorities.
 Labour availability and cost - Availability of skilled and unskilled labour is another crucial factor
for the distribution of the automobile industry. Regions with a large pool of skilled labour tend to
attract manufacturers.
 Proximity to suppliers - The proximity of automobile manufacturers to their suppliers is also an
essential factor. Regions with a well-developed supply chain for automobile components and
parts tend to attract automobile manufacturers.
 Government Policies and Incentives: Initiatives such as the "Make in India" campaign, tax
incentives, subsidies for electric vehicles, and favourable foreign direct investment (FDI) policies
encourage automobile manufacturers to set up production units and research and development
centers in specific regions.

Some of the headwinds faced by the Indian automobile industry include

 Semiconductors shortage - The semiconductor chips are a crucial vehicle component that regulates
a wide array of functions like navigation, infotainment, and traction control. Consequently, with the
global supply shortage of semiconductors post COVID, India’s passenger vehicle production was
severely affected.
 Rising Input Costs: Fluctuating prices of raw materials, such as steel, aluminium, and petroleum
derivatives, impact the cost of production for automobile manufacturers. Escalating input costs can
reduce profit margins and affect the affordability of vehicles for consumers. For example, as per
SIAM’s data, the copper prices are still about 66% more than a year ago. As a result, they are now
increasing the price of the car models, which in turn is affecting consumer demand.
 Changing Consumer Preferences: Shifting consumer preferences toward shared mobility, electric
vehicles, and connected technologies pose challenges for traditional automobile manufacturers.
Adapting to changing market dynamics and consumer demands necessitates innovation, product
diversification, and the integration of advanced technologies.
  Challenges Of Electrical Vehicles Segment- Though there is a growing demand for EV vehicles in
India, and the EV market is estimated to become a USD 7.09 billion opportunity by 2025, the segment
faces considerable challenges. To name a few, the high cost of batteries like Nickel-metal hydride
(NiMH) and Lithium-Ion (LiON), due to demand-supply gaps, is increasing the overall price of
EVs in India.
 Regulatory challenges: The Indian automotive industry faces regulatory challenges in terms of
compliance with safety, environmental and emission norms. The government has introduced
several regulations, such as BS6 emission norms, which have increased the cost of production.
 Environmental Concerns: Growing environmental concerns and the need for sustainable mobility
pose challenges for the industry. Stricter emission norms, the promotion of electric vehicles, and the
shift toward greener technologies require significant investments in research and development,
infrastructure, and manufacturing capabilities.
Steps by the Govt “:PLI Scheme for Automobile and Auto Components + 100% FDI+ Automotive
mission Plan (2016-2026) + National Electric Mobility Mission\

Overcoming these challenges requires a collaborative effort from the industry, government, and
other stakeholders. Embracing sustainable practices, investing in research and development,
adopting advanced technologies, and adapting to changing market dynamics will help the Indian
automobile industry navigate these headwinds and foster future growth.
Fertlizer Indusrty
 India’s Finance Minister in her budget speech told that the country’s fertiliser subsidy budget for the
fiscal year 2023–24, which is Rs. 175103.17 Crores and 22% less than the previous fiscal year (FY’2022-
23) i.e.Rs. 225222.32 Crores.

However, the fertiliser industry in India has not developed as per expectations,
and there are several reasons for this –
 Dependence on imports - India is heavily dependent on imports for raw materials like phosphoric
acid, ammonia, and potash, which are used to manufacture fertilisers. This makes the industry
vulnerable to fluctuations in international prices and supply chain disruptions.
 Lack of Long Term and Stable Policy - The government of India continues to ignore the difficulties
faced by the fertilizer industry related to fertilizer certifications and proper standards. At present,
the import duty on both imported raw materials and finished products is same, whereas raw
materials should attract lower custom duty than finished products to encourage the production
in India. Also, there is no mandatory certification exists in the market.
 Issue with Price of Fertilisers:
o The high subsidy on urea and Di- Ammonium Phosphate makes them much cheaper
for farmers relative to other fertilisers.
 High cost of handling and management - The liquid fertilizers are soluble in water. This creates
difficulty in storage of liquid fertilizers. In addition, the installation of smart storage system also
requires high cost and capital investment. As a result, high cost of handling and management is the
biggest challenge for the growth of global fertilizer market.
 Lack of diversification - The fertiliser industry in India is dominated by urea, which accounts for
more than 80% of the total fertiliser consumption. There is a lack of diversification in terms of
fertiliser types and manufacturers, which limits the competition and innovation in the industry.
 Excessive and imbalanced use of fertilizers - The amount of food grain produced per kg of fertilizer
applied declined from 13 kg in the 1970s to just 4 kg by 2010. Multi-nutrient deficiencies and
deterioration of soil health, particularly in intensively cultivated areas has also been visible.
 Inefficient Subsidy System:
o The current fertilizer subsidy system in India suffers from inefficiency and lack of
targeting. The subsidies primarily benefit large manufacturers, limiting competition
and hindering innovation and market entry. This monopolistic trend hampers the
industry's sustainability and inhibits its growth potential.
 Subsidy Rationalization:
o The high fertiliser subsidy bill poses a significant burden on the government's
finances. Redirecting subsidy savings towards research, innovation, and the adoption
of sustainable farming practices would enhance the industry's sustainability.
  Environmental Concerns:
o The indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers has resulted in environmental issues such
as water pollution, soil erosion, and greenhouse gas emissions. Over the past few
years, our consumption of N, P, and K has drifted significantly from the optimal 4:2:1
NPK utilisation ratio.
o While DAP has 46% P and 18% N, urea contains 46% N. The resulting nutrient
imbalance owing to their use, disproportionate to other, more expensive fertilisers,
could have implications for soil health, ultimately affecting crop yields.
 Research and Development:
o The fertilizer industry in India lags behind in research and development (R&D)
compared to global counterparts. Insufficient investment in R&D limits innovation and
the development of efficient fertilizer products suitable for Indian soils and crops.
 Awareness and Education:
o Building awareness among farmers about balanced nutrient management, judicious
fertilizer use, and the adverse effects of excessive chemical fertilizers is crucial.
Prospects : Organic and Biofertilizers + Nutrient-specific Fertilizers + Innovative Fertilizer Delivery
Systems + Export Opportunities + Technological Advancements + Government Initiatives and Reforms:
Addressing these challenges requires comprehensive reforms, including subsidy rationalization,
investments in R&D, promotion of sustainable practices, and farmer education. By adopting a
holistic approach, the fertilizer industry can contribute to sustainable agriculture, ensure food
security, and meet the expectations set for its development.
Additional Information:
 Direct Benefit Transfer - Department of Fertilizers (DoF) has implemented Direct Benefit Transfer
(DBT) project for fertilizer subsidy payment with a view to improve fertilizer service delivery to
farmers. Under the fertilizer DBT system, 100% subsidy on various fertilizer grades is released to the
fertilizer companies on the basis of actual sales made by the retailers to the beneficiaries.
 One Nation One Fertilizer - Government of India has decided to implement One Nation One
Fertilizers by introducing Single Brand for Fertilizers and Logo under Fertilizer subsidy scheme. It
would help in increasing the availability basket of fertilizers; takes care of dilemma among farmers
in choosing from plethora of brands available in the markets, reduce the crisscross movement and
further ensure timely supply of fertilizers.
 Assignment
1) What are the factors that impact the development of a word class IT (Information
Technology) Hub in India? How can we make these hubs sustainable?
2) What are the challenges associated with the food processing sector? Discuss its potential
and initiatives taken by the government to tap this potential.
3) Where as the British planters had developed tea gardens all along the Shivalik and
Lesser Himalayas from Assam and Himachal Pradesh, in effect they did not succeed
beyond the Darjeeling Area. Explain
 CHAPTER

WORLD CLIMATE AND

CLIMATE CHANGE

T
he world climate can be studied by related them to the distribution of vegetation
organising information and data on and used these values for classifying the
climate and synthesising them in climates. It is an empirical classification based
smaller units for easy understanding, on mean annual and mean monthly
description and analysis. Three broad temperature and precipitation data. He
approaches have been adopted for classifying introduced the use of capital and small letters
climate. They are empirical, genetic and to designate climatic groups and types.
applied. Empirical classification is based on Although developed in 1918 and modified over
observed data, particularly on temperature a period of time, Koeppen’s scheme is still
and precipitation. Genetic classification popular and in use.
attempts to organise climates according to their Koeppen recognised five major climatic
causes. Applied classification is for specific groups, four of them are based on temperature
purpose. and one on precipitation. Table 11.1 lists the
climatic groups and their characteristics
K OEPPE N ’ S S CHEME OF C LASSIFICATION according to Koeppen. The capital letters : A,C,
OF CLIMATE
D and E delineate humid climates and B dry
climates.
The most widely used classification of climate The climatic groups are subdivided into
is the empirical climate classification scheme types, designated by small letters, based on
developed by V. Koeppen. Koeppen identified seasonality of precipitation and temperature
a close relationship between the distribution characteristics. The seasons of dryness are
of vegetation and climate. He selected certain indicated by the small letters : f, m, w and s,
values of temperature and precipitation and where f corresponds to no dry season,
Table 11.1 : Climatic Groups According to Koeppen

Group Characteristics

A - Tropical Average temperature of the coldest month is 18° C or higher

B - Dry Climates Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation

C - Warm Temperate The average temperature of the coldest month of the (Mid-latitude) climates
years is higher than minus 3°C but below 18°C

D - Cold Snow Forest Climates The average temperature of the coldest month is minus 3° C or below

E - Cold Climates Average temperature for all months is below 10° C

H - High Land Cold due to elevation

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92 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

m - monsoon climate, w- winter dry season and islands of East Indies. Significant amount of
s - summer dry season. The small letters a, b, rainfall occurs in every month of the year as
c and d refer to the degree of severity of thunder showers in the afternoon. The
temperature. The B- Dry Climates are temperature is uniformly high and the annual
subdivided using the capital letters S for steppe range of temperature is negligible. The
or semi-arid and W for deserts. The climatic maximum temperature on any day is around
30°C while the minimum temperature is
types are listed in Table 11.2. The distribution
around 20°C. Tropical evergreen forests with
of climatic groups and types is shown in
dense canopy cover and large biodiversity are
Table 11.1.
found in this climate.
Table 11.2 : Climatic Types According to Koeppen

Group Type Letter Code Characteristics

Tropical wet Af No dry season
A-Tropical Humid
Climate Tropical monsoon Am Monsoonal, short dry season
Tropical wet and dry Aw Winter dry season
Subtropical steppe BSh Low-latitude semi arid or dry
Subtropical desert BWh Low-latitude arid or dry
B-Dry Climate
Mid-latitude steppe BSk Mid-latitude semi arid or dry
Mid-latitude desert BWk Mid-latitude arid or dry
Humid subtropical Cfa No dry season, warm summer
C-Warm
temperate (Mid- Mediterranean Cs Dry hot summer
latitude) Climates
Marine west coast Cfb No dry season, warm and cool summer

D-Cold Snow- Humid continental Df No dry season, severe winter

forest Climates Subarctic Dw Winter dry and very severe
Tundra ET No true summer
E-Cold Climates
Polar ice cap EF Perennial ice

H-Highland Highland H Highland with snow cover

Group A : Tropical Humid Climates Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am)

Tropical humid climates exist between Tropic Tropical monsoon climate (Am) is found over
of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. The sun the Indian sub-continent, North Eastern part
being overhead throughout the year and the of South America and Northern Australia.
presence of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone Heavy rainfall occurs mostly in summer. Winter
(ITCZ) make the climate hot and humid. is dry. The detailed climatic account of this
Annual range of temperature is very low and climatic type is given in the book on India:
annual rainfall is high. The tropical group is Physical Environment.
divided into three types, namely (i) Af- Tropical
wet climate; (ii) Am - Tropical monsoon climate; Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw)
(iii) Aw- Tropical wet and dry climate.
Tropical wet and dry climate occurs north and
south of Af type climate regions. It borders with
Tropical Wet Climate (Af)
dry climate on the western part of the continent
Tropical wet climate is found near the equator. and Cf or Cw on the eastern part. Extensive
The major areas are the Amazon Basin in South Aw climate is found to the north and south of
America, western equatorial Africa and the the Amazon forest in Brazil and adjoining parts

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WORLD CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE 93

of Bolivia and Paraguay in South America, often causing famine. Rain occurs in short
Sudan and south of Central Africa. The annual intense thundershowers in deserts and is
rainfall in this climate is considerably less than ineffective in building soil moisture. Fog is
that in Af and Am climate types and is variable common in coastal deserts bordering cold
also. The wet season is shorter and the dry currents. Maximum temperature in the summer
season is longer with the drought being more is very high. The highest shade temperature of
severe. Temperature is high throughout the 58° C was recorded at Al Aziziyah, Libya on
year and diurnal ranges of temperature are the 13 September 1922. The annual and diurnal
greatest in the dry season. Deciduous forest and ranges of temperature are also high.
tree-shredded grasslands occur in this climate.
Warm Temperate (Mid-Latitude) Climates-C
Dry Climates : B
Warm temperate (mid-latitude) climates extend
Dry climates are characterised by very low from 30° - 50° of latitude mainly on the eastern
rainfall that is not adequate for the growth of and western margins of continents. These
plants. These climates cover a very large area climates generally have warm summers with
of the planet extending over large latitudes from mild winters. They are grouped into four types:
15° - 60° north and south of the equator. At (i) Humid subtropical, i.e. dry in winter and
low latitudes, from 15° - 30°, they occur in the hot in summer (Cwa); (ii) Mediterranean (Cs);
area of subtropical high where subsidence and (iii) Humid subtropical, i.e. no dry season and
inversion of temperature do not produce mild winter (Cfa); (iv) Marine west coast climate
rainfall. On the western margin of the (Cfb).
continents, adjoining the cold current,
particularly over the west coast of South Humid Subtropical Climate (Cwa)
America, they extend more equatorwards and
Humid subtropical climate occurs poleward of
occur on the coast land. In middle latitudes,
Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn, mainly in
from 35° - 60° north and south of equator, they
North Indian plains and South China interior
are confined to the interior of continents where
plains. The climate is similar to Aw climate
maritime-humid winds do not reach and to
except that the temperature in winter is warm.
areas often surrounded by mountains.
Dry climates are divided into steppe or Mediterranean Climate (Cs)
semi-arid climate (BS) and desert climate (BW).
They are further subdivided as subtropical As the name suggests, Mediterranean climate
steppe (BSh) and subtropical desert (BWh) at occurs around Mediterranean sea, along the
latitudes from 15° - 35° and mid-latitude west coast of continents in subtropical latitudes
steppe (BSk) and mid-latitude desert (BWk) at between 30° - 40° latitudes e.g. — Central
latitudes between 35° - 60°. California, Central Chile, along the coast in
south eastern and south western Australia.
Subtropical Steppe (BSh) and Subtropical These areas come under the influence of sub
Desert (BWh) Climates tropical high in summer and westerly wind in
winter. Hence, the climate is characterised by
Subtropical steppe (BSh) and subtropical
hot, dry summer and mild, rainy winter. Monthly
desert (BWh) have common precipitation and
average temperature in summer is around
temperature characteristics. Located in the
25° C and in winter below 10°C. The annual
transition zone between humid and dry
precipitation ranges between 35 - 90 cm.
climates, subtropical steppe receives slightly
more rainfall than the desert, adequate enough Humid Subtropical (Cfa) Climate
for the growth of sparse grasslands. The rainfall
in both the climates is highly variable. The Humid subtropical climate lies on the eastern
variability in the rainfall affects the life in the parts of the continent in subtropical latitudes.
steppe much more than in the desert, more In this region the air masses are generally

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94 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

unstable and cause rainfall throughout the Cold Climate with Dry Winters (Dw)
year. They occur in eastern United States of
Cold climate with dry winter occurs mainly
America, southern and eastern China,
over Northeastern Asia. The development of
southern Japan, northeastern Argentina,
pronounced winter anti cyclone and its
coastal south Africa and eastern coast of
weakening in summer sets in monsoon like
Australia. The annual averages of precipitation
reversal of wind in this region. Poleward
vary from 75-150 cm. Thunderstorms in
summer temperatures are lower and winter
summer and frontal precipitation in winter are
temperatures are extremely low with many
common. Mean monthly temperature in
locations experiencing below freezing point
summer is around 27°C, and in winter it varies
temperatures for up to seven months in a year.
from 5°-12° C. The daily range of temperature
Precipitation occurs in summer. The annual
is small.
precipitation is low from 12-15 cm.

Marine West Coast Climate (Cfb) Polar Climates (E)

Marine west coast climate is located poleward Polar climates exist poleward beyond 70°
from the Mediterranean climate on the west latitude. Polar climates consist of two types:
coast of the continents. The main areas are: (i) Tundra (ET); (ii) Ice Cap (EF).
Northwestern Europe, west coast of North
America, north of California, southern Chile, Tundra Climate (ET)
southeastern Australia and New Zealand. Due The tundra climate (ET) is so called after the
to marine influence, the temperature is types of vegetation, like low growing mosses,
moderate and in winter, it is warmer than for lichens and flowering plants. This is the region
its latitude. The mean temperature in summer of permafrost where the sub soil is permanently
months ranges from 15°-20°C and in winter frozen. The short growing season and water
4°-10°C. The annual and daily ranges of logging support only low growing plants.
temperature are small. Precipitation occurs During summer, the tundra regions have very
throughout the year. Precipitation varies long duration of day light.
greatly from 50-250cm.
Ice Cap Climate (EF)
Cold Snow Forest Climates (D)
The ice cap climate (EF) occurs over interior
Cold snow forest climates occur in the large Greenland and Antartica. Even in summer, the
continental area in the northern hemisphere temperature is below freezing point. This area
between 40°-70° north latitudes in Europe, receives very little precipitation. The snow and
Asia and North America. Cold snow forest ice get accumulated and the mounting pressure
climates are divided into two types: (i) Df- cold causes the deformation of the ice sheets and
climate with humid winter; (ii) Dw- cold climate they break. They move as icebergs that float in
with dry winter. The severity of winter is more the Arctic and Antarctic waters. Plateau Station
pronounced in higher latitudes. , Antarctica ,79°S, portray this climate.

Cold Climate with Humid Winters (Df) Highland Climates (H)

Cold climate with humid winter occurs Highland climates are governed by topography.
poleward of marine west coast climate and mid In high mountains, large changes in mean
latitude steppe. The winters are cold and temperature occur over short distances.
snowy. The frost free season is short. The Precipitation types and intensity also vary
annual ranges of temperature are large. The spatially across high lands. There is vertical
weather changes are abrupt and short. zonation of layering of climatic types with
Poleward, the winters are more severe. elevation in the mountain environment.

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WORLD CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE 95

CLIMATE CHANGE crop failures, of floods and migration of people

tell about the effects of changing climate. A
The earlier chapters on climate summarised
number of times Europe witnessed warm, wet,
our understanding of climate as it prevails now.
cold and dry periods, the significant episodes
The type of climate we experience now might
were the warm and dry conditions in the tenth
be prevailing over the last 10,000 years with
and eleventh centuries, when the Vikings
minor and occasionally wide fluctuations. The
settled in Greenland. Europe witnessed “Little
planet earth has witnessed many variations in
Ice Age” from 1550 to about 1850. From about
climate since the beginning. Geological records
1885-1940 world temperature showed an
show alteration of glacial and inter-glacial
upward trend. After 1940, the rate of increase
periods. The geomorphological features,
in temperature slowed down.
especially in high altitudes and high latitudes,
exhibit traces of advances and retreats of Causes of Climate Change
glaciers. The sediment deposits in glacial lakes
also reveal the occurrence of warm and cold The causes for climate change are many. They
periods. The rings in the trees provide clues can be grouped into astronomical and
about wet and dry periods. Historical records terrestrial causes. The astronomical causes are
describe the vagaries in climate. All these the changes in solar output associated with
evidences indicate that change in climate is a sunspot activities. Sunspots are dark and
natural and continuous process. cooler patches on the sun which increase and
India also witnessed alternate wet and dry decrease in a cyclical manner. According to
periods. Archaeological findings show that the some meteorologists, when the number of
Rajasthan desert experienced wet and cool sunspots increase, cooler and wetter weather
climate around 8,000 B.C. The period 3,000- and greater storminess occur. A decrease in
1,700 B.C. had higher rainfall. From about sunspot numbers is associated with warm and
2,000-1,700 B.C., this region was the centre drier conditions. Yet, these findings are not
of the Harappan civilisation. Dry conditions statistically significant.
accentuated since then. An another astronomical theory is
In the geological past, the earth was warm Millankovitch oscillations, which infer cycles
some 500-300 million years ago, through the in the variations in the earth’s orbital
Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian periods. characteristics around the sun, the wobbling
During the Pleistocene epoch, glacial and of the earth and the changes in the earth’s axial
inter-glacial periods occurred, the last major tilt. All these alter the amount of insolation
peak glacial period was about 18,000 years received from the sun, which in turn, might
ago. The present inter-glacial period started have a bearing on the climate.
10,000 years ago. Volcanism is considered as another cause
for climate change. Volcanic eruption throws
Climate in the recent past up lots of aerosols into the atmosphere. These
Variability in climate occurs all the time. The aerosols remain in the atmosphere for a
nineties decade of the last century witnessed considerable period of time reducing the sun’s
extreme weather events. The 1990s recorded radiation reaching the Earth’s surface. After the
the warmest temperature of the century and recent Pinatoba and El Cion volcanic
some of the worst floods around the world. The eruptions, the average temperature of the earth
worst devastating drought in the Sahel region, fell to some extent for some years.
south of the Sahara desert, from 1967-1977 The most important anthropogenic effect
is one such variability. During the 1930s, on the climate is the increasing trend in the
severe drought occurred in southwestern Great concentration of greenhouse gases in the
Plains of the United States, described as the atmosphere which is likely to cause global
dust bowl. Historical records of crop yield or warming.

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96 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Global Warming it will take for earth’s atmospheric system to

recover from any change brought about by the
Due to the presence of greenhouse gases, the
latter.
atmosphere is behaving like a greenhouse. The
The largest concentration of GHGs in the
atmosphere also transmits the incoming solar
atmosphere is carbon dioxide. The emission
radiation but absorbs the vast majority of long
of CO 2 comes mainly from fossil fuel
wave radiation emitted upwards by the earth’s
combustion (oil, gas and coal). Forests and
surface. The gases that absorb long wave
oceans are the sinks for the carbon dioxide.
radiation are called greenhouse gases. The
Forests use CO 2 in their growth. So,
processes that warm the atmosphere are often
deforestation due to changes in land use, also
collectively referred to as the greenhouse effect.
increases the concentration of Co2. The time
taken for atmospheric CO2 to adjust to changes
The term greenhouse is derived from the
analogy to a greenhouse used in cold in sources to sinks is 20-50 years. It is rising
areas for preserving heat. A greenhouse at about 0.5 per cent annually. Doubling of
is made up of glass. The glass which is concentration of CO2 over pre-industrial level
transparent to incoming short wave solar is used as an index for estimating the changes
radiation is opaque to outgoing long wave in climate in climatic models.
radiation. The glass, therefore, allows in Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are products
more radiation and prevents the long of human activity. Ozone occurs in the
wave radiation going outside the glass stratosphere where ultra-violet rays convert
house, causing the temperature inside oxygen into ozone. Thus, ultra violet rays do
the glasshouse structure warmer than
not reach the earth’s surface. The CFCs which
outside. When you enter a car or a bus,
during summers, where windows are
drift into the stratosphere destroy the ozone.
closed, you feel more heat than outside. Large depletion of ozone occurs over Antarctica.
Likewise during winter the vehicles with The depletion of ozone concentration in the
closed doors and windows remain warmer stratosphere is called the ozone hole. This
than the temperature outside. This is allows the ultra violet rays to pass through the
another example of the greenhouse effect. troposphere.
International efforts have been initiated for
Greenhouse Gases(GHGs) reducing the emission of GHGs into the
atmosphere. The most important one is the
The primary GHGs of concern today are carbon Kyoto protocol proclaimed in 1997. This
dioxide (CO2), Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), protocol went into effect in 2005, ratified by
methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and ozone 141 nations. Kyoto protocol bounds the 35
(O3). Some other gases such as nitric oxide (NO) industrialised countries to reduce their
and carbon monoxide (CO) easily react with emissions by the year 2012 to 5 per cent less
GHGs and affect their concentration in the than the levels prevalent in the year 1990.
atmosphere. The increasing trend in the concentration
The effectiveness of any given GHG of GHGs in the atmosphere may, in the long
molecule will depend on the magnitude of the run, warm up the earth. Once the global
increase in its concentration, its life time in the warming sets in, it will be difficult to reverse it.
atmosphere and the wavelength of radiation The effect of global warming may not be
that it absorbs. The chlorofluorocarbons uniform everywhere. Nevertheless, the adverse
(CFCs) are highly effective. Ozone which effect due to global warming will adversely affect
absorbs ultra violet radiation in the the life supporting system. Rise in the sea level
stratosphere is very effective in absorbing due to melting of glaciers and ice-caps and
terrestrial radiation when it is present in the thermal expansion of the sea may inundate
lower troposphere. Another important point to large parts of the coastal area and islands,
be noted is that the more time the GHG leading to social problems. This is another
molecule remains in the atmosphere, the longer cause for serious concern for the world

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WORLD CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE 97

community. Efforts have already been initiated warming of the 20th century was during the
to control the emission of GHGs and to arrest two periods, 1901-44 and 1977-99. Over each
the trend towards global warming. Let us hope of these two periods, global temperatures rose
the world community responds to this challenge by about 0.4oC. In between, there was a slight
and adopts a lifestyle that leaves behind a livable cooling, which was more marked in the
world for the generations to come. Northern Hemisphere.
One of the major concerns of the world The globally averaged annual mean
today is global warming. Let us look at how temperature at the end of the 20th century was
much the planet has warmed up from the about 0.6oC above that recorded at the end of
temperature records. the 19th century. The seven warmest years
The annual average near -surface air during the 1856-2000 were recorded in the
temperature of the world is approximately 14oC. last decade. The year 1998 was the warmest
An increasing trend in temperature was year, probably not only for the 20th century
discernible in the 20th century. The greatest but also for the whole millennium.

Write an explanatory note

on “global warming”.

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98 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

EXERCISES

1. Multiple choice questions.

(i) Which one of the following is suitable for Koeppen’s “A” type of climate?
(a) High rainfall in all the months
(b) Mean monthly temperature of the coldest month more than freezing
point
(c) Mean monthly temperature of all the months more than 18o C
(d) Average temperature for all the months below 10° C
(ii) Koeppen’s system of classification of climates can be termed as :
(a) Applied (b) Systematic (c) Genetic (d) Empirical
(iii) Most of the Indian Peninsula will be grouped according to Koeppen’s system
under:
(a) “Af” (b) “BSh” (c) “Cfb” (d) “Am”
(iv) Which one of the following years is supposed to have recorded the warmest
temperature the world over?
(a) 1990 (b) 1998 (c) 1885 (d) 1950
(v) Which one of the following groups of four climates represents humid
conditions?
(a) A—B—C—E
(b) A—C—D—E
(c) B—C—D—E
(d) A—C—D—F
2. Answer the following questions in about 30 words.
(i) Which two climatic variables are used by Koeppen for classification of the
climate?
(ii) How is the “genetic” system of classification different from the “empirical
one”?
(iii) Which types of climates have very low range of temperature?
(iv) What type of climatic conditions would prevail if the sun spots increase?
3. Answer the following questions in about 150 words.
(i) Make a comparison of the climatic conditions between the “A” and “B”
types of climate.
(ii) What type of vegetation would you find in the “C” and “A” type(s) of climate?
(iii) What do you understand by the term “Greenhouse Gases”? Make a list of
greenhouse gases.

Project Work
Collect information about Kyoto declaration related to global climate changes.

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