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978-1-107-65315-3 – Mathematics Standard Level for IB Diploma

Paul Fannon Vesna Kadelburg Ben Woolley and Stephen Ward
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1 EXPONENTS AND LOGARITHMS

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW

• The rules of exponents:

• am × an = am+n

am
• = am n
an

• (am)n = amn
m
n
• an am

1
• a−n =
an

• an × bn = (ab)n
n
an ⎛ a ⎞
• =⎜ ⎟
bn ⎝ b ⎠

• The relationship between exponents and logarithms:

• a =b ⇔ x g a b where a is called the base of the logarithm

• log a a x x

• a log x
x

• The rules of logarithms:

• log c l g c b = log c ab
log

a
• log c l g c b = log c
log
b
• log c log c a

⎛ 1⎞
• log c log c a
⎝ a⎠

• log c 1 0

1 Exponents and logarithms 1

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Paul Fannon Vesna Kadelburg Ben Woolley and Stephen Ward
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log c a
• The change of base rule: log b a =
log c b

• There are two common abbreviations for logarithms to particular bases:

• log10 x is often written as log x

• loge x is often written as ln x

• The graphs of exponential and logarithmic functions:

y y y
y = Aex y = log x

1 x
y = C + Ae−x

C+A

A y=C
x x
exponential growth exponential decay logarithm

EXAM TIPS AND COMMON ERRORS

• You must know what you cannot do with logarithms:

• log(x + y) cannot be simplified; it is not log x + log y

• log(ex + ey) cannot be simplified; it is not x + y

• (log x)2 is not 2 log x, whereas log x2 = 2 log x

• e2 l g
e 2 e log x e 2 x not e2 + x

2 1 Exponents and logarithms

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Paul Fannon Vesna Kadelburg Ben Woolley and Stephen Ward
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1.1 SOLVING EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.1
log a
Solve the equation 4 × 5x+1 = 3x, giving your answer in the form .
log b

Since the unknown is in the power, we take

log( 5 1
) log(3 ) x logarithms of each side.
We then use the rules of logarithms to simplify the
⇔ log
l g4 log(5x +1 ) = log(3 x ) expression. First use log(ab) = log a + log b

A common mistake is to say that

log(4 × 5x+1) = log 4 × log(5x+1).

⇔ l g + ( + )log5 = log
og3 We can now use log a k = k log a to get rid of the
powers.

⇔ l g 4 + log
log5 + log5 = log3
Expand the brackets and collect the terms
⇔ l g3 − log5 = log 4 + llog
og5 containing x on one side.
⇔ (l g3 − log5) = log 4 log
og5

log 4 + llog
og5 Use the rules of logarithms to write the solution
⇔ =
log3 − llog
og5 in the correct form:
log20 log a log b = log ab
⇔ =
3
log ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ a⎞
log a log b = log ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 5⎠ ⎝ b⎠

Practice questions 1.1

log a
1. Solve the equation 53 1
15, giving your answer in the form where a and b
are integers. log b

log p
2. Solve the equation 32 1
4 x − 2 , giving your answer in the form where p and q are
rational numbers. log q

1 log p
3. Solve the equation 3 2 x 3
= , giving your answer in the form where p and q are
rational numbers. 5 2x
log q

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1.2 SOLVING DISGUISED QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.2
Find the exact solution of the equation 32x+1 − 11 × 3x = 4.

We need to find a substitution to turn this into

32 1
11 3 x = 4 a quadratic equation.
⇔ 3 × 32 x −11× 3 4 First, express 32x +1 in terms of 3x:
⇔ 3 × (3 x ) −11× 3 32 x × 31 3 × ( 3 x )2
2 32 1
4

Look out for an a2x term, which can be

rewritten as (ax )2.

After substituting y for 3x, this becomes a

Let y = 3x. Then standard quadratic equation, which can be
3 y2 11y 4 = 0 factorised and solved.

3 y 1)( y − 4 )
⇔ (3y
1 Disguised quadratic equations may
⇔ y= o y=4 also be encountered when solving
3 trigonometric equations, which is
covered in Chapter 5.

1 Remember that y = 3x.

∴ 3x = − or 3 = 4
3
1
3x = − is impossible since 3x > 0 for all x. With disguised quadratic equations, often
3 one of the solutions is impossible.

3 4
⇔ l g3 = log 4 Since x is in the power, we take logarithms of
both sides. We can then use log a k = k log a to get
⇔ x l g3 = log 4 rid of the power.
log 4
⇔x=
log3

Practice questions 1.2

4. Solve the equation 22x − 5 × 2x + 4 = 0.

5. Find the exact solution of the equation ex − 6e−x = 5.

6. Solve the simultaneous equations e x + y = 6 and ex + ey = 5.

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1.3 LAWS OF LOGARITHMS

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.3
If x = log a, y = log b and z = log c, write 2x + y − 0.5z + 2 as a single logarithm.

2log llog b 0.5

5 og 2 We need to rewrite the expression as a single
logarithm. In order to apply the rules for combining
= log a 2
og b − log c
llog 0.5
+2 logarithms, each log must have no coefficient in
front of it. So we first need to use k log x = log x k.

= log 2b − log
log c 0.5 + 2 We can now use log x + log y = log(x y)
⎛ a b⎞ 2 ⎛ x⎞
= log ⎜ +2 and log log y = log ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎟⎠ ⎝ y⎠

⎛ a2b ⎞ We also need to write 2 as a logarithm so that

= log ⎜ + log100
⎝ c ⎟⎠ it can then be combined with the first term. Since
102 = 100, we can write 2 as log 100.
⎛ 100a2b ⎞
= log ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
Remember that log on its own is
taken to mean log10.

Practice questions 1.3

7. Given x = log a, y = log b and z = log c, write 3x − 2y + z as a single logarithm.

8. Given a = log x, b = log y and c = log z, find an expression in terms of a, b and

⎛ 10 xy 2 ⎞
c for log ⎜ .
⎝ z ⎟⎠

9. Given that log a + 1 = log b2, express a in terms of b.

10. Given that ln y = 2 + 4 ln x, express y in terms of x.

11. Consider the simultaneous equations

e2x + ey = 800
3 ln x + ln y = 5
(a) For each equation, express y in terms of x.
(b) Hence solve the simultaneous equations.

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1.4 SOLVING EQUATIONS INVOLVING LOGARITHMS

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.4
Solve the equation 4 l g 4 9 log x 4 .

log4 4 1 We want to have logarithms involving just one

logx 4 = =
log log
l g4 x base so that we can apply the rules of logarithms.
Here we use the change of base rule to turn logs
Therefore with base x into logs with base 4. (Alternatively,
4 g4 9 logx 4 we could have turned them all into base x
instead.)
1
⇔ 4 g4 = 9×
log4 x

⇔ 4 ( g4 )2 = 9 Multiply through by log4 x to get the log terms

9 together.
⇔ (log4 x ) =
2

4
Make sure you use brackets to indicate
that the whole of log4 x is being squared,
not just x; (log4 x)2 is not equal to 2 log4 x,
but log4 x 2 would be.

3 3 Take the square root of both sides; don’t forget

log l g4 x = −
log the negative square root.
2 2

3 3
−
So x 4 o
or x =4 2 Use loga b ⇔ b = a x to ‘undo’ the logs.
1
=8 =
8

Practice questions 1.4

12. Solve the equation log l g4 (
log 6) 2.

13. Solve the equation 2 log 2 l g2 ( 1) = 3 , giving your answers in simplified surd form.

Make sure you check your answers by substituting them into the
original equation.

14. Solve the equation 25 log 2 log x 2 .

15. Solve the equation log ( 4 ) l g16 (

log 2
).

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1.5 PROBLEMS INVOLVING EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

WORKED EXAMPLE 1.5
When a cup of tea is made, its temperature is 85°C. After 3 minutes the tea has cooled to 60°C.
Given that the temperature T (°C) of the cup of tea decays exponentially according to the function
T = A + Ce−0.2t, where t is the time measured in minutes, find:
(a) the values of A and C (correct to three significant figures)
(b) the time it takes for the tea to cool to 40°C.

(a) When t 0 5 A+C (1)

When t 3 6 A + Ce
Ce −0 6
(2) Substitute the given values for T (temperature)
(1) − (2) gives 25 = C (1− e ) −0 6 and t (time) into T = A + Ce−0.2t, remembering that
e0 = 1.
25
So C = = 55.4 (3 SF )
1− e −0 6
Note that A is the long-term limit of the
Then, from (1):
temperature, which can be interpreted as the
A = 85 − C = 85 − 55.4 = 29.6 (3 SF ) temperature of the room.

(b) When T = 40: Now we can substitute for T, A and C.

29.6
6 55 4e 0 2t
= 40

40 − 29.6 Since the unknown t is in the power, we take

⇒ 0 2t
=
55.4 logarithms of both sides and then ‘cancel’ e and
ln using loga ( a x ) = x .
⎛ 40 − 29.6 ⎞
⇒ ln( e −0 2t ) = ln
⎝ 55.4 ⎠
⎛ 40 − 29.6 ⎞ Remember that ln means loge.
⇒ −0.2t = ln
⎝ 55.4 ⎠
⇒ t = 8.36 minutes

Practice questions 1.5

16. The amount of reactant, V (grams), in a chemical reaction decays exponentially according
to the function V = M + Ce−0.32t, where t is the time in seconds since the start of the reaction.
Initially there was 4.5 g of reactant, and this had decayed to 2.6 g after 7 seconds.
(a) Find the value of C.
(b) Find the value that the amount of reactant approaches in the long term.

17. A population of bacteria grows according to the model P = Aekt, where P is the size of
the population after t minutes. Given that after 2 minutes there are 200 bacteria and after
5 minutes there are 1500 bacteria, find the size of the population after 10 minutes.

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Mixed practice 1
1. Solve the equation 3 × 9x − 10 × 3x + 3 = 0.

2. Find the exact solution of the equation 23 1

55 x.

3. Solve the simultaneous equations

ln x2 + ln y = 15
ln x + ln y3 = 10

4. Given that y = ln x − ln(x + 2) + ln(x2 − 4), express x in terms of y.

5. The graph with equation y = 4 ln(x − a) passes through the point (5, ln 16). Find the value of a.

6. (a) An economic model predicts that the demand, D, for a new product will grow according
to the equation D = A − Ce−0.2t, where t is the number of days since the product launch.
After 10 days the demand is 15 000 and it is increasing at a rate of 325 per day.
(i) Find the value of C.
(ii) Find the initial demand for the product.
(iii) Find the long-term demand predicted by this model.
(b) An alternative model is proposed, in which the demand grows according to the formula
t + 10 ⎞
D B ln ⎛ . The initial demand is the same as that for the first model.
⎝ 5 ⎠
(i) Find the value of B.
(ii) What is the long-term prediction of this model?
(c) After how many days will the demand predicted by the second model become larger than
the demand predicted by the first model?

Going for the top 1

1. Find the exact solution of the equation 23 4
32 5
= 36 x − 2 , giving your answer in the form
ln p
where p and q are integers.
ln q
2. Given that log a 2 2
log b a c + 1, express a in terms of b.

3. In a physics experiment, Maya measured how the force, F, exerted by a spring depends on
its extension, x. She then plotted the values of a = ln F and b = ln x on a graph, with b on the
horizontal axis and a on the vertical axis. The graph was a straight line, passing through the
points (2, 4.5) and (4, 7.2). Find an expression for F in terms of x.

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Paul Fannon Vesna Kadelburg Ben Woolley and Stephen Ward
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2 POLYNOMIALS

WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW

• The quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has solutions given by the quadratic formula:
2
−bb b − 4 ac
x=
2a
• The number of real solutions to a quadratic equation is determined by the discriminant,
Δ = b2 − 4ac.
• If Δ > 0, there are two distinct solutions.
• If Δ = 0, there is one (repeated) solution.
• If Δ < 0, there are no real solutions.
b
• The graph of y = ax2 + bx + c has a y-intercept at (0, c) and a line of symmetry at x = − .
2a
• The graph of y a(
a x p)( x q ) has x-intercepts at (p, 0) and (q, 0).
• The graph of y a( x h)2 + k has a turning point at (h, k).
• An expression of the form (a + b)n can be expanded quickly using the binomial theorem:
⎛ n⎞ ⎛ n⎞
( b)n = a n + ⎜ ⎟ a 1
b + …+
+⎜ ⎟a br + … + b n
⎝ 1⎠ ⎝ r⎠
• The binomial coefficients can be found using a calculator, Pascal’s triangle or the formula
⎛ n⎞ n!
⎜⎝ r ⎟⎠ = r ! (n − r )!

EXAM TIPS AND COMMON ERRORS

• Make sure that you rearrange quadratic equations so that one side is zero before using the
quadratic formula.

• Questions involving the discriminant are often disguised. You may have to interpret them to
realise that you need to find the number of solutions rather than the actual solutions.

• Look out for quadratic expressions in disguise. A substitution is often a good way of making
the expression explicitly quadratic.

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2.1 USING THE QUADRATIC FORMULA

WORKED EXAMPLE 2.1
Solve the equation x 2 4 x 3, giving your answer in the form a
4x b.

x2 4x 3 = 0
Here a = 1, b = −4 and c = −3 Rearrange the equation to make one side zero;
then use the quadratic formula.
− ( −4 ) ± ( −4 )2 − 4 ×1× ( −3)
x=
2 ×1
4 ± 28
=
2

4± 4 × 7
=
2
4 ±2 7 Use the fact that ab = a b to simplify the
= answer.
2
= 2± 7

Practice questions 2.1

1. Solve the equation 12 x = x 2 + 34 , giving your answer in the form a b.

1
2. Find the exact solutions of the equation x + = 4.
x
An exact solution in this context means writing your answer as a surd. Even
giving all the decimal places shown on your calculator is not ‘exact’.

3. Solve the equation x2 + 8k2 = 6kx, giving your answer in terms of k.

4. Using the substitution u = x2, solve the equation x4 − 5x2 + 4 = 0.

5. A field is 6 m wider than it is long. The area of the field is 50 m2. Find the exact
dimensions of the field.

10 2 Polynomials

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