229 (2023) 212060

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Geoenergy Science and Engineering

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/geoenergy-science-and-engineering

Petroleum system analysis and thermal evolution of the deepwater NW

Borneo fold-thrust belt
Kazuhiro Ogawa a, *, Stefan Back a, b, Ralf Littke c
a
Geological Institute, RWTH Aachen University, Wüllnerstr. 2, 52062, Aachen, Germany
b
Tectonics and Geodynamics, RWTH Aachen University, Lochnerstr. 4-20, 52056, Aachen, Germany
c
Institute for Geology and Geochemistry of Petroleum and Coal, RWTH Aachen University, Lochnerstr. 4-20, 52056, Aachen, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The generation of hydrocarbons in source rocks can lead to overpressure, which can support development of
NW Borneo detachments and the deformation of sedimentary rocks. In turn, the deformation of rock units by e.g., large-scale
Deepwater overthrusting can lead to tectonic-driven burial. Tectonic-driven burial can generate overpressure, which in turn
Fold-thrust belt
can influence the petroleum system. In fold-thrust belts, an integrated understanding of both, the tectonic and the
Basin modeling
Petroleum system
petroleum systems is important for understanding the potentially complex interaction of faulting, folding and
fluid geochemistry. This study combines structural restoration and basin-modeling techniques to provide a
comprehensive view of the fold-thrust system offshore northwest Borneo.
In the deepwater region offshore northwest Borneo a major fold-thrust belt is present. The thrust belt is
characterized by a mix of gravity-driven folding and faulting in a southwestern domain, and deep-seated crustal
deformation in a northeastern domain. Oil and gas preferentially accumulated in thrust-top anticlines. The NW
Borneo fold-thrust belt has a low taper angle; likely related to fluid overpressure along the basal detachment. The
basin models presented in this study are based on an integration of regional 3D seismic-reflection interpretation,
borehole analysis and 2D kinematic restoration. 2D petroleum systems modeling shows oil and gas generation
and expulsion from Middle Miocene coaly source rocks since the Late Miocene, migration of the hydrocarbons
through carrier beds and faults, and the accumulation of oil and gas in thrust-hangingwall anticlines. Vertical gas
leaks modeled are comparable with gas clouds observed on 3D seismic-reflection data. The risk of biodegradation
was estimated for reservoirs shallower than 1000–1500 m, and their burial is influenced by uplift due to
thrusting. Combined tectonic and thermal modeling of the fold-thrust belt indicates the initiation of shortening at
the time when the maturation of the source rock at the basal detachment was within the oil window. The timing
of the maximum shortening rate, however, exhibits regional variations across the fold-thrust belt. In the gravity-
driven fold thrust system in the southwest, the primary control on the peak of shortening is the maturation of the
source rock at basal detachment level (gas window). In contrast, the peak of shortening in the northeast with the
deep-seated crustal-driven system is interpreted as being primarily controled by the intensity and timing of the
external stress.

1. Introduction et al., 2010; Gusterhuber et al., 2013; Neumaier et al., 2014, 2019;
Burgreen-Chan et al., 2016; Balestra et al., 2019a, 2019b; Cedeño et al.,
Basin and petroleum system modeling computes dynamic geological 2019; Carvajal-Arenas et al., 2020). Modeling can identify major kitchen
processes in sedimentary basins including the deposition of sediment, areas, the timing of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion, migration
thermal and pressure development, and petroleum generation, migra­ pathways, accumulation areas, hydrocarbon types and biodegradation
tion and accumulation over geological time spans (Hantschel and effects (Al-Hajeri et al., 2009; Baur et al., 2012). Therefore, basin
Kauerauf, 2009). Even in complex tectonic settings (e.g., fold-thrust modeling is a useful approach for evaluating petroleum systems and
belts, salt provinces), basin modeling can be performed by choosing their key risks (Al-Hajeri et al., 2009; Dembicki, 2017).
an integrated approach combined with structural restoration (Baur The Northwest (NW) Borneo margin in the South China Sea is one of

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Ogawa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoen.2023.212060
Received 29 September 2022; Received in revised form 5 April 2023; Accepted 2 May 2023
Available online 27 June 2023
2949-8910/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

the major oil and gas producing regions of Southeast Asia (Fig. 1; PET­ maturity) down to 4174 m depth and kinematic restorations, petroleum-
RONAS, 1999; Rice-Oxley and Abu-Bakar, 2022). Particularly in the system models were constructed. The results of the basin modeling were
deepwater area offshore NW Borneo, numerous hydrocarbon accumu­ used to discuss the characteristics of the petroleum systems within the
lations were identified, and commercial hydrocarbon discoveries have NW Borneo fold-thrust belt. The relationship between hydrocarbon
been reported from the Kikeh, Gumusut and Kebabangan fields (Ingram generation and fold-thrust development was particularly studied. The
et al., 2004; Algar, 2012; Madon et al., 2015; Jones et al., 2016; results presented are important for understanding and modeling thermal
Rice-Oxley and Abu-Bakar, 2022). These discoveries were made mainly evolution and petroleum systems in fold-thrust systems in general. The
in deepwater fold-thrust structures related to compressional tectonics; methodology applied can be readily transferred to any deepwater fold-
and document the existence of active petroleum systems in the region thrust system worldwide.
(Ingram et al., 2004; Algar, 2012). However, it remains today chal­
lenging to predict hydrocarbon accumulations and hydrocarbon types in 2. Geology
the petroleum system offshore NW Borneo due to the complex structural
architecture of the region, lacking source-rock information (Jong et al., NW Borneo is characterized by a complex tectonic history associated
2014; Madon et al., 2015), and a general difficulty of mapping complex with oceanic subduction and collision. The NW Borneo margin was
turbidite reservoirs (Grant, 2003, 2004204; Ingram et al., 2004; tectonically active from the Eocene to the Middle Miocene due to
Rice-Oxley and Abu-Bakar, 2022). oceanic subduction of the proto–South China Sea under Borneo
High fluid pressure generated during source rock maturation has (Hutchison, 1996). Subduction is interpreted to have ceased by the
been previously proposed to promote the development of decollements, Middle Miocene because of thinned continental crust entering and
which in turn affects deformation timing and deformation style of the blocking the NW Borneo subduction zone (Levell, 1987; Hall, 2002;
overlying sedimentary succession (Morley, 1992; Parnell et al., 1998; Morley and Back, 2008; Morley, 2016); however, Cullen (2010) ques­
Cobbold et al., 2004, 2009; Deville and Sassi, 2006; Zanella et al., 2014; tioned the extent of subduction and Cullen (2014) raised further oppo­
Rocha and Cristallini, 2015). Therefore, an interactive validation of sition to the interpretation of extensive subduction of the proto-South
thermal maturity and deformation kinematics may reduce the uncer­ China Sea. Continental collision following the crustal entry provided
tainty in the prediction of hydrocarbon generation and accumulation in continuous compression to the NW Borneo margin, which probably
the absence of the direct source rock data (Moretti et al., 1996; Deville ended in the Pliocene (Sapin et al., 2013). Yet, there is clear evidence for
and Sassi, 2006; Restrepo-Pace, 2020). Pliocene to sub-recent tectonic inversion offshore NW Borneo (e.g.,
The aim of this study is to strengthen the understanding of the pe­ Morley et al., 2003; Hesse et al., 2010a, 2010b); most of the large hy­
troleum system within fold-thrust systems offshore Borneo by applica­ drocarbon fields in Brunei and various outcrops in Miri, Malaysia, are
tion of an integrated approach of kinematic restoration and basin essentially inversion features (Morley et al., 2003, 2008). Young tec­
modeling. 3D seismic-reflection interpretation across 8700 km2 of the tonic inversion of the inner shelf could be due to remaining lithospheric
deepwater NW Borneo fold-thrust belt served as input for kinematic stresses, or a deeper seated gravity system (see Hall, 2013). Today the
restoration and observations of subsurface fluid systems, providing outer shelf however comprises several active extensional faults updip of
supporting information on the basin paleogeometry. On the basis of active folds and thrusts on the slope (Figs. 1 and 2), suggesting inactive
borehole data (i.e., well stratigraphy, lithology, temperature, thermal inner-shelf inversion contemporaneous with gravity-driven overburden

Fig. 1. (A) Location map of the study area. (B) Zoomed view of the study area with structural elements. Fault map is modified from Cullen (2010) and Totake et al.
(2018a). The outline of a high velocity body is after Franke et al. (2008). The outline of the deepwater fold-thrust belt is modified after Morley et al. (2011). (C)
Simplified stratigraphic column and key regional events on the NW Borneo margin (chronography after Cullen, 2010; Wu et al., 2020; lithostratigraphy after Jong
et al., 2016; regional events after Cullen, 2010, Hazebroek and Tan, 1993, Cullen et al., 2012).

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K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

Fig. 2. Representative seismic-reflection section in dip direction. (A) Interpreted horizons, (B) Chaos volume attribute, (C) Interval velocity. The section location is
shown in Fig. 1. Note that section can be balanced above PG-1. Both PG-1 and PG-2 can be interpreted as secondary detachments as there is folding below PG-1 and
the SE anticline shows a thrust cutting below PG-1.

tectonics on the outer shelf and slope. 3.1. Trap

The sedimentary basin offshore NW Borneo margin is a foreland
basin (Milsom et al., 1997; Cullen, 2010). Active uplift and erosion of the Numerous deformed anticlines associated with thrust faults charac­
hinterland since the Middle Miocene intensified the sediment supply to terize the deepwater area offshore NW Borneo (Figs. 2 and 3; e.g., Hinz
the basin, with a more than 10-km thick sedimentary succession of et al., 1989; Hazebroek and Tan, 1993; Hesse et al., 2009, 2010a, 2010b;
deposited (Hazebroek and Tan, 1993; Grant, 2004; Morley and Back, Cullen, 2010; Wu et al., 2020). These anticlines are commonly above
2008). In the northeastern part of Sabah there is an Early to Middle seaward-verging thrusts forming NE-SW oriented hangingwall folds
Miocene wedge (high-velocity body of Fig. 1; first described by Hinz with mobile shales at the base (Van Rensbergen and Morley, 2003; Hesse
et al., 1989; recently re-interpreted and named North Sabah-Pagasa et al., 2009, 2010a, 2010b; Cullen, 2010; Morley et al., 2011). Wu et al.
Wedge by Morley et al., 2023) that is probably crustal-stress related. (2020), however, indicated that mobile shales are not required to
This wedge has quite an abrupt lateral termination to the SW where late explain the structural deformation in the study area. The present-day
N–S trending folds and thrusts occur (Fig. 1). In Morley et al. (2023) the seafloor morphology allows to detect subrecent thrust anticlines (Fig. 4).
development of this wedge is interpreted in detail, with an Early-Middle The compressional force for the deformation offshore NW Borneo is
Miocene main development of the wedge by deep-seated contraction in the SW part of the fold-thrust belt predominantly gravity-driven, but
tectonics, superseded since the late Miocene by late-episodic gravity-­ becomes tectonic-driven toward the northeast (Hesse et al., 2009;
driven folding by updip mini-basin loading. Cullen, 2010; Sapin et al., 2013; Ogawa and Back, 2022a). With changes
The study area is located in the proximal part of the deepwater NW in the deformation driving force, following local differences in the
Borneo fold-thrust belt (Fig. 1B). In this study we subdivide it into two deformation styles can be observed: symmetric anticlines with imbri­
structural domains, the SW domain and the NE domain. The SW domain cated thrusts are typical in the SW domain, whereas in the NE domain
has hangingwall anticlines that trend NE-SW parallel to the continental anticlines are more asymmetric and complex, with backthrusts and
slope, and the thrust development is generally basin-ward (in-sequence). narrower fold spacing with 4–9 km (Hinz et al., 1989; Tan and Lamy,
The NE domain is characterized by thrust-top-anticlines with NNE-SSW 1990; Franke et al., 2008; Cullen, 2010; Madon et al., 2015; Ogawa and
to N–S strike; several thrusts in this domain developed out-of-sequence. Back, 2022a). Compressional deformation initiated in the Late Miocene
This variation in the deformation sequence between the SW and NE and propagated in a northwesterly (seaward) direction (Grant, 2004;
domains is attributed to differential stress conditions related to regional Khamis et al., 2018a, 2018b; Ogawa and Back, 2022a, 2022b).
differences in the timing and interplay between deep-seated crustal Gravity-driven deformation is still ongoing near the wedge front (King
deformation (dominant in the NE domain) and shallow, gravity-driven et al., 2010; Sapin et al., 2013).
overburden tectonics (dominant in the SW domain; e.g., Ogawa and
Back, 2022a). In the NE domain, the deep-seated North Sabah-Pagasa 3.2. Reservoir
Wedge (Morley et al., 2023) probably played an important role in
influencing Late Miocene to recent tectonic deformation. Multiple turbidite sandstones developed during the Middle to Late
Miocene and constitute the main reservoirs for the petroleum system
3. Overview of the petroleum system (Grant, 2003, 2004; Ingram et al., 2004; Lambiase and Cullen, 2013;
Jong et al., 2016). Clastic supply was originally sourced from several
To outline the petroleum system in the study area (Fig. 1C), its onshore rivers, deposited in a shallow marine environment, then
characteristics are described from the perspective of the essential in­ reworked and transported into deepwater areas. The turbidite sand­
gredients that compose petroleum system, namely trap, reservoir, seal stones were deposited both before and during tectonic activity, and their
and charge (de Jager, 2020). distribution changed under the influence of folding (Grant, 2004; Jong
et al., 2016; Khamis et al., 2018a, 2018b; Ogawa and Back, 2022b).
Turbidites that formed before folding and thrusting were deposited on
the slopes and the foot of slope spreading out unaffected of seafloor

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K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

Fig. 3. Representative along-strike seismic-reflection section. (A) Interpreted horizons, (B) Chaos volume attribute. The section location is shown in Fig. 1. Dashed
lines represent outline of the wipeout blanking zones.

deformation. As compressional deformation started in Miocene time, Grant, 2020). For example, Grant (2020) concluded that uplift and
transport flow paths were affected by dynamic seafloor topography, and erosion associated with thrust activity reduced the seal capacity
depocenters became more confined (Grant, 2003; Jong et al., 2016; covering a hydrocarbon trap. Seal failures after hydrocarbon accumu­
Khamis et al., 2018a, 2018b). lation result in a reduction of the column length and ultimately
The turbidite sandstones offshore NW Borneo have favorable reser­ dispersion of trapped hydrocarbons (Ingram et al., 2004).
voir qualities for commercial production with porosities of approxi­
mately 30% and permeabilities up to several thousand mD (Lambiase
3.4. Charge
and Cullen, 2013; Jones et al., 2016; Ghaffar et al., 2018). Due to
regionally shallow burial (typically shallower than 1700 m burial depth)
In the deepwater NW Borneo fold-thrust belt source rocks have not
and low temperatures in the reservoirs (<100 ◦ C), the influence of
yet been drilled, and therefore the source rock properties are poorly
mechanical compaction (Dasgupta and Mukherjee, 2020) and mineral
understood (Jong et al., 2014). However, mud volcanoes and pockmarks
diagenesis is limited (Ghaffar et al., 2018).
accompanied by hydrocarbons are broadly observed at the seafloor
(Zielinski et al., 2007; Warren et al., 2010; Jong et al., 2014), implying
3.3. Seal that mature or overmature source rocks are widespread.
Possible stratigraphic source rock intervals are not well defined
In the study area, Middle Miocene to Recent hemipelagic and pelagic (Jong et al., 2014), but they are assumed to be mainly in the undrilled
shales form local and regional seals (Grant, 2004; Ingram et al., 2004). Middle Miocene pre-kinematic sequence (PETRONAS, 1999; Jong et al.,
Mass-transport complexes (MTCs), which are composed of submarine 2014; Algar, 2012). In addition, Abdullah et al. (2018) suggested a po­
mass failure deposits, can also act as seals (Algar et al., 2011; Jones et al., tential oil generation from source rocks in the post-Middle Miocene
2016; Kessler and Jong, 2018; Cardona et al., 2022). The thickness of the strata based on the geothermal gradient from well data in the fold-thrust
overburden generally decreases toward the basin (Hesse et al., 2009). belt, which was higher than expected.
Nevertheless, even if the overburden is thin, it can act as seal. For Based on the geochemical analyses on the crude oil recovered e.g., in
example, several hydrocarbon accumulations indicate effective sealing Anticline B (Fig. 4A), source rocks are interpreted to contain mainly
with seal-thickness lower than 1000 m (Algar, 2012; Kessler and Jong, organic material from terrestrial plants (Ogawa and Jong, 2016). These
2018). Kessler and Jong (2018) suggested that seal effectiveness in the terrestrial organic materials were possibly deposited on the shelf, and
region is controlled by a variety of factors e.g., mineralogy, grain size later transported to the deepwater environment by gravity flows (PET­
and lateral layer continuity, not only by its sediment thickness. RONAS, 1999; Algar, 2012). The predominant organic matter in sand­
Thrust faults in the region can act as effective lateral seals (Kessler stones is gas-prone Type III kerogen in the deepwater fold-thrust belt
and Jong, 2018; Totake et al., 2018b). Pressure differences are main­ and on the shelf of NW Borneo (PETRONAS, 1999; Algar, 2012). How­
tained across thrusts, and some flow barriers appear to be related to ever, liptinic organic matters possibly enhanced the oil generation po­
thrusts (Kessler and Jong, 2018; Totake et al., 2018b). Totake et al. tential of source rocks (PETRONAS, 1999; Algar, 2012; Hakimi et al.,
(2018b) suggested based on the borehole data that calcite cements in 2013). Abdullah et al. (2017) analyzed MTCs in deepwater sediments
sandstones entrained by thrusts act as flow barrier. onshore Sabah and reported potential Type II/III kerogen, supporting a
Structural deformation and increased pore pressure after seal for­ model for the transport of terrestrial organic matter by MTCs to the
mation may reduce seal integrity (Ingram et al., 2004; Morley, 2009; deepwater area.

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K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

Fig. 4. Seabed morphology. (A) Plain view of the seabed, (B) Plain view of the seabed with variance surface attribute, (C) 3D view of the seabed. The location of
pockmarks with hydrocarbon (C10+) is referred from McGiveron and Jong (2016).

As source rocks were buried and matured, they initiated oil expulsion quality of the seismic data is good except for local crestal parts of an­
in the Late Miocene, followed by the peak and gas expulsion in the Early ticlines, and along faults associated with gas clouds (e.g., Figs. 2 and 3).
Pliocene (Grant, 2004). Expelled hydrocarbons likely migrated into Depth conversion was performed using a set of interpreted time
reservoirs along thrust faults (Morley, 2009; Morley et al., 2014; Jong horizons and an average velocity cube. The average velocity cube was
et al., 2014). Gas clouds are commonly observed at the crestal part of built from stacking velocities picked at 400 × 25 m (2D inlines) as first
deepwater anticlines, indicating vertical leaking due to limited seal ca­ pass and at 25 × 25 m grid (3D inlines and cross lines) as second pass.
pacities (Algar, 2012; Ogawa and Jong, 2016). As the source rock The validity of the velocity cube for depth-conversion was confirmed by
offshore NW Borneo remains undrilled, there is high uncertainty about well-to-seismic ties in several wells in the study area.
the timing of hydrocarbon accumulation and the fluid types in the pe­ We largely followed the seismic horizon framework of Cullen (2010),
troleum system. Wu et al. (2020) and Ogawa and Back (2022a), and interpreted in total
10 seismic horizons (Figs. 2 and 3). The horizon framework consists of
4. Data and methods horizons labelled PG-0, PG-1 and PG-2 in the pre-kinematic stratigraphy
of the deepwater NW Borneo fold-thrust belt, SG-1 to SG-6 and Marker-X
4.1. Seismic-reflection data and seismic interpretation in the syn-kinematic strata, and SG-7 and the present-day seabed in
partly syn-kinematic, partly post-kinematic strata. PG-1 acts as the pri­
For the geometrical input of the model, this study used time-domain mary and PG-2 as a secondary basal detachment surface (Ogawa and
3D seismic-reflection data up to 7s TWT provided by PETRONAS. The Back, 2022a). The horizon ages are derived from Cullen (2010) for PG-1
seismic-reflection data covers an area of 8700 km2 across the central to and PG-2, and from Wu et al. (2020) for SG-1 to the seabed (Fig. 3). The
northeastern part of the deepwater NW Borneo fold-thrust belt (Fig. 1). horizon age for PG-0 is not constrained by reference data. The approx­
The seismic volume is a pre-stack merge of six individual 3D seismic- imate age, therefore, was estimated from the time stratigraphic thick­
reflection surveys (“Sabah Deepwater Mega-Merge”) acquired between ness between horizons. To enhance the visualization of gas clouds and
1990 and 2003 offshore NW Borneo with a binning locally down to 6.25 seabed features, chaos and variance attributes were used for the seismic
× 25 m. The acquisition direction for all data was NE-SW, thus sub­ interpretation, respectively.
parallel to the strike of surface and subsurface fold-thrust structures. The

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K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

4.2. Borehole data identified (Fig. 5C). In Well T, multiple gas-bearing sandstones were
observed. Recovered samples confirmed gas accumulation in these res­
This study used subsurface data from three boreholes (Well B, Well L ervoirs. The gas composition and stable carbon isotope values from these
and Well T) for model calibration (Fig. 5). These wells were all drilled gases indicated microbial to thermogenic origin (associated petroleum
into the crests of thrust-related anticlines (Anticline B, Anticline L and gas) with C1/(C2+C3) between 87 and 564 and δC1 between − 47.4 and
Anticline T, respectively; Fig. 4A) that are mainly composed of − 61.2‰.
mudstone, with sandstone layers from 10 to 200 m thick. The data used A total of 32 borehole temperature and 162 maturity (vitrinite
for the model calibration include rock lithology, temperature measure­ reflectance and Tmax) data was obtained from these boreholes, showing
ments, vitrinite reflectance and Tmax (pyrolysis parameter). continuous increases with depth. Fluid inclusion analysis was carried
Well B drilled until the layer between Marker-X and SG-1 although a out for Well L and Well T, and the thin section observation confirmed oil
portion of the layer between SG-4 and Marker-X is missing or condensed inclusions in fractured detrital quartz grains in these wells (Fig. 6),
(Fig. 5A). The well encountered oil and gas accumulations in multiple indicating hydrocarbon migration to the anticlines.
reservoir intervals. Fluid sampling successfully recovered reservoir
fluids and confirmed hydrocarbon accumulations in Anticline B (Ogawa
and Jong, 2016). Well L penetrated into the layer between SG-1 and 4.3. Kinematic restoration
PG-2 (Fig. 5B). A portion of the layer between SG-7 and Marker-X is
missing due to the extensional fault at the crest. The well intercepted Kinematic restoration for each stratigraphic unit included decom­
reservoir sandstones with oil shows and high resistivities, indicating paction (sensu Sclater and Christie, 1980), fault-by-fault retro-­
hydrocarbon accumulations. However, the fluid sampling from these deformation and unfolding. In a first step, the shallowest stratigraphic
reservoirs failed due to seal failure caused by bad borehole condition. unit was removed from the reconstruction model, which was then
The hydrocarbons encountered in these reservoirs were characterized by decompacted (submarine conditions). Then, restoration of fault-related
a predominance of branched alkanes over straight chain alkanes (high deformation was performed for each fault with fault parallel flow (Egan
et al., 1997; Kane et al., 1997). The last step of each restoration was
iC5/nC5) based on the gas readings in mud logging, and were therefore
interpreted as biodegraded oils (Peters and Moldowan, 1993; Wenger unfolding with flexural slip (sensu Griffiths et al., 2002) using the
et al., 2002; Vieth and Wilkes, 2010). Well T drilled down to the layered present-day seabed as datum for the post-kinematic and syn-kinematic
interval between SG-1 and PG-2, but no significant missing interval was units, and a hypothetically unfolded seabed for the pre-kinematic
sequence. We performed these restoration steps for stratigraphic units

Fig. 5. (On this and following two pages). (A) Seismic interpretation and the kinematic restoration for well section B, (B) Well section L, (C) Well section T. The
section locations are shown in Fig. 4A.

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K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

Fig. 5. (continued).

incrementally from young to old. To characterize the kinematics of the developed by Schlumberger. The horizons and faults of the kinematic
shortening deformation, the shortening length and the rate were restorations at each time step served as input for the basin geometry. The
measured from pin-distance changes along well sections. We also lithology was assigned layer by layer based on the lithological fraction
defined shortening length ratio as the ratio of pin distance at each step to data (sandstone, siltstone and shale) contained in cuttings from wells B,
pin distance at the undeformed layer (i.e., the ratio is 100% when the L and T, and laterally extended within the 2D model sections. For layers
shortening is not yet initiated, and the ratio decreases as the shortening without borehole data, the lithology of the closest known layer was
progresses). used. The permeability of thrust faults was assumed to change within
geologic time; a major fault activating period from the start of short­
ening until the time faults terminate cutting the sediment was set as an
4.4. Model building
open fault (permeable), which acts as a fluid conduit, while the subse­
quent period without clear sediment-cuts by faults was set as a close
This study conducted 1D well and 2D basin modeling to investigate
fault (impermeable), which acts as a seal and a pressure barrier (Travé
the thermal evolution and the petroleum system offshore deepwater NW
et al., 2000; Hantschel and Kauerauf, 2009; Totake et al., 2018b; Bonini,
Borneo. For 1D well modeling, borehole locations of wells B, L and T
2019; Curzi et al., 2021). A shallow crestal fault in Anticline L is
were selected. The 1D well models were constructed down to 10,000 m
considered an open fault because it has originated recently (<3 Ma) and
depth at each well location based on the 2D deformation models after
many pockmarks along the fault are observed on the present-day sea­
kinematic restoration. For 2D basin modeling, we built two types of
floor (Fig. 4).
model sections to capture the lateral variation of the source rock
Basin modeling defined the thermal evolution, and hence the tem­
maturation in the study area; across fold-thrust structures and along
perature and pressure conditions over time required for source rock
synclines. Model sections across fold-thrust structures are for anticlines
maturation. Therefore, as input, information on boundary conditions
B, L and T; along the wells, anticlinal structures and nearby depocenters
such as paleo-water depth, sediment-water-interface temperature,
(well sections B, L and T; Fig. 4A). Model sections along synclines were
present-day heat flow, and paleo-heat flow are required (Al-Hajeri et al.,
selected for three synclines in the basin (syncline sections 1–3; Fig. 4B).
2009; Hantschel and Kauerauf, 2009). Paleo-water depth was estimated
In contrast to the syncline sections which are less deformed, the well
from the undeformed seabed profile after kinematic restoration.
sections showed complex faulting and erosion. We, therefore, carried
Sediment-water-interface temperature was determined with
out the kinematic restoration for the well sections prior to basin
paleo-temperature distribution maps after Wygrala (1989) assuming 5◦
modeling.
northern latitude (present-day latitude in the study area) and
Basin modeling was performed using PetroMod (version 2019)

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K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

Fig. 5. (continued).

corrections for water depths using PetroMod. Heat flows at the present the conversion process, and were not used for the thermal calibration
day were derived from a regional heat flow map taking depth-dependent (Peters et al., 2005). Basin%Ro, proposed by Nielsen et al. (2015), was
bulk sediment thermal conductivity data into account (Madon and Jong, used to calculate modeled VRo profiles.
2021). Present-day heat flow values in the study area range between 60 Due to the lack of source rock data for the region, the source rock
and 75 mW/m2 and the values at the well locations are 73, 74 and 65 parameters were approximated with 1.5 wt% for TOC and 200 mgHC/
mW/m2 for Well B, Well L and Well T, respectively. Paleo-heat flow was gTOC for HI based on source rock properties in the Mahakam delta
estimated on 1D models constructed after kinematic restoration and offshore East Borneo as analog system (deepwater petroleum systems
calibrated to be consistent with temperature measurements (for with source rocks composed of transported terrestrial organic matters;
present-day) and thermal maturity indicators derived from borehole Saller et al., 2006; Jones et al., 2016: Table 1). For the source rock ki­
data. Temperature measurements were derived from seabed and bore­ netics, one of PetroMod’s standard kinetics, “Handi­
holes. Seabed temperatures were recorded by remotely operated vehi­ l_MahakamDelta_TIII” developed for a coal source rock in the Mahakam
cles during the drilling operations. Borehole temperatures are composed Delta, was applied. Pepper and Corvi (1995) consider this coal source
of two types of measurements; extrapolated temperatures obtained from rock to be equivalent to Organofacies D/E, which is one of the oil and gas
Horner plots and measured temperatures during modular formation producing source rock types in their classification. Fluid flows was
dynamics tests (MDTs). The correction methods of Waples and Ramly modeled with a hybrid migration model, which is a combination of
(1995) and Waples et al. (2004) were applied for temperatures from Darcy flow and flowpath calculations (Baur et al., 2011). The Darcy flow
Horner plots and MDTs, respectively. model, which is also used in reservoir simulation, is described by dif­
As thermal maturity indicators, vitrinite reflectance (VRo) and Tmax ferential equations, but is highly computational due to its complexity.
values, one of the Rock-Eval pyrolysis parameters, were used for the The flowpath model, in contrast, allows for fast calculations, but does
thermal calibration (Hartkopf-Fröder et al., 2015). Tmax values were not work for complex flow in low permeability regions (Hantschel and
converted to vitrinite reflectance by the following empirical conversion Kauerauf, 2009). It is possible, therefore, to overcome difficulties of the
formula (Jarvie et al., 2001), computational speed and the modeling accuracy by applying a flowpath
model in high permeability regions, and a Darcy flow model in low
VRo = 0.0180 × Tmax − 7.16
permeability regions in a hybrid manner (Baur et al., 2011).
This formula is applicable to Type II (low sulfur) and III kerogens. The modeling outcomes such as hydrocarbon migration and accu­
Unsuitable samples for the conversion formula (S2 values of 0.5 mgHC/g mulation are displayed on the model sections at each time step together
rock or Tmax values below 420 ◦ C or above 500 ◦ C) were excluded from with overlays of calculated temperature, thermal maturity,

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K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

Fig. 6. Oil inclusions in fractured detrital quartz grains. (A) Well L, (B) Well T.

5.1. Pockmarks
Table 1
Source rock parameters used for the basin modeling.
Pockmarks are cone-shaped, circular, or elliptical depressions on
Source rock parameters Values seafloors that are caused by subsurface fluid venting and are regarded as
TOC 1.5 wt% markers of fluid escape (e.g., Hovland et al., 2002; Strozyk et al., 2018).
HI 200 mgHC/gTOC In the study area, Jong et al. (2014) reported hydrocarbon contents
Source rock kinetics Handil_MahakamDelta_TIII
(C10+) in seabed core samples recovered from pockmarks, and suggested
Thickness of primary source rock PG-0 to PG-1
Thickness of secondary source rock Marker-X to SG-3
a link between hydrocarbon leaking from the subsurface and pockmark
formation. Similar hydrocarbon signatures associated with fluid escape
structures on the seabed have also been documented in the deepwater
transformation ratio (TR) and biodegradation risk. TR is the ratio of the fold-thrust belt offshore Brunei (Zielinski et al., 2007; Warren et al.,
petroleum (oil and gas) actually formed by the kerogen to the total 2010). Accordingly, a genetic linkage is suggested in the deepwater NW
amount of petroleum that the kerogen can generate (Tissot and Welte, Borneo fold-thrust belt between seabed pockmarks and subsurface
1984). TR is one of the parameters that quantifies the progress of hy­ hydrocarbons.
drocarbon generation, where 0% means no transformation of the Pockmarks in the study area were predominantly observed in the
kerogen and 100% means the full transformation. Biodegradation risk elevated seafloor highs reflecting the subsurface anticlines (Fig. 4).
represents a risk of microbial alteration of hydrocarbon (Head et al., These pockmarks assemble to compose pockmark clusters, and their
2003; Schlumberger, 2019). PetroMod calculates three risk zones for composite pattern was subdivided into two types: pockmark groups,
biodegradation from no risk to high risk depending on the exposed where pockmarks distributed densely and irregularly, and pockmark
temperature (>80 ◦ C = no risk, <80 ◦ C = low risk, <50 ◦ C = high risk; strings, where pockmarks are arranged in strings or chains (Pilcher and
Schlumberger, 2019) because biodegradation is temperature sensitive Argent, 2007; Chen et al., 2015, Fig. 4A). The pockmark strings are
(Head et al., 2003; Larter et al., 2006). parallel to anticline trends and appear to be related to subsurface
seepage along crestal faults. The size of pockmarks is associated with the
5. Seismic observations for hydrocarbon indications composite pattern of pockmarks. The diameter is 100–500 m in the
pockmark groups, and 500 m to several km in the pockmark strings
Various indications such as pockmarks, gas clouds and low velocity (Fig. 4A). Following the pockmark size classification of Chen et al.
zones that can be associated with hydrocarbon migration and accumu­ (2015), the 100–500 m diameter is categorized as a giant pockmark, and
lation were observed in the deepwater NW Borneo fold-thrust belt on the the 500 to >1000 m diameter as a mega-pockmark. Towards the basin,
3D seismic-reflection data. In this section, these hydrocarbon indications the dominant composite pattern shifts from pockmark groups to pock­
are described, and the distribution and potential stratigraphic position mark strings, which in turn increases the pockmark size (Fig. 4).
of the source rocks are investigated prior to the basin modeling study.
5.2. Gas clouds

In the deepwater NW Borneo fold-thrust belt, gas clouds commonly

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K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

occur in the hangingwall anticlines and along thrusts, indicating over the basin. The top of this low interval velocity anomaly is largely
buoyancy-driven gas migration through thrusts (Figs. 2 and 3; Algar, consistent with PG-1, the main detachment layer, and this is particularly
2012). The gas-cloud forming gas is of thermogenic origin based on evident in the northwest part of the study area (basin side) and in the
gas-isotope results (Ogawa and Jong, 2016). Gas clouds occur as noisy syncline areas (Fig. 2).
seismic-reflection zone or wipeout blanking zones on the 3D
seismic-reflection data (Figs. 2 and 3). Extensive gas clouds covering 5.4. Source rock distribution and stratigraphic positions
entire anticlines were observed in the proximal, shallow landward part
of the fold-thrust belt. Towards the basin, the distribution of gas zones The occurrence of pockmarks and gas clouds documents that the
becomes more localized in the anticlines and along faults (Fig. 2). source rocks are widely distributed throughout the study area and suf­
Reflecting the slower seismic characteristics in gas-filling sediments, gas ficiently thermally mature to expel hydrocarbons. Toward basin, gas
clouds usually exhibit a lower seismic interval velocity leading to a clouds tend to get smaller, and the pockmarks becomes larger, which
pull-down of underlying reflections (Fig. 2C). may reflect more active fluid escapes to the seafloor through shallow
faults.
5.3. Seismic interval velocity The low velocity anomalies observed in the study area coincide with
PG-1, which serves as basal thrust surface. Morgan (2003) and Cobbold
The deepwater NW Borneo fold-thrust belt is characterized by a low et al. (2009) investigated the fold-thrust belt in the Niger Delta and
critical taper angle of the wedge (Morley, 2007). This low taper can be reported a sudden velocity decrease from approximately 4000 m/s to
explained by a generally high basal pore fluid pressure, close to litho­ 2700 m/s immediately below the basal Niger Delta thrust at the top of
static pressure (Morley, 2007; King and Morley, 2017). High pore fluid Akata Formation, one of the regional source rocks in the Niger Delta.
pressure at the base of a detachment has been reported as a low velocity The low velocity anomaly is explained by widespread overpressure
anomaly for example in the fold-thrust belt of the Niger Delta (Morgan, related to source rock maturation and fluid expulsions that promoted
2003; Rowan et al., 2004; Pizzi et al., 2020). The high pore fluid pressure detachment and thrust development (Cobbold et al., 2009). Gas clouds
at the base of thrust belt can support hydrocarbon generation associated along thrusts were indeed observed in this study, suggesting a link be­
with source rock maturation (Cobbold et al., 2009). tween thrusting and hydrocarbon migration (Figs. 2 and 3).
In the NW Borneo fold-thrust belt, seismic interval velocity shows a The pockmark and velocity observations imply that the interval be­
complex spatial variation in response to the subsurface deformed tween PG-0 and PG-1 is the potential source rock interval for the study
structures (Fig. 2C). In vertical direction, it is characterized by four in­ area. This is supported by widespread low-velocity anomalies, thrust
terval velocity zones (zones I to IV), including a low velocity anomaly surfaces, and discontinuous seismic facies, possibly indicating MTCs
zone (Fig. 7). Zone I (Seabed to SG-7) is observed near the seafloor and along and near the PG-1 (Fig. 3). To validate this hypothetical source
exhibits interval velocities of 1500–1700 m/s, corresponding to rock, we also examined another potential source rock interval in the syn-
uncompacted sediments. Zone II (SG-7 to SG-3 or Marker-X) shows a kinematic sequence, between Marker-X and SG-3, for comparison. This
linear increase in interval velocity in the downward direction. The in­ is because the syn-kinematic sequence has not been penetrated in the
terval velocities range from 1700 to 3500 m/s, representing a simple syncline areas between thrust-related anticlines and its validity as a
compaction trend. Zone III (SG-3 or Marker-X to PG-1) shows a highly source rock is not tested. In the subsequent basin modeling section, we
variable interval velocity distribution (3000–4800 m/s). The interval examined constraints on the thermal evolution of the basin and the
velocity changes locally in both vertical and lateral directions, although impacts on the petroleum system with assumed source rocks between
an overall trend to increasing interval velocity is observed in the PG-0 and PG-1 as the primary source-rock interval, and between Marker-
downward direction. This velocity variation may be caused by lithology X and SG-3 as the secondary source-rock interval (Table 1).
changes, local overpressure and fracture developments. Zone IV (deeper
than PG-1) is characterized by abrupt and low interval velocity anom­ 6. Kinematic restoration and basin modeling
alies (3000–3500 m/s). The decrease in velocity is more than 1000 m/s
from Zone III to Zone IV. This slow velocity anomaly is widely developed 6.1. Kinematic restoration

Prior to basin modeling, tectonic restoration was performed for well

sections B, L and T, and the deformation kinematics were described
(Figs. 5 and 8). In well section B, thrusting initiated between SG-1 and
Marker-X and the shortening length ratio decreased to 96% at the
shortening rate of 0.5 km/My (Figs. 5A and 8). The most pronounced
shortening occurred during the period between SG-3 and SG-4 with the
decrease in the shortening length ratio to 75%, and the shortening rate
was 1.1 km/My. Since SG-4, the rate of shortening gradually decreased
and is still slightly decreasing at the present day with the decrease in the
shortening length ratio to 71%.
Thrusting in well section L started between Marker-X and SG-3, later
than in well section B, with a shortening rate of 0.5 km/My and a
decrease in the shortening length ratio to 96% (Figs. 5B and 8). The peak
of the shortening was between SG-3 and SG-4 with the decrease in the
shortening length ratio to 76%, and its shortening rate was 2.0 km/My.
Subsequently, as within well section B, the rate of shortening decreased,
and the section slowly continued to shorten to 73% in shortening length
ratio.
In the time interval between Marker-X and SG-3, the thrust in well
section T started with a shortening rate of 0.6 km/My and the shortening
length ratio decreased to 92% (Figs. 5C and 8). This time interval was
Fig. 7. Synthetic seismic interval velocity log. The log location is shown the peak of shortening in well section T, and the rate of shortening and
in Fig. 2. the shortening length ratio decreased gradually from SG-3 to SG-6 (<0.1

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K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

Fig. 8. Statistics on structural shortening in the well-sections. (A) Horizontal pin distance vs. time, (B) Change in shortening rate through the stratigraphic units.

km/My and 90%, respectively). Shortening ceased after SG-6 and persisted through time during the Neogene. The borehole trajectory of
thrusting is currently inactive with a shortening length ratio of 90% Well B, which is a deviated well, was projected as a vertical well in the
remaining. 1D well model due to the software limitation.
The shortening rate in well sections B and L increased and then The temperatures and maturities calculated from each 1D well model
peaked before decreasing to that of the present day. In contrast, it is are reasonably consistent with the thermal calibration data (Fig. 9). The
monotonically decreasing in well section T, with a peak of shortening at calculated temperatures in the 1D well models match well with the
the start of thrust activity, followed by a progressive decrease. Gentle temperature calibration data from seabed and boreholes. The calculated
shortening continues to the present at well sections B and L, whereas thermal maturity based on Basin%Ro (Nielsen et al., 2015) is also
shortening at well section T ceased before. generally compatible with the measured vitrinite reflectance data.
Converted vitrinite reflectance data from Tmax (0.40–0.76%VRo in Well
6.2. Thermal modeling B between 1754 and 2794 m, 0.40 to 0.72%VRo in Well L between 2135
and 2815 m, 0.40 to 0.49%VRo in Well T between 4008 and 4058 m)
To verify the thermal history applied to the basin modeling for well show profiles that follow the vitrinite reflectance trend. Thus, the un­
sections, temperature and thermal maturity calculated from the 1D well certainty in the calibration data for maturity attributed to data quality is
model incorporated with kinematic restoration were compared to assumed to be low.
thermal calibration data from borehole data. Fig. 9 shows all of the The calibration data for maturity in the shallow intervals of Well B
wellbore calibration data and calculated temperature and vitrinite (1800–2500 m) are 0.15 to 0.20VRo% higher than the modeled maturity
reflectance profiles assuming that the present basal heat flow also (0.22–0.40VRo%). This observation can be explained by the thermal

11
K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

Fig. 9. Thermal calibration plots with temperature and maturity. (A–B) Well B, (C–D) Well L, (E–F) Well T. These 1D well models were constructed up to a depth of
10,000 m at each well location based on the 2D deformation models. Repeat sections were induced by thrusts.

input from hot fluids from the deep section along the thrust and mud Higher maturity is indicated at the syncline of the foreside of the thrust
pipes, resulting in locally elevated maturity in sediments within the rather than the backside. Hydrocarbon expulsion from the secondary
anticline structure (Zielinski et al., 2007; Laird and Morley, 2011; source rock is exclusively oil due to the lower maturity, and the expul­
Morley et al., 2014; McGiveron and Jong, 2018). sion areas are limited to the center of the kitchens (Fig. 10I).
Compared to well section B, the timing of source rock maturation
was delayed in well section L due to the gentle sedimentation. The
6.3. Well-section modeling (2D) primary source rock was immature in the kitchens until 10.2 Ma (Middle
Miocene to Late Miocene) (Fig. 13B). Then, the source rock was in the oil
Basin modeling was carried out for three well sections to simulate the window between 10.2 and 7.6 Ma (Late Miocene) and in the gas window
hydrocarbon generation and accumulation from kitchen areas to traps between 7.6 and 4.3 Ma (Late Miocene to Pliocene) (Figs. 11F-H and
(Figs. 10-13). The main kitchen areas in the well-section models are in 13B). The main hydrocarbon generation for oil and gas took place be­
the synclines in the fore- and back-side of thrust-related anticlines (e.g., tween 9 and 7.3 Ma (Late Miocene) (Fig. 13B). Hydrocarbon expulsion
Fig. 12I). The source rocks in the kitchen areas are preferentially was initiated at about 7.3 Ma (Late Miocene) for oil and 5.3 Ma (Plio­
matured due to the thicker sedimentation. For example, in well section cene) for gas (Fig. 11G-H). The maturity of the primary source rock
L, the maturity of the secondary source rock is immature at the present corresponds to the dry gas window to overmature conditions at present
day in the anticline whereas it is main oil to wet gas window in the (Fig. 11I). The secondary source rock entered the oil window at 4 Ma in
syncline (the main kitchen area) where the overburden is 3000 m the kitchen area (Fig. 13B). The current maturity is immature to wet gas
thicker (Fig. 11I). window (Fig. 11I). Similar to well section B, hydrocarbon expulsion
In well section B, the primary source rock in the kitchens was from the secondary source rock is limited to the center of the kitchen
immature prior to 11 Ma (Middle Miocene) at the mid-depth of the areas and only oil is expelled (Fig. 11I).
source rock with overburden sediments less than 2500 m thick Well-section T model shows a similar maturity history as well section
(Fig. 13A). The source rock was in the oil window between 11 and 8.5 L. The primary source rock in the kitchen areas was immature until 10.1
Ma (Late Miocene) and in the gas window between 8.5 and 5 Ma (Late Ma (Fig. 13C). The source rock was in the oil window between 10.1 and
Miocene to Pliocene) (Figs. 10F-G and 13A). The main hydrocarbon 6.7 Ma (Late Miocene) and in the gas window between 6.7 and 1 Ma
generation occurred between 10 and 7.3 Ma (Late Miocene) for oil and (Late Miocene to Pleistocene) (Figs. 12F-H and 13C). The main hydro­
gas (Fig. 13A). Hydrocarbon expulsion started at about 9 Ma (Late carbon generation took place between 9 and 7.3 Ma (Late Miocene) for
Miocene) for oil and 5.3 Ma (Pliocene) for gas (Fig. 10G-H). The primary oil and gas (Fig. 13C). Hydrocarbon expulsion started at about 7.3 Ma
source rock is currently overmature (Fig. 10I). In the kitchen areas the (Late Miocene) for oil and 5.3 Ma (Pliocene) for gas (Fig. 12G and H).
secondary source rock entered the oil window after 3 to 4 Ma (Fig. 13A), The primary source rock is currently in the dry gas window or
and the current maturity is immature to wet gas window (Fig. 10I).

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K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

Fig. 10. Basin modeling results for well section B. (A) Present-day heat flow (Madon and Jong, 2021). See the color legend in Fig. 5, (B) Present-day model geometry,
(C) Modeled temperature, (D) Modeled transformation ratio, (E) Biodegradation risk, (F–I) Representative time steps with source rock maturations and modeled fluid
flows. The section location is shown in Figs. 4A and 5A. PM: Peters and Moldowan biodegradation scale (Peters and Moldowan, 1993).

overmature (Fig. 12I). In contrast, the secondary source rock is less 4000 and 5000 m (Fig. 10A). Accumulated hydrocarbons could re-
mature and ranges from immature to early oil window (Fig. 12I). No migrate and re-accumulate as the anticline structure developed
hydrocarbons are expelled from the secondary source rock along well (Fig. 10H and I). The majority of the modeled accumulation was
section T. expelled from the primary source rock, with the exception of a minor oil
The expelled hydrocarbons from the kitchen areas migrated verti­ accumulations in the fault-related trap in the sub-thrust of well section
cally within the adjacent sediments (e.g., Fig. 10G). Faults also worked B.
as fluid paths (Fig. 10H). Upon reaching the shallower sandstone layers, The basin modeling results showed biodegradation risks in shallow
hydrocarbons migrated laterally to the crest of anticlines through the reservoirs along the well sections B and L (Figs. 10E and 11E). In well
sand layers as carrier beds (Fig. 10H). Vertical gas leaking was observed section B, the biodegradation risk is high in the shallowest reservoir BA,
at the crest of anticlines (Fig. 10I). while there is a low risk in the deeper reservoirs BB, BC and BD, and no
Hydrocarbons expelled from source rocks accumulated in the reser­ risk in the deepest reservoir BE (Fig. 10E). The risk in well section L is
voirs predominantly at the crest of deformed thrust-related anticlines high in Reservoir LA, the shallowest reservoir, and low in the other
(Figs. 10B, 11B and 12B). Well section B shows a fault-related accu­ deeper reservoirs LB and LC (Fig. 11E). In contrast, no biodegradation
mulation in the layer beneath the thrust surface at the depth between risk is indicated in the reservoirs in well section T (Fig. 12E).

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K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

Fig. 11. Basin modeling results for well section L. (A) Present-day heat flow (Madon and Jong, 2021). See the color legend in Fig. 5, (B) Present-day model geometry,
(C) Modeled temperature, (D) Modeled transformation ratio, (E) Biodegradation risk, (F–I) Representative time steps with source rock maturations and modeled fluid
flows. The section location is shown in Figs. 4A and 5B.

It is worth mentioning that all well-section models indicated thrust objectives are to understand the maturity distribution of the primary
initiation when the primary source rock was in the oil window (mostly Middle Miocene source rock and to examine the feasibility of the syn-
main to late oil window) in the kitchens (Fig. 13). The timing of the kinematic sequence in the Late Miocene to work as a source of hydro­
thrusting peak with the maximum shortening rate corresponds to the gas carbons. The results are shown in Fig. 15.
window (mostly dry gas window) in the well sections B and L (SW The overall trend is that the source rock maturity in synclines is
domain) and the oil window in well section T (NE domain). The rela­ lower toward the basin due to less burial (e.g., SG-3; Fig. 15A–C). In the
tionship (concerning timing) between source rock maturity and thrust same syncline train, the source rock in the NE domain is less mature than
kinematics does not change significantly even taking into account the in the SW domain (Fig. 15C). This is due to the NE domain having
uncertainties in the thermal model (Fig. 14). approximately 1000 m thinner overburden sediments and a lower heat
flow by 3–7 mW/m2.
The present-day maturity of the primary source rock ranges from wet
6.4. Syncline modeling (2D)
gas window to overmature with overburden sediments between 4000
and 8000 m in thickness (Fig. 15). TR is 100% and the kerogen con­
Alternative basin modeling was performed along syncline trains,
version is complete. In comparison, the maturity of the shallow
where major kitchen areas for hydrocarbon generation are present. The

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K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

Fig. 12. Basin modeling results for well section T. (A) Present-day heat flow (Madon and Jong, 2021). See the color legend in Fig. 5, (B) Present-day model geometry,
(C) Modeled temperature, (D) Modeled transformation ratio, (E) Biodegradation risk, (F–I) Representative time steps with source rock maturations and modeled fluid
flows. The section location is shown in Fig. 4A and 5C.

secondary source rock corresponds mostly to the immature stage to oil was performed for the syncline sections.
window with overburden thickness between 1000 and 4000 m, and even
the deepest part of the source rock is only slightly in the wet gas window. 7. Discussion
TR is 0% in the NE domain, but 15–75% in the SW domain. However, it
appears to have entered the maturation phase in the SW domain only 7.1. Model limitations and comparison with borehole and seismic-
recently, as the TR is less than 20% at 1.8 Ma. The top oil window reflection data
(0.55%Ro) is approximately 2000 m from the seafloor and the top gas
window (1.3%Ro) is 3500–4000 m deep based on the present-day The basin model constructed in this study differs from actual sub­
maturity profile. surface settings in several aspects. The distribution of turbidite sand­
Basin modeling for syncline sections indicates that during thrust stone reservoirs is assumed to be continuous within the 2D model
initiation, which is coincident with the base of the syn-kinematic section. Some crests in the 2D model section may not form a closure in
sequence, source rocks were within the oil window (mostly main to 3D and not work as a structural trap. Therefore, the resolution limit for
late oil window) as observed in the well sections (Fig. 13). The timing of hydrocarbon accumulation should be at anticline structures, not at
the deformation peak is not discussed, because no structural analysis reservoirs. The output values of the accumulation volume and saturation

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K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

Fig. 13. Burial charts and time plots for pseudo-wells in well-section models. (A) Pseudo-well PB, (B) Pseudo-well PL, (C) Pseudo-well PT. Burial charts for tem­
perature (upper) and maturation (middle), and time plot for the mass volume of hydrocarbon generation between PG-0 and PG-1, and secondary cracking from oil to
gas (lower). The pseudo-well locations are shown in Figs. 10-12. Pseudo-well results include a 1 km radius from the pseudo-well location.

of hydrocarbons in each reservoir may exceed the model resolution. the backlimb side. The peak timing of hydrocarbon generation was Late
Nevertheless, the modeled hydrocarbon distributions and properties Miocene for both oil and gas while the expulsion was from Late Miocene
in the anticlines are consistent with borehole data and seismic obser­ for oil and Early Pliocene for gas (Figs. 10-13). Oil was expelled in the
vations from 3D seismic-reflection data. For example, all basin models early stage of the thrust development and, in contrast, gas was expelled
show hydrocarbon charge and accumulation in the structures, which is after the timing of the thrusting peak with the maximum shortening rate
proven by fluid sample recoveries (Ogawa and Jong, 2016) and oil in­ (Figs. 10-12). Both oil and gas were expelled after the initiation of the
clusions in fractured quartz grains (Fig. 6). The modeled gas/oil ratio thrusting, therefore, the timing of hydrocarbon expulsion was suitable
(GOR) and specific gravity scale developed by the American Petroleum for trapping. The hydrocarbons expelled from the synclines migrated
Institute (API gravity) generally correspond to the values in the fluid approximately 10 km, within the sediments adjacent to source rocks and
samples (Fig. 16). The API gravity values measured for the fluid samples through fault, to the reservoirs in the thrust-related anticline structures.
from Reservoir BD, however, are 20◦ lower than the modeled API gravity Other hydrocarbon accumulations are modeled at the footwall of
value, possibly because these fluid samples are affected by oil-based thrusts with fault traps (Fig. 10). The synclines in the forelimb side of the
mud contamination. Furthermore, the basin model demonstrated gas anticlines are the kitchen areas for the accumulated hydrocarbons
leaking at the crest of the anticlines and fluid migration along thrusts as derived from Middle Miocene source rocks. The hydrocarbon generation
observed in the seismic-reflection data as gas clouds and wipeout and expulsion are contemporaneous with the ones in the synclines of the
blanking zones (Figs. 2 and 3). Overall, the basin model represents the backlimb side. The hydrocarbons expelled from the kitchen area
hydrocarbon flows, accumulation on an anticline scale, and the model migrated vertically, then reached the carrier beds and moved laterally to
outputs, therefore, can be used in further discussions on petroleum the fault-related traps along the carrier beds. The burial depth of res­
systems. ervoirs is generally 3000 m, which is 1000–2000 m deeper than the
reservoirs at crest of thrust-related anticlines. The distance from the
7.2. Hydrocarbon charge and accumulation kitchen area to the fault traps is less than 5 km and the hydrocarbon
migration is thus characterized by short–distance lateral transport.
Major modeled hydrocarbon accumulations in the study area are at Gas leaks related to imperfect sealing were often modeled in the
the crest of the thrust-related anticlines (Figs. 10-12). The hydrocarbons shallow buried hydrocarbon accumulations at the crest of anticlines
were discharged from the Middle Miocene source rock in the synclines of (Fig. 10), leading to vertical migration into the reservoirs above further

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K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

Fig. 14. Maturity uncertainty in the interval between PG-0 and PG-1 for pseudo-wells in well-section models. Calculated maturity trends of different heat flow case
(the base case plus and minus 10 mW/m2) are shown by different line patterns. (A) Pseudo-well PB, (B) Pseudo-well PT, (C) Pseudo-well PT. The pseudo-well lo­
cations are shown in Figs. 10-12. Pseudo-well results included a 1 km radius from the pseudo-well location.

loss from reservoirs through overburden. This gas leaking is likely the deepwater NW Borneo fold-thrust belt is suggested to cause hydrocar­
cause of the gas clouds and wipeout blanking zones observed in the bon remigration (Ingram et al., 2004; Madon et al., 2015). Remarkably,
seismic-reflection data (Figs. 2 and 3; Algar, 2012). Oil was hardly the basin modeling showed the hydrocarbon re-migration and
transported vertically in the model, in contrast to gas, and was charged re-accumulation during the thrust development as changing crest posi­
to reservoirs primarily by lateral migration through carrier beds tions within thrusted anticlines (Fig. 10H and I). Oil accumulations more
(Fig. 10). The basin modeling indicates that high seal effectiveness easily remigrated during thrust development, because oil expulsion
without leaking is achieved generally at 700–800 m overburden for oil occurred during the early stages of thrusting whereas gas was expelled
and 1200 m overburden for gas. after the thrusting peak with the maximum shortening rate (Fig. 13).
Hydrocarbon accumulation during active thrust development in the Consequently, oil migration and accumulation history took longer and

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K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

Fig. 15. (On this and following two pages). (A) Syncline section 1 with modeled vitrinite reflectance based on Basin%Ro, (B) Syncline section 2, (C) Syncline section
3. The section locations are shown in Fig. 4B.

was often more complex due to re-migration. 7.3. Feasibility of hydrocarbon charge from syn-kinematic sequences

In deepwater Sabah, the Middle Miocene sequence is considered to

be the primary source rock interval (Jong et al., 2014; Algar, 2012).

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K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

Fig. 15. (continued).

Adding to that, high source rock potentials have been reported in materials to the deepwater syn-kinematic sequence. In order to accu­
coal-bearing formations in younger strata (Upper Miocene to Pliocene) rately define the petroleum system in the study area, the potential for
onshore Brunei (Osli et al., 2021). An Upper Miocene to Pliocene hydrocarbon generation and expulsion from the syn-to post-kinematic
confined fan system with mass transport complexes has been proposed sequence of the Upper Miocene and beyond is a matter to be examined.
in the deepwater areas of the NW Borneo (Karimi et al., 1997; Mohamad The postulated secondary source rocks (Marker-X to SG-3: Upper
and Lobao, 1997; Grant, 2004), with the potential to supply organic-rich Miocene) in the syn-kinematic sequence are currently immature or in

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K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

Fig. 15. (continued).

the early oil window and the kerogen conversion to petroleum has not 1.8 Ma) entered the oil generation phase, and significant hydrocarbon
yet started (TR = 0%) in the syncline trends of the NE domain (Fig. 15). expulsion and related accumulation from the secondary source rock is
In the SW domain, however, the secondary source rock is more ther­ not observed in the model. One exception is a minor oil accumulation in
mally mature reaching the main to late oil window, which is attributed the fault-related trap in the sub-thrust of Anticline B (Fig. 10). Basin
to its deeper burial (1000–2000 m deeper) and the higher heat flow modeling results, therefore, indicate limited or negligible contributions
compared to the NE domain (Fig. 15). However, it only recently (since from the syn-kinematic (or even post-kinematic) sequence. This

20
K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

Fig. 16. Comparison between modeled and measured fluid data in Well B. Measured fluid data is from Ogawa and Jong (2016). No fluid samples were recovered
from Reservoir BA and Reservoir BE in Well B.

conclusion is consistent with the lack of gas clouds and low seismic in­ duration and intensity) of the anticlines. The anticlines B and L exhibit
terval velocity in the syn-kinematic sequence (Fig. 2). Although the continued structural deformation from the Late Miocene to the present,
generation-potential of the thick syn-kinematic sequence as a source resulting in thin overburden (600–700 m thickness in the 2D section
rock remains uncertain, insufficient maturity makes it doubtful that the view; Figs. 8, 10 and 11). In contrast, deformation in Anticline T, which
sequence would contribute to hydrocarbon accumulation in the region. started in the Late Miocene, stagnated shortly after the initiation (less
This it is verified by this study that pre-kinematic sequence, such as the than 2 My) and the shortening length ratio at the present day was minor
Middle Miocene source rock, is the primary source of hydrocarbons in when compared to the anticlines B and L (90% for well section T and
the region. 71–73% for well sections B and L; Figs. 8 and 12). Consequently, Anti­
In deepwater settings, stratigraphic and combined structural- cline T was buried by sufficient sedimentary cover to a depth and tem­
stratigraphic traps are important producing targets (Bouroullec and perature that allowed the reservoirs to avoid the influence of
Tari, 2006). It is recognized in deepwater NW Borneo that stratigraphic biodegradation (Fig. 12E). Biodegradation, therefore, played a minor in
traps can be expected in the syn-kinematic sequence pinching out to­ Well T compared to Well B and Well L.
ward thrusted-anticlines as potential exploration targets (Abdullah
et al., 2018). However, as the modeling results reveal hydrocarbon 7.5. Relationship between thrusting and source rock maturation
sourcing from the syn-kinematic sequence, which is the same strati­
graphic level to form pinch-out traps, is unlikely to occur in terms of A relationship between thrusting and source rock maturation has
maturity (immature, or very recent maturating after 1.8 Ma). Therefore, been observed in various fold-thrust belts, regardless of the driving
it is critical for de-risking to examine whether a migration path from the mechanism of the thrust deformation (crustal-driven, Deville and Sassi,
deeper Middle Miocene source rocks to these potential reservoirs is 2006; Aldega et al., 2014; Zanella et al., 2014; Rocha and Cristallini,
feasible when targeting pinch-out traps in the syn-kinematic sequence. 2015; Schito et al., 2017; or gravity-driven, Parnell et al., 1998; Cobbold
et al., 2004, 2009). Hydrocarbons generated from mature source rocks
7.4. Biodegradation increase pore-fluid pressures leading to overpressure (Spencer, 1987;
Luo and Vasseur, 1996; Osborne and Swarbrick, 1997; Tingay et al.,
At temperatures lower than 80 ◦ C, petroleum in subsurface reservoirs 2013; Schito et al., 2017). Overpressures promote basal detachment,
is often biologically degraded over geological time scales by microor­ leading to thrust formation and the deformation propagation (Cobbold
ganisms that produce altered, denser oils (Head et al., 2003). et al., 2009; Rocha and Cristallini, 2015). The development of over­
The model estimated also the biodegradation risk at depths shal­ pressure associated with hydrocarbon generation is particularly
lower than 1000–1500 m below the seafloor (Figs. 10E-12E). This risk contributed to by gas generation and oil cracking to gas (secondary
estimation is consistent with the borehole results. For example, slight to cracking), rather than oil generation (Luo and Vasseur, 1996; Rocha and
moderate biodegradation, which was assigned a biodegradation degree Cristallini, 2015).
range of 1–3 on the Peters and Moldowan biodegradation scale Mud rocks offshore NW Borneo are poor in smectite or other
(abbreviated as PM Level: Peters and Moldowan, 1993), was reported in expandable clay minerals, which can cause overpressure by the chemical
Well B from crude oil samples recovered from reservoirs with the low to reaction (Morley et al., 2014). Therefore, aside from undercompaction
high biodegradation risk (Fig. 10E; Ogawa and Jong, 2016). Mud gas of mudrocks - source rock maturation is an important factor explaining
analysis in Well L indicated biodegradation in Reservoir LA, which was the basal high fluid pressure of the thrust wedge and thrust develop­
estimated to have a high biodegradation risk based on basin modeling ment. All three modeled well sections show initiation of thrusting at a
(Fig. 11E). In contrast, no significant signs of biodegradation have been time, when source rocks were at the main to late oil window conditions
observed in Well T, which agrees with the modeling results (Fig. 12E). in the kitchen area, with oil and first gas generation (Fig. 13). This
Biodegradation in wells B and L is primarily attributed to the shallow modeling result is consistent with previous studies that showed that
burial depth of reservoirs and resulting low reservoir temperatures, hydrocarbons generated in the oil window are sufficient to cause the
which are closely related to the deformation dynamics (e.g., timing, increase of pore-fluid pressure to promote the detachment faulting

21
K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

(Moretti et al., 1996; Parnell et al., 1998; Rocha and Cristallini, 2015). In contrast, the source rocks in the NE domain matured to the oil window
contrast, the source rock maturation at the timing of the maximum in the Late Miocene (Fig. 13C), but at that time no major sedimentary
shortening rate of the thrusts differed between the SW and NE domains. loading occurred. We therefore interpreted a deep-seated compressive
The thrusting peak with the maximum shortening rate occurred, when pulse to have affected the NE domain in the Late Miocene, which trig­
source rocks reached the dry gas window in well sections B and L of the gered thrusting and, maybe accompanied by some contribution of
SW domain, while they were still in the main oil window in well section gravity forces, the observed peak in structural shortening.
T of the NE domain, which was coincident with the timing of the thrust Hydrocarbons expelled from the source rock accumulated at the crest
initiation (Fig. 13). This difference in the source rock maturation at the of the anticlines through thrusts and reservoir sandstones as carrier bed.
timing of maximum shortening rates between the SW and NW domains Gas leakage, but no oil leakage from the accumulations in the vertical
is most likely related to the different primary thrust-driving mechanism direction was modeled because of the small molecular size of gas. The
of each domain, which is gravity-driven in the SW domain and gas leaking probably corresponds to seismically observed gas clouds
crustal-driven in the NE domain. (Fig. 2; Algar, 2012). If the reservoir burial depth is shallow, there is a
Gravity-driven thrust systems use continuous, internal potential en­ risk to be affected by biodegradation. In the study area, hydrocarbon
ergy as their deformation driver (Rowan et al., 2004; Peel, 2014; Yang alteration by biodegradation is generally apparent at burial depths of
et al., 2020). Therefore, it is plausible that enhanced overpressure by gas 1000–1500 m and below (Figs. 10-12E). Syn- and post-kinematic se­
generation and secondary cracking minimizes the basal friction of thrust quences are not sufficiently mature for petroleum generation in the
wedges. Shortening will be therefore at its peak within the gas window study area. Therefore, the contribution to hydrocarbon accumulations
under sustained deltaic loading (Luo and Vasseur, 1996; Cobbold et al., from these sequences would be limited or negligible, even if they contain
2004; Rocha and Cristallini, 2015). In contrast, the energy source of much organic material.
thrust systems driven by deep-seated crustal tectonics is derived from an
external stress pulse, the movement of the stressed lithospheric-scale 8. Conclusions
boundary (Morley et al., 2011; Yang et al., 2020). Therefore, the kine­
matics of shortening in deep-seated crustal-driven systems strongly Basin modeling combined with structural reconstruction provides a
depend on the intensity and timing of the external stress. The peak of the plausible explanation for the thermal evolution of the source rocks in the
shortening rate in the NE domain of the study area is interpreted to have deepwater NW Borneo fold-thrust belt.
likely coincided with a compressional pulse in the Upper Miocene across The most reasonable source rock sequence in the Middle Miocene
shallow to deepwater areas offshore NW Borneo (Cullen, 2010; Ogawa corresponds to the main detachment layer that are characterized on the
and Back, 2022a). In contrast to the SW domain, which always had a seismic-reflection data by anomalously low interval velocity. Modeled
continuous deltaic load in its shallow water region, the NE domain hydrocarbon expulsion started in the Late Miocene for oil and in the
probably lacked a continuous mechanism to induce compressional stress Pliocene for gas. Thrust development preceded these expulsions. Hy­
(Hesse et al., 2009; Cullen, 2010). The increase in basal fluid pressures drocarbons expelled from the source rock sequence accumulated in
associated due to primary and secondary cracking alone likely did not turbidite sandstones at the crest of the thrusted-anticline with migration
cause the shortening peak within the gas window in the Pliocene. The through carrier beds and faults. The area of the modeled gas leak fits
results presented instead indicate that pulsed compressive stress trig­ well to the gas cloud observed in the seismic-reflection data. Syn-
gered by deep-seated tectonics affected the NE domain after the for­ kinematic sequences are not mature enough to generate hydrocarbons
mation of overpressure. regionally.
In the gravity-driven (SW domain) thrust system offshore NW Bor­
7.6. Petroleum and thrust systems in deepwater NW Borneo neo, thrusts started developing with the source rock reaching the oil
window. Thrusting reached peak deformation with the source rock in
The petroleum and thrust systems working in the study area are the gas window. The gravity-driven part of the fold-thrust belt thus
summarized as follows, assuming a Middle Miocene source rock: the shows tectonics responding to changing subsurface pressure conditions
source rock contains organic matter derived from land plants in the likely caused by the petroleum system. In turn, in the dominantly
Middle Miocene and transported to the deepwater area during the low crustal-driven (NE domain) of the fold-thrust belt, both, the onset and
sea level (PETRONAS, 1999; Saller et al., 2006; Algar, 2012; Ogawa and peak deformation by folds and thrusts occurred above a detachment in
Jong, 2016). The plausible age of the source rock (PG-1) is approxi­ the main oil window. In this part of the thrust belt, therefore, thrusting
mately 13.2 Ma (Cullen, 2010). This time coincides with the most and shortening are interpreted as being primarily controlled by crustal
prominent and rapid global sea level falls (13.8–13.1 Ma) during the compressive stresses and not the petroleum system.
Neogene without rebounding, related to major expansion of the East
Antarctic ice sheet (Shackleton et al., 2001; Holbourn et al., 2013; Credit author statement
Morley et al., 2021). This global sea level fall could trigger shelf col­
lapses at the NW Borneo margin (Morley et al., 2021) and may have Kazuhiro Ogawa: Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation,
contributed to the transport of land-derived organic matters to the Investigation, Writing – Original Draft, Visualization, Project adminis­
deepwater area and thus source rock formations (Abdullah et al., 2017). tration, Funding acquisition. Stefan Back: Writing – Review & Editing,
After the deposition of the source rock, turbidites which work as reser­ Supervision. Ralf Littke: Writing – Review & Editing.
voir rocks, semi-pelagic mudstones and MTCs filled the sedimentary
basins. The source rock matured in the Late Miocene during deep burial,
and started to expel oil in the Late Miocene and gas in the Early Pliocene Declaration of competing interest
(Figs. 10-13).
In the SW domain, where the delta supply is predominant, abnor­ The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re­
mally high pressure and shelfal extension occurred as the source rock lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
matured towards the oil window, and deformation started in the deep­ Kazuhiro Ogawa reports financial support was provided by JX Nippon
water area of the shelf side in the Late Miocene (synclines 1 and 2; Oil & Gas Exploration Corporation.
Figs. 4B and 14A-B). Then, thrust deformation propagated toward the
basin (Syncline 3; Fig. 15C) in the SW domain as the burial increased. Data availability
The deformation peak in the Late Miocene coincides with the time, when
the source rocks reached the dry gas window (Fig. 13A and B). In The data that has been used is confidential.

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K. Ogawa et al. Geoenergy Science and Engineering 229 (2023) 212060

Acknowledgements associated fluid escape features in the northern Zhongjiannan Basin, South China
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PETRONAS is particularly to be thanked for help in data providing, Cobbold, P.R., Clarke, B.J., Løseth, H., 2009. Structural consequences of fluid
and for permission to publish this paper. We thank Soumyajit Mukher­ overpressure and seepage forces in the outer thrust belt of the Niger Delta. Petrol.
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