A.

List of Experiments
1. Prepare a temporary mount to observe pollen germination.
2. Study the plant population density by quadrat method.
3. Study the plant population frequency by quadrat method.
4. Prepare a temporary mount of onion root tip to study mitosis.
5. Isolate DNA from available plant material such as spinach, green pea seeds, papaya etc.

B. Study/observation of the following (Spotting)

1. Flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind, insects, birds).
2. Pollen germination on stigma through a permanent slide.
3. Identification of stages of gamete development, i.e., T.S. of testis and T.S. of ovary through
permanent slides (from grasshopper/mice).
4. Meiosis in onion bud cell or grasshopper testis through permanent slides.
5. T.S. of blastula through permanent slides (Mammalian).
6. Mendelian inheritance using seeds of different colour/sizes of any plant.
7. Prepared pedigree charts of any one of the genetic traits such as rolling of tongue, blood
groups, ear lobes, widow's peak and colour blindness.
8. Controlled pollination - emasculation, tagging and bagging.
9. Common disease causing organisms like Ascaris, Entamoeba, Plasmodium, any fungus causing
ringworm through permanent slides or specimens. Comment on symptoms of diseases that they
cause.

10. Models specimen showing symbolic association in root modules of leguminous plants, Cuscuta on host,
lichens.

11. Flash cards models showing examples of homologous and analogous organs.
EXP.NO:1
Prepare a temporary mount to observe pollen germination.

Aim:
To study pollen germination on a slide.
Principle:
In nature, pollen grains germinate on the compatible stigmas of the carpel. Pollen grains can also be
induced to germinate in a synthetic medium. During germination, intine (inner wall) of pollen grain
emerges out as pollen tube through one of the germ pores in exine (outer wall).
Requirements:
Freshly plucked seasonal flowers (Vinca /Tradescantia/balsam/Jasmine/lily/ pomegranate/grass/
Petunia), beaker, boric acid, sucrose, microscope and cavity slide.
Procedure:
The first step involves the preparation of a sugar solution. This is done by dissolving 10g of sucrose
90ml of water. Pour a few drops of this solution onto the cavity slide. Then, use a brush or fingers to
gently dust a few pollen grains from the stamen of mature flowers.
Let the slide set for 5 minutes. Then, use the microscope to view the slides in 30- minute intervals.
Observation:
The pollen grains will germinate when submerged in the sugar rich nutrient medium. This is
characterized by the enlargement of the vegetative/tube cell. It emerges through one of the germ
pores, eventually forming a pollen tube. The generative cell nucleus grows into the pollen tube
and makes two male gametes (sperm nuclei). The male gamete is either spherical or lenticular in
outline.

Inference:
Different stages of germinating pollens are observed. Some pollen are in their initial stage of
germination while others have quite long pollen tube containing tube nucleus and two male gametes.
Precautions:
1. Flowers should be freshly plucked.
2. Use clean cavity slide to observe the pollen grains.
3. The slides should not be disturbed; otherwise position of pollen grains will get changed.
4. During observations pollen grains must be properly dipped in nutrient solution.
EXP.NO:2
Study the plant population density by quadrat method.
Aim
Study the plant population density by quadrat method.
Principle:
Density represents the numerical strength of a certain plant species in the community per unit area.
The number of individuals of the species in any unit area is its density. The unit area may be as small
as 5 square cm to as large as 10 square metres depending on the size and nature of the plant
community under study. For herbaceous vegetation a metre square quadrat is normally used. Density
which gives an idea of degree of competition is calculated as follows.
Density= Total number of individual(s) of the species in all the sampling unit (S) / Total number of
sampling units studied (Q)
The value thus obtained is then expressed as number of individuals per unit area. When the
measured unit area is divided by the number of individuals the average area occupied by each
individual is obtained.
Requirement:
Meter scale, Cotton/nylon thread (five meters), 4 nails and a hammer
Procedure:
(i) In the selected site of study, make a 1 m X 1 m quadrat with the help of nails and thread. Hammer
the nails firmly and make sure that the vegetation is not damaged while laying the quadrat.
(ii) List the names of the plant species seen in the quadrat (if the name is not known mark these as
species A or B etc., and the same species if seen in other quadrats assign the same alphabet).
(iii) Count the numbers of individuals of each species present in the quadrat and record the data
as shown in the table.
(iv) Similarly make nine more quadrats randomly in the site of study and record the names and
number of individuals of each species.

Observations:
Record the total number of species seen in the ten quadrats. This will give an idea about the
composition of the vegetation. There will be difference in the species composition in the quadrats
made in shady areas, exposed areas with bright sunlight, dry or wet areas etc.

Conclusion
The population density is the highest for species A. and the lowest for species Z. The density value
is expressed as the number of individuals per unit area.
Precautions:
1. Measure the quadrate accurately.
2. Mark all the quadrates close to each other within one field only.
3. The string/ thread should not be very tick.
4. Every individual of all species should be counted precisely without repetition.
5. The vegetation should not be damaged while laying the quadrates.
EXP.NO:3
Study the plant population frequency by quadrat method.
Aim:
Study the plant population frequency by quadrat method.
Principle:
Frequency is concerned with the degree of uniformity of the occurrence of individuals of a species
within a plant community. It is measured by noting the presence of a species in random sample
areas (quadrats) which are distributed as widely as possible throughout the area of study.
Frequency is the number of sampling units (as %) in which a particular species (A) occurs. The
frequency of each species (sps. A or sps. B or sps. X etc) is expressed in percentage and is calculated
as follows.
% Frequency or Frequency Index = Number of sampling units (quadrats) in which the species
occurs /Total number of sampling units (quadrats) employed for the study * 100
Requirements:
Meter scale, Cotton/nylon thread of 5 metres, 4 nails and a hammer
Procedure:
(i) In the selected site of study, make a 1 m X 1 m quadrat with the help of nails and thread. Hammer
the nails firmly and make sure that the vegetation is not damaged while laying the quadrat.
(ii) List the names of the plant species seen in the quadrat (if the name is not known mark these as
species A or B etc. and if the same species is seen in other quadrats assign the same alphabet)
(iii) Similarly lay nine more quadrats randomly in the site of study and record the names of
individuals of each species.
(iv) Calculate the percentage frequency of occurrence using the formula given.
Observations:
Record the total number of species seen in the ten quadrats. This will give an idea about the
composition of the vegetation. Observe that the frequency of occurrence is not the same for all species.
(There will be difference in the species composition in the quadrats made in shady areas, exposed
areas with bright sunlight, dry or wet areas etc.)

Conclusion
The plant population frequency is the highest in species A and the least in
species C.

Precautions:
1. Measure the quadrate accurately.
2. Mark all the quadrates close to each other within one field only.
3. The string/ thread should not be very tick.
4. Every individual of all species should be counted precisely without repetition.
5. The vegetation should not be damaged while laying the quadrates.
EXP.NO:4
Prepare a temporary mount of onion root tip to study mitosis.

Aim:
To study the different stages of mitosis in onion root tip.
Requirement:
Onion bulbs, widemouthed glass tubes/jar/bottle, glacial acetic acid, ethanol
2-4% acetocarmine stain, N/10 HCl, spirit lamp, slide, cover slips, blotting paper,
molten wax/nail polish and compound microscope.
Procedure:
Growing of root tips:
Select a few medium-sized onion bulbs. Carefully remove the dry outer scaly leaves
and roots present. Grow root tips by placing the bulbs on glass tubes (of about 3–4
cm. diameter) filled with water. Care should be taken so that the stem portion of the
bulb (basal part) just touches the water. Replace water in every 2-3 days. New roots
may take 3–6 days to grow.

Figure: Growing of roots in Onion

Fixation of root tips:
Cut 2–3 cm long freshly grown roots and transfer them to freshly prepared fixative,
i.e., aceto-alcohol (1:3: glacial acetic acid: ethanol). Onion root-tip cells have a cell
cycle of approximately 24-hour duration, i.e., they divide once in 24 hours, and this
division usually takes place about two hours after sunrise. Therefore, roots grown
on water should be cut only at that time to score maximum number of dividing
cells.
Preparation of slide:
Take one or two preserved roots, wash them in water on a clean slide. Place one drop
of N/10 HCl on the root tip followed by 2–3 drops of acetocarmine stain on it.
(Warm slide for 5–10 minutes slightly on spirit lamp). Care should be taken that the
stain is not dried up. Carefully blot the excess stain using blotting paper. Now cut
the comparatively more stained (2–3 mm) tip portion of the root and retain it on the
slide and discard the remaining portion. After (10–20 seconds) put one or two drops
of water and blot them carefully using blotting paper. Again put a drop of water on
the root tip and mount a cover slip on it avoiding air bubbles. Place the slide in
between the folds of blotting paper using the fingers in such a way that the cover slip
mounted on the slide is properly held. Now slowly tap the cover slip using the blunt
end of a pencil so that the meristematic tissue of the root tip below the cover slip is
properly squashed and spread as a thin layer of cells. Carefully seal the margins of
the cover slip using molten paraffin wax or nail polish. This preparation of onion
root tips cells is now ready for the study of mitosis.

Study of slide
Place the slide on the stage of a good quality compound microscope. First observe it
under the lower magnification (10 X objective) to search for the area having a few
dividing cells. Examine the dividing cells under higher magnification of the
microscope to observe the detailed features of mitosis.
Observation:
1. Interphase:
The cells are mostly rectangular, oval or even circular in shape, with almost
centrally situated densely stained nucleus. The chromatic (coloured) material of the
nucleus is homogeneous and looks granular. The boundary of the nucleus is
distinct. One or few nucleoli (sing: nucleolus) can also be observed inside the
nucleus.
2. Prophase
Intact nuclear outline is seen. The chromatin (seen as a homogeneous material
in the nucleus at interphase) appears as a network of fine threads
(chromosomes).
Nucleoli may or may not be visible.
3. Metaphase
The nuclear membrane disappears. Chromosomes are thick and are seen arranged
at the equatorial plane of the cell. Each chromosome at this stage has two
chromatids joined together at the centromere. Nucleolus is not observed during
metaphase.
4. Anaphase
This stage shows the separation of the chromatids of each chromosome. The
chromatids separate due to the splitting of the centromere. Each chromatid now
represents a separate chromosome as it has its own centromere. The chromosomes
are found as if they have moved towards the two poles of the cell. The chromosomes
at this stage may look like the shape of alphabets 'V', 'J' or 'I' depending upon the
position of centromere in them. Different anaphase cells show different stages of
movement of chromosomes to opposite poles, and they are designated to represent
early, mid and late anaphase.
5. Telophase
Chromosomes reach the opposite poles, lose their individuality, and look like a
mass of chromatin. Nuclear membrane appears to form the nuclei of the two future
daughter cells.

Conclusion
In the prepared temporary mount of onion root tip…………..and ..................Stages of
Mitosis is visible clearly.
Precautions:
1. The base of the onion bulb should be in contact with water while growing the
roots.
2. Clean the slide and cover slip thoroughly before use.
 3. Avoid air bubbles while putting cover slip on the slide.
4. Root tips should be fixed in the morning between 8 to 10am.
5. The slide should be warmed gently much above the flame of the spirit lamp.

EXP.NO:5
Isolation of DNA
Aim:
Isolate DNA from available plant material such as spinach, green pea seeds, papaya, banana,
Cauliflower etc.
Principle:
DNA is one of the nucleic acids found in living systems. DNA acts as the genetic material in most
of the organisms. Recombinant DNA technology has allowed breeders to introduce foreign DNA in
other organisms including bacteria, yeast, plants and animals. Such organisms are called Genetically
Modified Organisms (GMOs). Thus rDNA technology involves isolation of DNA from a variety of
sources and formation of new combination of DNA.
Requirements:
Plant material (spinach/green pea/papaya/banana/Cauliflower/Tomato/Onion), Water, Pastel and
mortal or grater, Chilled Ethanol (Refrigerate it overnight), NaCl, Liquid detergent, Muslin cloth for
filtration, tooth pick, Large paper clips/ Wire loop, Beaker, Petri dish, Boiling tube
Procedure:
1. Take the available plant material and grind it in the mortar or grate/mesh it to make paste in
a Petri dish/beaker.
2. Fill a clean beaker with 25 ml of water; slowly add two teaspoons of liquid detergent and half
teaspoon of NaCl. Gently mix tem without making bubbles till the salt dissolves.
3. Add this mixture to meshed plant material and let it undisturbed for 20 minutes to give
detergent enough time to react.
4. Place a fine/muslin cloth on a small beaker/boiling tube and carefully pour the mixture here
and filter it. Gently squeeze the mixture to get more liquid out. This liquid filtrate contains
DNA.
5. Since the DNA is soluble in water so to isolate DNA from this filtrate pour chilled
ethanol by side of slightly (450) tilted boiling tube.
6. After few minutes DNA will isolate as white precipitates/ fine threads from the watery filtrate
at the boundary layer between water and ethanol.
7. Separate DNA by spooling i.e. the winding of the fine threads of DNA on clip or wire loop.

Observation:
DNA appears as white precipitate of very fine
threads on the spool.
Inference:
Thus DNA can be isolated from the plant cell
nucleus by this technique.
Precautions:
1. All the glass wares must be
thoroughly cleaned and dried.
2. The chemicals used for the experiments
must be of standard quality.
3. NaCl and Liquid detergent should be to
dissolve slowly by stirring without formation of
foam or bubbles.
4. Add chilled ethanol to enable the
precipitation of the DNA
5. Use wire or blunt forceps for
spooling of precipitated DNA.
 SPOTTING
SPOT 1:

Flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind, insects, and birds).

Flowers adapted to pollination by Birds
COMMENTS:
1. Pollination is the process of transferring pollen from the male anther of a flower to the female
stigma of the same or different flower.
2. Pollination of flowers by insects is called ornithophily.
3. The flowers pollinated by birds are strong and are adapted to allow the birds to stay near the
flowers without their wings getting entangled in them.
4. The flowers are tubular and curved that facilitates nectar-sucking by birds.
5. The flowers are odourless and bright-coloured that attracts the birds. While sucking the
nectar, the pollen gets deposited on their beaks and neck and is transferred to the plant they
visit next.
6. Few examples of flowers pollinated by birds include: Hibiscus, Bignonia, Verbenas,

Flowers adapted to pollination by Wind

COMMENTS:
1. Pollination is the process of transferring pollen from the male anther of a flower to the female
stigma of the same or different flower.
2. Most of the conifers and angiosperms exhibit wind pollination. Pollination of flowers by the
wind is called as anemophily.
3. Such flowers do not produce nectar and fragrance.
4. In the flowers pollinated by the wind, the micro sporangia hang out of the flower. As the wind
blows, the light-weight pollen blows with it. The pollen gets accumulated on the feathery stigma of
the flower.
5. These flowers appear even before the leaves when the spring commences.
6. Few examples of such flowers include: Rice, Barley, Papaya, Maize and Oats.

Flowers adapted to pollination by Insects

COMMENTS:
1. Pollination is the process of transferring pollen from the male anther of a flower to the female
stigma of the same or different flower.
2. Pollination of flowers by insects is called entomophily.
3. The flowers pollinated by insects are bright-coloured and produce nectar. Nectar guides are
present on the petals.
4. The fragrance of the flowers attracts the insects.
5. The pollen is sticky, large, heavy and rough so that stick to the body of the insects.
6. The stigmas are also sticky so that the pollens depositing are not dispersed.
7. Few examples of the flowers pollinated by insects are: Salvia, Datura, Gulmohar,
Calatropis etc

SPOT.2:
Pollen germination on stigma through a permanent slide.

COMMENTS:

Pollination refers to the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a

flower to the stigma of the same or different flower through biotic or
abiotic means.
1. The pollen is deposited on the stigma. Here, the pollen
germination starts with the absorption of nutrients and water.
2. A small pollen tube is produced through the style to the ovary.
3. The tube cell moves out of the pollen grain through one of the
germ pores and forms a pollen tube.
4. The nucleus of the tube moves down to the tip of the pollen
tube.
5. The generative cells also pass into it and soon divide to form
two male gametes.
6. During double fertilization, one of the two sperms fuses with the
egg cell of the ovule. This helps in embryo development.

7. The other cell combines with other subsidiary nuclei of the ovule that helps in the formation of
endosperm.
8. The growing ovule is transformed into a seed.
 SPOT. 3:

T.S. OF TESTIS
COMMENTS:
1. The testes comprise several seminiferous tubules embedded in the interstitial tissues.
2. Thick fibrous tissues called tunica albuginea cover the testes.
3. It comprises different types of cells from the outside to the lunar in the manner given
below:
Spermatogonia → Spermatocytes → Spermatids → Spermatozoa (sperms)
4. Sertoli cells are located between the germinal cells.
5. The Leydig cells that produce testosterone are present in the interstitial tissues.

T.S. OF OVARY
COMMENTS:
1. An ovary is a germinal epithelium bounded by a solid structure covered by a thick layer of
fibrous tissue known as tunica albuginea.
2. It consists of an inner medulla and an outer cortex.
3. The medulla comprises several round or oval bodies known as ovarian follicles.
4. Follicle development takes place in the following stages:
1°follicle → 2°follicle → 3°follicle → Graffian follicle → Corpus luteum
5. Cortex comprises corpus luteum along with mature follicles.
SPOT. 4:
Meiosis in onion bud cell or grasshopper testis through permanent slides.

COMMENTS:
(1) Prophase I: In this stage, the chromosomes condense and move towards the centre of the
cell. It consists of five different sub-phases:
a. Leptotene: The homologous chromosomes replicate.
b. Zygotene: Synapsis between homologous chromosomes start.
c. Pachytene: The sister chromatids separate but the homologous chromosomes
remain attached.
d. Diplotene: The two homologous chromosomes migrate apart and disintegrate
between the chromosomal arms.
e. Diakinesis: The condensation of chromosomes stop at this stage and the chiasmata is
clearly visible under an electron microscope. The nucleolus and the nuclear envelop disappear at this
stage and the centrosome moves to the equator. (2)Metaphase I: The homologous chromosomes that
contain two different alleles for each gene, line up on the metaphase plate to be separated.
(3) Anaphase I: The separated chromosomes are pulled towards the centrioles on either side of the
cell.
(4) Telophase I: The chromosomes are completely pulled apart and new nuclear envelope
forms.
(5) Prophase II: In this stage, the nuclear envelope disintegrates and centrioles develop.
(6) Metaphase II: The chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate and the chromatids are
on either side of the metaphase plate.
(7) Anaphase II: The sister chromatids separate and are known as sister chromosomes.
(8) Telophase II: The cell divides into two and new nuclear envelope surrounds the chromosomes.
SPOT.5:
T.S. of blastula through permanent slide (Mammalian).
COMMENTS:
1. The zygote undergoes a few cycles of mitotic divisions to form a solid ball of cells called
morula. The cells continue to divide and at a later stage a cavity is formed within it. This stage
is blastula.
2. Blastula appears as a sphere with a cavity known as blastocoel.
3. An outer layer of blastomeres known as trophoblasts is observed.
4. One end of the blastula shows a cellular mass adhered to the trophoblast. This is known as
the inner cell mass.
 SPOT.6:
Mendelian inheritance using beads/seeds of different colour/sizes of any plant.
Monohybrids cross:
PROCEDURE:-
1. A lot of about 100 pea seeds are taken in an enamel tray.
2. The round and wrinkled seeds are separated out and are put in two different Petri dishes.
3. The number of the round and wrinkled seeds are noted and their approximate ratio is
calculated.
4. The process is repeated for the other contrasting trait of the seed i.e., yellow and green
colour.
OBSERVATIONS: -

Total no. of No. of seeds showing Approximate

S.NO Characters / Traits of seeds contrasting form of Ratio
seed
observed the trait
1. Seed shape 106 80(R):26 (W) 3.07:1
(round/wrinkled)
2. Seed 110 83(Y): 27(G) 3.07:1
colour(yellow/green)

CONCLUSION;-
The contrasting forms in both the traits of the pea seed (i.e., seed shape and seed colour) show an
approximate ratio of 3:1. The ratio is exactly the same as obtained by Mendel for monohybrid crosses
and indicate that the dominant and recessive forms of seed shape and seed colour exist in the ratio 3:1
in the population of pea seeds.
Dihybrid Cross

PROCEDURE:-
1. A lot of about 250 pea seeds are taken in an enamel tray.
2. The yellow round, yellow wrinkled, green round, green wrinkled seeds are separated and
put in separate Petri dishes.
3. The number of seeds in each dish is noted and their approximate ratio is found out.
OBSERVATION:-

Total no. of No. of yellow No. of No. of green No. of green Approximate
seeds round seeds yellow round seeds wrinkled seeds Ratio
observed wrinkled
seeds

257 145 48 48 16 9.06:3:3:1

CONCLUSION:-
The ratio of yellow round, yellow wrinkled, green round and green wrinkled approximately 9: 3:
3:1, which is exactly the same as obtained by Mendel for a Dihybrid cross. This indicates that the
contrasting genes for seed colour and seed shape show an independent assortment in the population
of pea seeds.
 SPOT: 7:
Prepared pedigree charts of any one of the genetic traits such as rolling of tongue, blood
groups, ear lobes, widow's peak and colour blindness.

WIDOW'S PEAK
COMMENTS:
1. A Pedigree is a visual showing the pattern of inheritance for a trait. (Family tree)
2. Symbols and Rules: Unaffected Male = Unaffected Female =
Affected Male = Affected Female =
3. Link parents together with a line and then make a vertical line to connect to offspring:

4. Widow's peak is a hairline that forms distinct peak on forehead; it is an Autosome

Linked Dominant trait.
5. Transmission of traits occurs from parents of either sex. Males and females are equally
affected.
6. The pedigree is vertical, i.e., the trait is marked to be present in each of the generations.
Multiple generations are characteristically affected.

ROLLING OF TONGUE & FUSED EAR LOBES:

COMMENTS:
1. A Pedigree is a visual showing the pattern of inheritance for a trait. (Family tree)
2. Symbols and Rules: Unaffected Male = Unaffected Female =
Affected Male = Affected Female =
3. Link parents together with a line and then make a vertical line to connect to offspring:
 4. Rolling of tongue (Ability to roll tongue in U shape) & fused ear lobes (Ear lobes
attached to head) are Autosome Linked Recessive traits.
5. Occur in equal proportions in multiple male and female siblings, whose parents are
normal but carriers;
6. The siblings are homozygous for the defective allele, but their parents, though some may
appear normal, are obviously heterozygous, i.e., are merely carriers of the trait.
7. Consanguinity (marriage between man and woman genetically related to each other, such as
cousins) occasionally results in the appearance of such traits.

COLOUR BLINDNESS
COMMENTS:
1. A Pedigree is a visual showing the pattern of inheritance for a trait. (Family tree)
2. Symbols and Rules: Unaffected Male = Unaffected Female =
Affected Male = Affected Female =
3. Link parents together with a line and then make a vertical line to connect to offspring:

4. Red-green colour blindness is an example of Sex (X- chromosome) linked recessive

trait.
5. Females express the trait only when they are homozygous for the mutant allele, whereas
the males do so even when they are hemizygous for it.
6. About half of the sons of the carrier (heterozygous for the trait) females are affected. In case
of homozygous females showing the trait, fifty percent of her daughters and all of her sons
are likely to be affected. Therefore, the males are most affected in the population.
7. This trait shows cris-cross inheritance or skipping of generation.
BLOOD GROUP:
COMMENTS:
1. A Pedigree is a visual showing the pattern of inheritance for a trait. (Family tree)
2. Symbols and Rules: Unaffected Male = Unaffected Female =
Affected Male = Affected Female =
3. Link parents together with a line and then make a vertical line to connect to offspring:

4. Inheritance of Blood group is an example of Dominance, Multiple allelism and co-dominance.

5. Gene for ABO blood group having 3 alleles: I A, IB and o in which I A and IB are dominant
while o is recessive.
6. It is independent of sex of the organism.
 SPOT. 8:
Controlled pollination - emasculation, tagging and bagging.
COMMENTS:
1. Conventional plant breeding programs involve bringing under human control reproductive
processes that lead to seed and fruit formation.
2. For this controlled pollination is desirable using male and female parent having desired
traits.
3. One of the processes that can be easily brought under human control is emasculation in
which the stamens are removed from bisexual flowers in order to prevent self-
fertilization.
4. The process to cover the emasculated flower with a plastic bag to protect it from undesired
pollen is called as Bagging.
5. Just after desired cross pollination the pollinated flower again covered with the bag
immediately. Then for identification, labelling of the female parent is called as Tagging.
6. This process helps in the production of flowers with desired characteristics.

SPOT. 9:

Common disease causing organisms like Ascaris, Entamoeba, Plasmodium, any fungus causing
ringworm through permanent slides or specimens. Comment on symptoms of diseases that they
cause.

Ascaris
COMMENTS:
# Systematic position:
Phylum – Aschelminthes
Class – Nematoda
Type – Ascaris lumbricoides
External features:
1. It has a long, cylindrical and unsegmented body.
2. The male and female organisms are separate.
3. It bears a mouth at the anterior end surrounded by three lips.
4. There is an excretory pore on the ventral surface slightly behind the anterior end.
5. A pair of penial spicules is present in the male worms close to the cloacae opening.
6. The female genitals are present at about one-third distance from the anterior end.
 #Disease: Round worm or Ascaris is one of the common parasites found in the intestine of human
beings that causes Ascariasis.
#Symptoms: (a) Irregular bowel, (b) Occasional vomiting, (c) Anaemia (d)Abdominal cramping &
swelling (e) Nausea

Entamoeba

COMMENTS:
# Systematic position:
Phylum: Protozoa
Class: Rhizopoda
Type: Entamoeba histolytica
External features:
1. It is a unicellular organism with an irregular shape.
2. It consists of a few food vacuoles. The contractile vacuole is absent.
3. Cysts with four nuclei are present.
4. It consists of a nucleus located eccentrically in the cell.
# Disease: Entamoeba histolytica is an organism found in the intestines of humans that is responsible
for causing amoebic dysentery.
#Symptoms: Abdominal pain, Watery diarrhea with mucus, blood and pus, Fatigue, Fever, Nausea,
Vomiting.

Plasmodium
COMMENTS:

# Systematic position:
Phylum: Protozoa
Class: Sporozoa
Type: Plasmodium vivax
#External Features:
1. It is a unicellular endoparasite found within the red blood cells of the diseased person.
2. The parasite is mostly diagnosed at the “signet ring” stage where the parasite appears as a
round body.
3. There is a big vacuole present inside the cell. The cytoplasm is accumulated at one place and
contains the nucleus.
4. Plasmodium vivax is a protozoan parasite that causes malaria in humans. The infected female
anopheles bites a healthy person and transmits the sporozoite into the peripheral blood vessels of
humans.
#Disease: The infective stage sporozoites cause the disease Malaria. This stage undergoes
several rounds of multiplication in liver and erythrocytes of Human.
#Symptoms: High fever, shaking chills, Headache, Vomiting, Nausea

Trychophyton (Ringworm)
COMMENTS:
#Systemic position:
Kingdom: Fungi
Class: Deuteromycetes
Type: Trichophyton rubrum
#External features:
1. This fungus feeds on the keratin of the skin of human beings.
2. The hyphae are waxy and can be smooth or cotton-like.
3. Hyphae that are not stained are yellowish-brown, reddish-brown or white in colour.
#Disease: Ringworm is a communicable fungal infection of the skin.
#Symptoms: Scaly, itchy skin, Red and raised patches, they are redder at the periphery than at
the centre and forms a ring-like appearance.