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MORPHOLOGY,TAXONOMY,ECONOMIC BOTANY
PLANT ECOLOGY AND PHYTOGEOGRAPHY
CORE PAPER- VI
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Jamal Mohamed #OLLEGE (Autonomous)
Bharathidasan University
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 SYLLABUS

Unit- 1: Morphology Phyllotaxy of leaves. Structure of Monocot and Dicot flower,

Inflorescence- types racemose, cymose, mixed and special types. Outline classification of
Fruits.
Unit- II: Taxonomy
Binomial nomenclature- Systems of classiflcation - Bentham and Hooker's with
Merits and Demerits. Herbmium Techniques. A detailed study of followirg families and their
economic importance: Annonaceae, Rutaceae, Anacardiaceae, Capparidaceae, Tiliaceae,
Leguminosae (Paplionoideae, Caesalpinoideae and Mimosoideae), Cucurbitaceae and
Apiaceae.
Unit- III: Taxonomy
Rubiaceae, Asteraceae (Compositae), Apocyanaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Solanaceae,
Convolvulaceae, Acanthaceae, Verbenaceae, Amaranthaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Orchidaceae,
Liliaceae and Gramineae (Poaceae).
Unit- IV: Economic Botany
A brief study of the following Economic plants and their main economically important
products
i. Food cereals (Oryza), Millts (Pearl millet), Pulses (Black gram), Edible Oil (Sesame),
Root tubers - (Manihot, Sugar beet), Sugar - (Saccharum),
ii. Fibres - Textiles (Gossypium) others (Crotalaria. Agave)
iii. Medicinal – Withania somnifera,Ocimum, Phyllanthus, Solanum trilobatum
iv. Forest products - Timber (Teak ), Tannins, Gums, Resins (Terpentine)
Unit- V : Plant Ecology and Phytogeography
General Ecology - Approaches to the study of Ecology, Autecolory, Synecology.- climatic,
edaphic and Biotic factors - Ecosystems, Forest ,Grassland, Marine and Desert ecosystems.
Ecological classification of plants- Morphological and Anatomical features (Hydrophytes and
Xerophytes). Forest conservation- afforestation - rare, endangered, endemic and threatened
species. Vegetational types of India, phytogeographic zones and biodiversity regions in India.

Page 1 of 158
Unit- 1: Morphology Phyllotaxy of leaves. Structure of Monocot and Dicot flower,
Inflorescence- types racemose, cymose, mixed and special types. Outline classification of
Fruits.

Objectives:
 To learn the morphology and structure of the leaves and flower
 To understand the basic classification of fruits

Morphology of Leaves

Plants are an essential part of the ecosystem. Every life on the earth is directly or indirectly
dependent on plants. Among the different parts of a plant, the leaf is the most essential.

Primarily, leaves have two functions: photosynthesis and transpiration. In some plants, it
takes up the responsibility of reproduction also. Let‘s learn more about the morphology of
leaves, parts of a leaf, its types and modifications.

1. Structure of a Leaf

Leaves are thin, flat organs responsible for photosynthesis in the plants. It develops laterally
at the node. It is an important part of the shoot system and it originates from shoot apical
meristems.

Generally, leaf base, petiole, and lamina, together form the main parts of a leaf.

 Leaf Base: This is the part where a leaf attaches to the stem. Leaf base has two small leaf-
like structure called stipules. In plants like paddy, wheat, and other monocotyledons, this
leaf base is wide and masks the stem.
 Petiole: Petiole is the long, thin, stalk that links the leaf blade to the stem.
 Lamina: Also known as leaf blade. It is the green, flat surface of the leaves. It consists of
a small branched vein and veinlets. The vein that runs along the middle of the lamina is
called midrib. Midrib divides the surface of the lamina into two. These veins and veinlets
give rigidity to the leaf blade and help in the transportation of water and other substances.

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 A leaf diagram representing the parts of a leaf

Venation

Venation is defined as the arrangement of veins and the veinlets in the leaves. Different
plants show different types of venation. Generally, there are two types of venation:

 Reticulate venation: In a reticulate venation, the veinlets are randomly arranged and form
a complex network of veinlets. Eg: Dicotyledonous plants like a rose plant.

Reticulate venation

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 Parallel venation: In a parallel venation, the veinlets run parallel to each other. Eg: In
monocotyledons like paddy and Banana.

Parallel venation

Types of Leaves

There are two broad categories of leaves – simple and compound, which are further classified
into different groups based on their shape, size, their arrangements on the stem, leaves of
flowering and non-flowering plants, and various other physical attributes.

The two different types of leaves found in a plant are:

a) Simple Leaf

When a single lamina is connected to the main stem by a petiole, the leaf is said to be
simple. A simple leaf may be incised to any depth but not down to the midrib or
petiole. Eg. Guava leaves

b) Compound Leaf

A compound leaf is a leaf made up of two or more leaflets. In a compound leaf, the midrib
of the leaf is branched into different leaflets and is connected by a single petiole. For Eg.
Pea, palm leaves.

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 Compound leaves

The compound leaves are further sub-divided into the following types of leaves:

i) Palmately compound leaf ii) Pinnately compound leaf

Palmately compound leaf & Pinnately compound leaf

a) Palmately Compound Leaf

In a palmately compound leaf, the leaflets are attached at the tip of the petiole. Eg., Silk
cotton. These can be differentiated into:

1. Unifoliate: These type of leaves have only one leaflet. Eg., Citrus
2. Bifoliate: These leaves have two leaflets. Eg., Balanites
3. Trifoliate: These leaves have three leaflets emerging from the same point. Eg., Oxalis
4. Quadrifoliate: These leaves have four leaflets arising from the same point.
Eg., Marsilea
5. Multifoliate: This type of leaf has many leaflets arising at a common point.
Eg., Bombax

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 b) Pinnately Compound Leaf

In a pinnately compound leaf, the midrib of the leaf is divided into numerous leaflets and all
connected by a common axis. Eg., Neem. These can be further differentiated into:

1. Pinnate: A compound leaf that has an axis on each side of the midrib is known as a
pinnate leaf.
2. Unipinnate: The leaf with leaflets on each side of the axis. Eg., Cassia
3. Bipinnate: Here, a secondary axis bearing the leaflet is produced by the central axis.
Eg., Acacia
4. Tripinnate: Here, a tertiary axis bearing leaflets emerges from the secondary axis.
Eg., Moringa
5. Decompound: Leaf with more than three pinnate. Eg., old leaves of coriander
6. Parapinnate: A leaf without a terminal leaflet. Eg., Cassia
7. Imparipinnate: Leaf with an odd terminal leaflet. Eg., Pea

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Phyllotaxy

The patterns of arrangement of leaves on the stem are called Phyllotaxy.

A twig showing phyllotaxy viewed from top.

They are:

(1) Cyclic Phyllotaxy

(2) Spiral or Alternate or Acyclic Phyllotaxy.

A. Cyclic Phyllotaxy:

In the cyclic type of phyllotaxy the leaves at each node form a whorl with the leaves placed
on a circle in which the angles between adjacent leaves are the same. When there are more
than two leaves in a whorl the phyllotaxy is called verticillate.

(A) Opposite Phyllotaxy:

In opposite phyllotaxy the two leaves at each node are always opposite one another. If the
successive pairs of leaves be placed at right angles to one another, the arrangement is termed

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(B) Verticillate Phyllotaxy:

Nerium odorum shows three leaves forming a whorl at each node while Alstonia scholaris
shows five or more leaves. These are instances of the verticillate type. Sometimes verticillate
phyllotaxy is designated as whorled phyllotaxy.

B. Spiral or Alternate or Acyclic Phyllotaxy:

This is the commonest type of phyllotaxy and the mathematical regularity of the
arrangement is astonishing. Although leaves look scattered, a close examination shows that
leaves are evenly dispersed on all sides of the stem.

To correctly understand the plan of a spiral phyllotaxy one has to imagine a line touching the
bases of successive leaves. It will be found that this line forms a spiral (hence the name spiral
phyllotaxy) on the stem. This spiral is called the genetic spiral .

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Morphology of Flower and Inflorescence

2. What is Inflorescence?

In a flowering plant, the Inflorescence is a cluster of flowers seen on a branch or branches.

On the basis of flower arrangement on the peduncle(main axis) and flower timing
(indeterminate and determinate), Inflorescence can be classified into the following:

a. Racemose type
i. Simple raceme :The pedicellate bisexual flowers are arranged in an acropetal
succession on an elongated peduncle. Example – Crotalaria
ii. Spike : Similar to simple raceme except that the flowers are sessile.Example –
Achyranthes
iii. Compound Spadix: Unisexual male and female flowers sessile flowers are arranged
in acropetal succession. Example – Cocos nucifera
iv. Capitulum : Inflorescence axis is flattened to form a receptacle wherein ligulate ray
florets and tubular disc florets develop in a centripetal manner. Example – Tridax
b. Cyme type
i. Solitary cyme: The Peduncle ends up in a flower. Example – Hibiscus
ii. Helicoid cyme :Flowers are consecutively produced on one side on the peduncle to
give a helicoid appearance. Example – Hamelia
iii. Dichasial:The peduncle ends up with a flower and two lateral flowers are produced
under the central flower one on each side for a cluster of three flowers to be formed.
Example – Jasminum.

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 iv. Polychasial cyme: Same pattern of development of flowers as seen in dichasial
additionally it is continued here. Centrifugal mode of development. Example –
Calotropis

c. Special Types
i. Cyathium :Inflorescence is protected by an involucre of five bracts wherein a nectary gland
is connected to it. One female achlamydeous flower centrally with a long pedicel bringing
the ovary out of the involucral cup. Male flowers are achlamydeous, found in 5 bundles
corresponding to 5 bracts. Example: Euphorbia geniculata
ii. Hypanthodium : Inflorescence is pear-shaped with an opening at the tip known as Ostiole
causing a cavity inside. Example: Ficus
iii. Verticilaster : a mixed inflorescence (as in many labiates) consisting of a pair of much-condensed
nearly sessile cymes arranged around an axis like a true verticil eg: Ociumum sp. (Thulsi)

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Page 11 of 158
3.What is a fruit?

How do you actually define a fruit? Typically, seeds are required for most plants to propagate
or create new individuals. These seeds are enclosed in a structure called the fruit. But these
structures are only seen in the angiosperms or the ―flowering plants.‖ In other words, fruits
help in the reproduction of these plants by disseminating seeds. Another important aspect to
remember is that all fruits are formed from flowers, but not all flowers produce fruits.

―Seedless fruits‖ like oranges, watermelons are like a contradiction, this is because fruits –
scientifically speaking, are supposed to be the mature ovaries that contain seeds. There are
two ways in which a seedless fruit can occur, namely, Parthenocarpy and
Stenospermocarpy. Plants in which fruits develop without fertilization are called
parthenocarpic fruits (e.g., banana). Stenospermocarpy fruits, on the other hand, form when
pollination occurs, but the embryo is aborted post-fertilization. (e.g., seedless grapes).

a.Parts of a Fruit

A flower is a reproductive unit and the fruits are the outcome of reproduction. Botanically, a
fruit is defined as the matured, ripened ovary shaped after syngamy. During reproduction in
angiosperms, the sperms from the pollen grains fuse with the ovules enclosed in the ovary.
After fertilization, the ovary transforms into fruit and ovules mature into seeds
simultaneously.

In the majority of angiosperms, the flower disintegrates and sheds off by the time fruits are
formed. In fruits like apple, strawberry, the thalamus also forms the fleshy part. These type of
fruits are called false fruits and the fruits that develop only from the ovary are called true
fruits.

Simple fruits consist of an edible section called the pericarp, which houses the seeds. The
pericarp is the wall of the ovary that develops as the wall of the fruits. The pericarp of the
fruits might be fleshy as in guava, mango, etc. or might be dry as in mustards, walnut, etc.
The pericarp is further differentiated into three layers, namely:

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  Internal layer (the Endocarp)
 Middle layer (the Mesocarp)
 External layer (the Exocarp)

The exocarp (also called epicarp) forms the peel, mesocarp is the fleshy, edible portion of the
fruits and endocarp is the inner rough portion where the seed is accommodated. Generally,
fruits that developed from a monocarpellary superior ovary are single-seeded in nature.

b.Classification of Fruits

There are two criteria for the classification of fruits:

One or more flower takes part in the formation of fruit.

According to the above points, we can classify fruits into types of fruits

 Simple
 Aggregate
 Composite

i) Simple fruit

These fruits develop from the monocarpellary ovary or multicarpellary syncarpous ovary.
Only one fruit is formed by the gynoecium. Simple fruits are of two types

a) Fleshy Fruits: In fleshy fruits, the fruit wall is differentiated into epicarp, mesocarp,
and endocarp. These fruits develop from superior or inferior syncarpous gynoecium.

b) Dry Fruits: The pericarp of simple dry fruits is usually quite dry and hard. It is not
differentiated into the three layers of epicarp, mesocarp and endocarp. In some dry fruits, this
pericarp is broken down and the seeds are scattered or dispersed. These fruits are dehiscent
fruits.

In some fruits, the pericarp is further arranged into one or more seeded segments. Such fruits
are schizocarpic fruits. In some fruits, the pericarp is not observed to be dehisced even after
maturing/ripening. Such fruits are indehiscent Fruits.

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 ii) Aggregate Fruits

 These are the fruits that develop from the multicarpellary apocarpous ovary. It becomes a
fruitlet because each carpel is separated from one another in the apocarpous ovary. These
fruits make a bunch of fruitlets which is known as etaerio.

 Etaerio of follicles: Each fruit or etaerio is a follicle. Eg. Calotropis, Catharanthus,

Magnoliaceae. In calotropis, the stigma is fused or joined in carpellary ovary and ovaries
of ovules are separated. It means only two follicles are present in etaerio.
 Etaerio of achenes: In this aggregate fruit, each fruit is an achene. Eg. Ranunculus,
Strawberry, Rose, Lotus. In lotus, the thalamus becomes spongy and some achenes are
embedded in it. In strawberry, the thalamus is fleshy and we can find small achenes on its
surface.
 Etaerio of berries: It is an aggregate of small berries. Eg. Polyalthia, Annona squamosa
(Custard-apple). In the etaerio of Annona, all the berries are arranged densely on the
thalamus.
 Etaerio of drupes: In this type of fruit, many small drupes develop from different carpels.
Eg. Raspberry. In this type carpel of apocarpous ovary form drupe fruit.

iii) Muiltiple /Composite Fruits

All composite fruits are false fruits. In these fruits, generally, there are many ovaries and
other floral parts combining to form the fruit. These are of two types:

a) Sorosis: These fruits develop from spike, spadix or catkin inflorescence. Examples
inJackfruit fruit, Kevda (screwpine). In jackfruit (Kathal) pistillate flowers are developed
around the peduncle. In fruit formation, the pericarp becomes spongy and fused.
b) Sycosis: These fruits develop from hypanthodium inflorescence. Receptacle becomes
hollow and has a pore. Numerous small scales surround the pore. Eg. Ficus species
Peepal

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Excercises
1. What is venation? Name the type of venation seen in dicotyledons?
2. Write short notes on modification of leaf.
3. Differentiate between racemose and cymose inflorescence
4. A thick and fleshy pericarp is differentiated into three parts. Name them
5. What is venation? Explain types of venation with a neat diagram.
6. Define phyllotaxy? Describe the three types give and examples
7. Explain different types of phyllotaxy with suitable examples.
8. Write an general account on the types of Inflorescence
9. Write notes on classification of fruits

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 Unit- II: Taxonomy
Binomial nomenclature- Systems of classiflcation - Bentham and Hooker's with Merits and
Demerits. Herbmium Techniques. A detailed study of followirg families and their economic
importance: Annonaceae, Rutaceae, Anacardiaceae, Capparidaceae, Tiliaceae, Leguminosae
(Paplionoideae, Caesalpinoideae and Mimosoideae), Cucurbitaceae and Apiaceae.

Objectives:

To study the classification and naming of plants and to understand the some important
families in Dicotyledonae

Binomial Nomenclature

1. What is Binomial Nomenclature?

 The system of binomial nomenclature was introduced by Carl Linnaeus. Multiple local
names make it extremely difficult to identify an organism globally and keep a track of the
number of species.
 According to it, each and every organism would have one scientific name which would be
used by everyone to identify an organism. This process of standardized naming is called
as Binomial Nomenclature.

All living species including plants, animals, birds and also some microbes have their own
scientific names. For eg.,

 The scientific name of the tiger is presented as Panthera tigris. ‗Panthera’ represents the
genus and ‗Tigris’ represents a particular species or specific epithet.
 The scientific name of humans is presented as Homo sapiens. ‗Homo’ represents the genus
and ‗sapiens’ represents a particular species.
 The Indian bullfrog is scientifically written as Rana tigrina. ‘Rana’ is the name of the genus
and ‗tigrina’ is the name of the specific species.

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1.1 Rules of Binomial Nomenclature

A Biologist from all over the world follows a uniform set of principles for naming the
organisms. There are two international codes which are agreed upon by all the biologists over
the entire world for the naming protocol. They are:

 International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) – Deals with the biological

nomenclature for plants.
 International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) – Deals with the biological
nomenclature of animals.

These codes make sure that each organism gets a specific name and that name is globally
identified.

The naming follows certain conventions. Each scientific name has two parts:

 Generic name
 Specific epithet

The rest of the binomial nomenclature rules for writing the scientific names of organisms
include the following:

1. All the scientific names of organisms are usually Latin. Hence, they are written in italics.
2. There exist two parts of a name. The first word identifies the genus and the second word
identifies the species.
3. When the names are handwritten, they are underlined or italicized if typed. This is done to
specify its Latin origin.
4. The name of the genus starts with a capital letter and the name of the species starts with a
small letter.

1.2 Drawbacks of Binomial Nomenclature

Some of the basic drawbacks of binomial nomenclature are:

 If two or more names are currently in use, according to the law of priority, the correct
name will be the one used first and the others end up being synonyms as validity is the

Page 17 of 158
 senior synonym. Providing stability in the naming and classification of organisms must be
emphasized.
 Also, the names used prior to those included in the ―Systema Naturae‖, by Linnaeus
are not recognized.

2. Bentham and Hooker's classification of plants :

The outline of Bentham and Hooker's classification of plants is given below.
The seeded plants are divided into three classes Dicotyledonae,Gymnospermae and
Monocotyledonae.

Bentham and Hooker‘s system of classification was published as a three volumed work in
Latin with the title Genera Plantarum. About two third of the work was done by Bentham
and the rest by Hooker. It was a tremendous task required a period of 25 years of
concentrated effort.

The Genera Plantarum has taken into consideration of all the seeded plants including
Gymnosperm. Total number of species worked out by Bentham and Hooker was 97205
species coming under 202 families.

Page 18 of 158
Bentham and Hooker divided the Angiospermae into two classes: Dicotyledons and
Monocotyledons and in between this they have placed Gymnosperms. Dicotyledon is again
divided into three subclasses. They are Polypetalae, Gamopetale and Monochlamydeae.
These sub classes are again divided into series. Series is again divided into order or cohort
and order into family.
2.1 Merits
 One of the most valuable contribution of this work is the description of the taxa at all
levels. Description are accurate and easy to identify plant species up to family level.

 Because the description were based on direct observation by the authors they become
models of accuracy.

 This system placed order Ranales placed at the beginning of the system is very
reasonable.

 The placement of dicots before monocots is also accepted by all the modern
taxonomists.

2.2 Demerits
 Gymnosperms are most primitive than angiosperms and placing gymnosperms in
between dicots and monocots is a serious error.

 The introduction of monochlamydeae is another drawback . Since this group contains

advanced and primitive forms.

 Among the monocot Orchidaceae is placed in the beginning with all it‘s advanced
characters.

 The subdivision of the monocot is based on the position of ovary and characters of
perianth. This may resulted in the anomalous situation for many families.

3. Methods of preparation of Herbarium Specimens

Herbarium is the collection of plant specimens arranged in the sequence of an accepted
calcification. Plant specimens are dried, pressed and mounted on sheets. Fleshy parts of

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plants are collected in 4% formalin solution of F.A.A. Herbaria helps in providing correct
knowledge of plants through representative specimens. Classification of Bentham and
Hooker is followed in Common Wealth Countries including India.
The main objectives of herbaria making are :

 To preserve plant specimens for reference.

 To identify plants on the basis of herbarium specimens.
 To study the vegetation different localities at of various times intervals.

Equipment

The following equipment are used in the preparation of herbaria:

1. Herbarium Press
2. Vasculum
3. Scissors
4. One sharp knife
5. One pair of forceps
6. Hand lens and pocket lens
7. pocket diary

Method for the preparation of herbarium

Plant materials from Pteriodphyta, Gymnosperm and Angiosperms are normally preserved as
dried and pressed specimens on herbarium sheets. Infect flowers and fruits should be taken
while collecting Angiosperms, because without flowers and fruits identification of plants will
be difficult. Therefore, 3 to 4 specimens of the same pants from different localities and
different seasons are collected. Students should visit same habitat in different seasons to
collect plant specimens. The main step to prepare herbarium sheet are:

1. Collection and pressing of specimens

Fresh materials are pressed in plant press in herbarium press. Three to four specimens
of the same plant should be pressed. If the specimen is large then it should be pressed
in "V" or "N" manner. If leaves and flower are crowded on the stem, then flowers and
leaves can be detached and pressed on sheet in their natural arrangement.

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 Underground parts should be made dust free before preserving. Aquatic plants should
be properly spread in water and then uplifted and pressed carefully. To press fleshy
organs, sponge pads should be used.

2. Drying of specimens
For drying of specimens, following two methods are used:
o Drying of specimens without artificial heat : In this process plants are kept in
herbarium press for 24 hours. Blotting paper will absorb moisture. Again this process
is repeated with fresh blotting pater for 24 to 72 hours. Specimens become dry after
such process but remain vulnerable to infection of mould and pests.
o Drying of specimens with the help of artificial heat:

This is slightly different from previous method, here previously pressed and dried
specimens are kept in drying press at adequate temperature ,water vapourizes and
materials gets dried in short duration. Temperature management is important in this
method because plants turn brown and brittle at high temperature.

3. Mounting of specimens on herbarium sheets

Well – pressed and dried specimens are mounted on 12'' X 18" herbariums sheets with
the help of gum or fevicol containing 1% HgCl2 . Sometimes mixture of ethylcellulose
and resin or cello-tape is used as mounting media. Holland cloth is also used for
fixing specimens. In certain museums specimens are tagged to herbarium sheets with
the help of needle and thread. Labeling is done after mounting.

4. Labeling of specimens
After fixing specimens on herbarium sheet the following information is entered at
right side of the lower corner of herbarium sheet.
o Serial number : -------
o Botanical name : -------
o Family : ---------
o Genus : -------
o Species : -------
o Local name : --------
o Place : --------
o Habit : ---------

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 o Date of collection : ----------
o Place of collection : ---------
o Collected by : ---------

5. Storage and filling of herbarium sheets

Properly mounted and labeled herbarium sheets are preserved for future records.
Specimens are arranged according to recognized system of classification, i.e.
Bentham and Hooker's, Engler and Prantl's system of classification. Indexing should
be done for easy operation of herbarium.
6. Protection of herbarium sheets
The specimens mounted on sheets may be destroyed by beetles, booklouse, drugstore
beetles and other insects during storage. This problem may be overcome by
fumigation with suitable insecticides. DDT, Lauryl phenyl chlorophenate, carbon
tetrachloride and other insecticides may also be sprayed on specimen. Naphthalene
balls may also be used as repellent.

Tools for plant collection and preservation

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Herbarium preparation, Herbarium sheet

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 1. Annonaceae

Characters of Annonaceae:
Wood aromatic, leaves exstipulate, floral parts usually numerous, free spirally arranged;
stamens with distinctive enlarged and flat connective; Gynoecium multipistilate, apocarpous.
A. Vegetative characters:
Habit and habitat: Trees, shrubs or lianas. Artabotrys climbs by means of hooks. Oil ducts
present in the bark, leaves and perianth leaves. Terrestrial and perennial. Evergreen,
deciduous, cultivated as well as wild.
Root: Tap, deep and extensively branched.
Stem: Erect, branched, solid, woody, sometimes woody climbers. Leaves – Simple, entire,
alternate, exstipulate, distichous, gland dotted.
B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence: Often solitary, axillary, sometimes cauliflourous in groups.
Flower: Actinomorphic but zygomorphic in Monodora due to difference in size of petals,
hermaphrodite, unisexual in Stelechocarpus, complete, trimerous, hypogynous, perigynous
(Eupomatia) spirocyclic, often aromatic.
Calyx: Sepals 3, sepaloid, polysepalous, connate at the base, valvate.
Corolla: Petals 6 in two whorls of 3 each, valvate or slightly imbricate. Sometimes no
distinction into sepals and petals so perianth in 3 or more whorls of 3 each.
Androecium: Stamens numerous spirally arranged on the axis which forms a large convex
receptacle, filament short and thick, anthers long, extrorse, truncate connective, bithecous.
Gynoecium: Carpels numerous or a few, usually free, spirally arranged on the raised
receptacle, apocarpous, superior, unicarpellary, unilocular; ovules one to many, anatropous;
style short or none, stigma small, Monodora (Africa) with syncarpous ovary and parietal
placentation.
Fruit: An aggregate of berries, united to form a single compound Fruit (Annona squamosa).
Seed: Large, numerous, often embedded in a copious, white fleshy pulp, endospermic.
Pollination: Entomophilous, due to gaudy and scented flowers.
Economic Importance of Annonaceae:
1. Food: The fleshy Fruits of various Annona specifics are juicy and edible, and also used in
preparation of soft drinks and jellies. Recent analysis shows that they contain about 18 per
cent sugar.

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 Edible Fruits are also obtained from various species of Annona and Asimina.
2. Timber: Bocagea virgata, B. laurifolia, CyathoCalyx zeylanicus, Duguetia quitarensis,
Oxandra lanceolata and Eupomatia laurina yield useful timber.
3. Oil: The flowers of Desmos chinensis furnish ‗Macassar oil‘ a perfume. The perfume is
also obtained from Mkilua fragrans and specially liked by Arab women.
4. Fibre: The bark of Goniothalamus wightii produces strong fibres.
5. Ornamental: Artabotrys odoratissimus and Annona discolor are grown in garden for their
scented flowers. Desmes chinensis is an ornamental tree.
Common plants of the family:
1. Annona squamosa L. –custard apple or sugar apple – well known Fruit tree.
2. Annona reticulata L. – Bastard apple or Bullock‘s heart – a Fruit tree.
3. Artabotrys uncinatas – A small climbing shrub with hooked peduncles – and glabarous
leaves.
4. Cyathocalyx zeylanicus – A tall tree with deflexed or horizontal branches.
5. Polyalthia longifolia –An ornamental tree.
6. Uvaria cordata (Dunal) – Alston is a climber noted for its cordate leaves and red flowers.

Systematic Position
Class: Dicotyledons
Sub class: Polypetalae
Series: Thalamiflorae
Order: Ranales
Family Annonaceae

Annona squamosa L.

Habit: A small tree.

Root: Tap, branched.
Stem: Aerial, woody, branched.
Leaf: Simple, alternate, exstipulate, entire, oblanceolate, obtuse.
Inflorescence: Axillary, two or more flowers arise in the axil of each leaf.
Flower: Bracteate, hermaphrodite, complete, actinomorphic, spirocyclic, hypogynous.
Calyx: Sepals three, polysepalous, united at the base, valvate.
Corolla: Petals three, polypetalous, fleshy, pale-yellow, valvate.
Androecium: Stamens numerous, spirally arranged on a conical receptacle, filaments short,
anthets oblong, adnated, and appendaged.

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Gynoecium: Multicarpellary, apocarpous, spirally arranged, superior, each unilocular, ovule
one, basal placentation, style short, stigma long, tapering, papillose.
Fruit: An etario of berries.
Floral formula

Annona squamousa L.

Page 26 of 158
 2. Rutaceae

Characters of Rutaceae:
Leaves gland dotted, simple or compound; flower hermaphrodite, hypogynous,actinomorphic
with a disc below the ovary; Corolla polypetalous; stamens ten, obdiplostemonous; carpels 5
or many, ovary superior, multilocular; Fruit capsule or berry; aromatic odour is present.

A. Vegetative characters:
Habit: The plant are generally shrubs (Murraya, Limonia, Zanthoxylum), trees (Aegle,
Citrus, Feronia), rarely herbs (Ruta graveolens) with strong fragrance Paramignya is a shrub
but climbs by means of axillary thorns.
Root: Tap root, branched often infected with fungus.
Stem: Woody (Citrus, Feronia), erect, cylindrical, branched, solid often thorny (Citrus),
gland dotted.
Leaves: Alternate (Citrus, Murraya) or opposite (Evodia), petiolate, petiole may be winged
(Citrus aurantium), simple or compound-pinnate (Murraya), palmate (Aegle and Citrus)
smooth gland dotted, glands with essential oils, exstipulate, margin entire or serrate,
unicostate reticulate venation. In Citrus petiole is winged.

B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence: Usually cyme or axillary or terminal corymb (Murraya paniculata) some
times racemose or solitary.
Flower: Pedicellate, ebracteate, hermaphrodite, or unisexual (Zanthoxylum, Evodia,
Feronia), actinomorphic rarely zygomorphic (Dictamnus and Correa), hypogynous,
complete, pentamerous or tetramerous (Acronychia and lateral flowers of Ruta).
Calyx: Sepals 5 or 4, free or fused; in zygomorphic flower it becomes gamosepalous and
tubular; imbricate; sometimes deciduous.
Corolla: Petals 5 or 4, polypetalous rarely gamopetalous (Correa speciosa) or absent
(Zanthoxylum), variously coloured, imbricate.
Androecium: In majority of cases the stamens are obdiplostemonous and 10 in number; in
Citrus numerous stamens with polyadelphous condition; in Zanthoxylum 3 stamens and in
Skimmia 5 stamens; anthers introrse, dithecous, basifixed or versatile.

Page 27 of 158
Gynoecium: Pentacarpellary and only slightly united at the base or the sides forming a
deeply lobed ovary with fused styles originating from the centre. In Citrus and Toddalia the
carpels are fully united. In Feronia the carpel is only one celled with many parietal placentae.
In other genera the placentation is of the axile type. Topically the ovary is superior with a
prominent nectariferous disc below it. Ovule anatropous.
Fruit: In Flindersioideae there is septicidal or loculicidal capsule; in Toddalioideae a
drupaceous Fruit; hesperidium in Citrus and berry in Murraya.
Seed: Endospermic or exalbuminous.
Pollination: Entomophilous; insects are attracted by the coloured petals, the nectar secreted
by the disc is easily available. The flowers are protandrous. Thus in Ruta the stamens arise
successively to the centre of the flower and after shedding the pollen grains wither away and
fall back again.
The stigma now matures and if no insect visitor has come then the stamens rise again and the
pollen grains that still remain are once again shed over the stigma. Thus self pollination is
effected.

Economic Importance of Rutaceae:

1. Fruits:The genus Citrus provides a number of fruits:
(a) C. aurantifolia has citric acid in its fruits and used in bilous vomiting. The fruit wall has
essential oils.
(b) C. aurantium var. bergamia :The ripe Fruit is digestive and a tonic, Fruit wall gives oil of
bergamot.
(c) C. aurantium var. bigardia Rich in pro-vitamins A and vitamin B. Oil present in Fruit
wall.
(d) C. maxima produces edible Fruits.
(e) C. sinensis The fruit is widely used during illness; it purifies blood, reduces thirst and
improves appetite.
(f) C. reticulata The ripe Fruit is highly nutritive and rich in assimilable calcium, the fruit
wall also produces citrus oil.
(g) C. limettioides is useful in fever and jaundice; oil also obtained from the wall.
(h) C. limon : The juice of ripe Fruits is useful in rheumatism and dysentery.
(i) Aegle marmelos : This is normally edible. The Fruit is particularly useful in stomach
disorders. The plant is considered holy and its leaves used in worshipping the God Shiva.
(j) Feronia limonia : The Fruits edible; leaf and bark used medicinally.

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2. Medicinal: Citrus is not only edible but produces vitamins particularly vitamin C (ascorbic
acid). Barosma betulina produces buchu from its leaves which is useful in urinary diseases.

Pilocarpus microphyllus: The active principle is pilocarpine which causes contraction of the
pupil – it is just opposite to atropine. Jaborandi is prepared from the leaflets of this plant; this
is useful in kidney diseases.

Murraya koenigii. has several medicinal properties. The green leaf is eaten raw in dysentery
while bark and roots are useful in bites of poisonous animals when applied externally. The
leaves are also used in curry powder particularly by S. Indians.

3. Ornamental and miscellaneous:

Plants like Ruta, Luvunga scandens, Ptelea, Calodendrum, Limonia, Murraya are cultivated
in gardens for their fragrant flowers.
Zanthoxylum piperitum gives Japan pepper. Ruta graveolous gives French oil.
Systematic Position
Class: Dicotyledons
Sub class: Polypetalae
Series: Disciflorae
Order: Geraniales
Family Rutaceae

Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack (Syn. M. exotica)

Habit: A cultivated perennial shrub.
Root: Tap, much branched.
Stem: Erect, woody, solid, cylindrical, branched, rough.
Leaves: Cauline and ramal, alternate, petiolate, exstipulate, pinnately compound-
imparipinnate, leaflets 5-7.
Inflorescence: Terminal or axillary monochasial cyme.
Flower: Pedicellate, bracteate, hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, complete, pentamerous,
hypogynous, white coloured and highly fragrant.

Page 29 of 158
 Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack

Calyx: Sepals 5, gamosepalous, oblong, green, valvate aestivation, inferior.

Corolla: Petals 5, polypetalous, white, gland dotted, imbricate aestivation, inferior.
Androecium: Stamens 10, in two whorls of 5 each, polyandrous, filaments of the outer whorl
longer while those of inner whorl are shorter; anthers basifixed, dithecous, introrse.
Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, bilocular, axile placentation. one
ovule in each loculus; style slender; stigma bilobed, capitate, disc below the ovary.
Fruit: Berry.
Floral formula:

Page 30 of 158
 3. Anacardiaceae
Characters of Anacardiaceae:

Leaves alternate, exstipulate, simple or pinnately compound; auxiliary panicle inflorescence;

flower pentamerous, hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, stamens 10 inserted at the base of an
annular disc (intrastaminal disc); Carpels 1-2, Ovary superior with one pendulous or
ascending ovule; fruit a drupe.

A. Vegetative characters:
Habit:Generally trees and shrubs and rarely woody vines containing resin passages with gum
or acrid juice.
Root:Tap, root, deep.
Stem:Erect, woody, hard, with resinous bark.
Leaves:Alternate, (opposite in Dobinea) simple (Mangifera) or pinnately compound (Rhus,
Odina), exstipulate.
B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence:A terminal or axillary panicle.
Flower:Small, complete, usually actinomorphic rarely zygomorphic, pentamerous,
hermaphrodite but often unisexual (Rhus, Pistacia, Odina) by reduction of androecium or
gynoecium, a nectar secreting disc or gynophore present; hypogynous.
Calyx:Usually 5 sepals, sometimes 3 to 7, free, or basally connate or semi-connate,
imbricate.
Corolla: Petals 5-3 or absent (Pistacia) polypetalous rarely connate, imbricate, sometimes
fused with the receptacle to form a hypanthium.
Androecium:Stamens ten in two whorls of 5 each all fertile (Buchanania), in Anacardium,
10-7 of which only one is functional and the rest are staminodes; filaments free, basally
connate, stamens arise from the base of on intrastaminal disc, this disc may sometimes be
modified into a gynophore, anther bithecous, introrse.
Gynoecium:Tricarpellary rarely pentacarpellary, syncarpous, unilocular, superior, one
pendulous ovule; in Bauchanania – ovary pentacarpellary and pentalocular with only one
ovule; styles 1-5, widely separated.

Page 31 of 158
Fruit: Usually drupe, mesocarp resinous, and fleshy in Mangifera, sometimes nut
(Anacardium).
Seed:Cotyledon thick with little or no endosperm and curved embryo.
Pollination:Entomophilous.

Economic Importance of Anacardiaceae:

1. Food: Many plants yield edible fruits such as Mangifera indica (mango), Anacardium
occidentale (Cashew-nut), Buchanania lanzan (Chironji), Harpephyllum caffrum (Kaffir
plum), Spondias pinnata (Hog plum), Pistacia vera (pistachio-nuts).

Pistacia lentiscus (mastic tree) yields a mastic resin used in chewing gums, alcoholic
beverages etc.

2. Varnish: Many species of Rhus and Semecarpus yield resins and varnishes.

3. Gum: Lannea coromandelica bark provide gum.

Schinopsis lorentzii and bark of Lannea coromandelica are used in tanning industry.

4. Ink: Insect galls on the branches and leaves of various species of Rhus, Pistacia are used
in manufacture of ink.

Semecarpus anacardium (Dhobis-nut) fruits provide black ink used for dyeing textiles and
marking cotton clothes.

5. Skin irritants: Rhus toxicodendron, R. quercifolia etc. are skin irritants.

6. Ornamentals: Continus coggyria, Rhus typhina and Spondias pinnata are ornamental
plants.

Systematic position
Class : Dicotyledons
Subclass : Polypetalae
Series : Disciflorae
Orders : Sapindales
Family :Anacardiaceae

Mangifera indica L. (Mango)

Habit: A medium sized tree.

Root: Tap root, deep, branched.
Stem: Erect, branched, hard, woody with resinous bark.
Leaf: Simple, alternate, exstipulate, smooth, entire, long ovate lanceolate, acute, thick,
coriaceous.

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Inflorescence: Racemose (Panicle).
Flower: Bracteate, hermaphrodite, complete, actinomorphic. cyclic, hypogynous small
pentamerous, yellowish green.
Calyx: Sepals five, polysepalous, pale-green, imbricate.
Corolla: Petals five, polypetalous, white or creamish with yellowish hue at base, imbricate.
A fleshy, five-lobed disc is present between stamens and petals.

Androecium: Stamens five, usually only one fertile, rest-reduced and sterile, filament long,
anthers dorsifixed becoming versatile.

Gynoecium: Monocarpellary, unilocular, superior, ovule one, marginal placentation, style

long terminal or slightly laternal with one flat fringed stigma, a prominent 5-6 lobed
hypogynous disc present, lobe : either opposite or sometimes alternate to petals. Carpels
slightly (oblique) tilted to one side.

Fruit: A fleshy large drupe with luscious mesocarp, long fibres.

Floral formula:

Page 33 of 158
Mangifera indica L.

Page 34 of 158
 4. Capparidaceae (Capparaceae)
Characters of Capparidaceae:
Stipules spiny, flowers actinomorphic rarely zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, hypogynous,
gynophore present; Calyx polysepalous, Corolla polypetalous; stamens 4 to numerous;
carpels two, ovary superior, parietal placentation.

A. Vegetative characters:

Habit:There is a great variation in habit of the plants, may be herbs (Cleome), shrubs
(Capparis) or trees (Crataeva). Several plants are extreme xerophytes with reduced leaves or
leaves entirely absent in adult plant (Capparis aphylla). Unlike the Papaveraceae there is no
latex in the stem.
Root:Branched tap root.
Stem:Herbaceous or woody, solid, branched, spinous and cylindrical.
Leaves:Alternate, simple or palmately compound, with stipules, the latter may be modified
into spines or glands. In some cases e.g., Capparis aphylla, the leaves are suppressed and
adult plant may be without leaves.
Inflorescence:Raceme (Cleome), corymb (Maerua, Capparis aphylla), solitary (Niebuhria).

B. Floral characters:
Flower:Bracteate, actinomorphic sometimes zygomorphic (Capparis aphylla),
hermaphro-dite, bracteoles absent; hypogynous, pedicellate, tetramerous. The internode
between the petals and stamens is elongated to form androphore or that between the stamens
and carpels elongated of form gynophore.
Calyx: Sepals 4, usually arranged in two whorls (2 + 2); polysepalous imbricate aestivation
and inferior. In Capparis aphylla the sepals are unequal and the hinder sepals forms a hood-
like structure.
Corolla: Petals 4, polypetalous with long claws; imbricate (Cleome) or valvate (Crataeva)
aestivation, inferior. In the Australian genus Emblingia the petals are fused.
Androecium: Stamens numerous to four. In Capparis and Crataeva there are numerous
stamens. In Cleome gynandra only six stamens are present; in Cleome tetrandra there are
only four stamens. Cleome spinosa has six stamens and its floral structure is remarkably
similar to that of the Brassicaceae excepting that they are not tetradynamous.

Page 35 of 158
In Cleome gynandra (Gynandropsis) both androphore and gynophore are present. In
Capparis there is only gynophore. In Cleome the gynophore is very small or reduced.
Gynoecium: Carpels 2 or sometimes four, syncarpous, seated on a long gynophore or sessile;
ovary superior, unilocular with parietal placentation; ovules many on each placentum; style
short or absent, stigma capitate or depressed.
Fruit: A siliqua (Cleome) or berry (Capparis) or drupe (Roydsia).
Seed: Usually kidney shaped, ex-albuminous and embryo curved.
Pollination: Usually entomophilous; dichogamy in some cases.

Economic Importance of Capparidaceae:

The family is not of great economic importance.

1. Food: The fruits of Capparis aphylla, Capparis spinosa are preserved as pickle.

2. Medicine: The top shoots and young leaves of Capparis aphylla are powdered and used to
raise blisters and relieve tooth-ache. The burned and powdered wood of Capparis aphylla is a
sure shot for leucorrhoea.

The root bark of Capparis spinosa is used as carminative and stimulant. The bark of
Crataeva religiosa is used in medicine as a remedy for gall-bladder stone.

According to Campbell the crushed roots of Cleome monophylla when kept on the lips of a
fainted person restores his conciousness.

3. Ornamental: The ornamental plants are Maerua, Roydsia suaveolens; Crataeva religiosa
is also considered a holy plant by some sects of Hindus.

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Systematic Position
Class : Dicotyledons
Subclass : Polypetalae
Series : Thalamiflorae
Orders : Parietales
Family : Capparaceae

Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew.

Habit: A shrub.
Root: Tap, branched and perennial.
Stem: Erect, woody, solid, cylindrical, branched, glabrous, spiny.
Leaves: Alternate, stipulate, simple, sessile, highly caducous, acute apex, reticulate venation.
Inflorescence: Corymb or corymbose.
Flower: Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, hermaphrodite, zygomorphic hypogynous, scarlet
or yellow.
Calyx: Sepals 4, polysepalous, arranged in two whorls, unequal, inner one saccate, imbricate
aestivation.
Corolla: Petals 4, polypetalous, imbricate aestivation, inferior.
Androecium: Stamens indefinite, polyandrous, at the base of the gynophore, filament long,
anthers dorsifixed, dithecous, introrse.
Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular, parietal placentation,
ovules many at each placentum, gynophore long and slender.

Floral formula:

Page 37 of 158
Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew.

Page 38 of 158
 5. Tiliaceae
Characters of Tiliaceae:
Leaves simple, stipulate; flower hermaphrodite, hypogynous, actinomorphic, stamens
indefinite sometimes 5 to 10; carpels 2 to indefinite, syncarpous, axile placentation; Fruit
capsule or drupe.
A. Vegetative characters:
Habit: Shrubs or trees rarely herbs (Corchorus) with mucilagenous juice.
Root: Tap and branched.
Stem: Erect, cylindrical or angular, woody, solid and branched.
Leaves: Alternate rarely opposite, simple, margin entire, dentate or lobed-, stipulate, stipule
caducous (Tilia).
B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence: Cymose and often very complex (Tilia, Triumfetta).
Flower: Pedicellate, actinomorphic, hypogynous, hermaphrodite, rarely unisexual
(Carpodiptera), tetra or pentamerous, sometimes with epicalyx.
Calyx: Sepals 5 or 4 rarely 3, polysepalous or basally connate, valvate aestivation, inferior.
Corolla: Petals 5 or 4 rarely absent (Prockia), polypetalous, often glandular, imbricate
aestivation, usually coloured but sometimes sepaloid, inferior.
Androecium: Stamens 10 to indefinite, free or united in groups (Grewia), inserted at the base
of petals or on androphore (Grewia), anthers dithecous, extrorse, dehiscence by apical pores
or longitudinal slits.
Gynoecium: Carpels 2 to 10 or many (Apeiba), syncarpous; ovary superior, two to many
locular with 1 to many anatropous ovules in each loculus; axile placentation; style simple;
stigma capitate or lobed.
Fruit: Capsule or schizocarpic or drupaceous.
Seed: Endospermic, embryo curved with leafy cotyledon.
Pollination: Entomophilous.

Economic Importance of Tiliaceae:

1. Fibre: Corchorus capsularis and C. olitorius are cultivated for their tenacious blast fibres,
which yield jute of commerce. It is used in making gunny bags.

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2. Medicinal: The fruits of Grewia asiatica are astringent, cooling and digestive. The root
bark is used in rheumatism.

The flowers, leaves and Fruits of Triumfetta bartramia are used in gonorrhoea. Bark and
fresh leaves of this plant are used in diarrhoea and dysentery.

3. Wood: The species of Tilia yield useful timber. Tilia americana is one of the best timber
plant of America.

4. Ornamental: Some of the plants viz. Sparmannia, Microcos are grown in gardens.

Systematic Position
Class : Dicotyledons
Subclass : Polypetalae
Series : Thalamiflorae
Orders : Malvales
Family : Tiliaceae

Corchorus capsularis L.

Habit: Annual herb.

Root: Tap and branched.

Stem: Erect, branched, glabrous, woody and solid.

Leaves: Simple, lanceolate, acute or acuminate apex, glabrous, serrate margin, base round or
acute, petiolate, stipulate-stipule filiform.

Inflorescence: Axillary.

Flower: Pedicellate, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, hypogynous, complete, pentamerous.

Calyx: Sepals 5, sepaloid, polysepalous, valvate aestivation, inferior.

Corolla: Petals 5, polypetalous, twisted aestivation, inferior.

Androecium: Stamens indefinite, free, anthers dorsifixed, bithecous, introrse, inferior.

Gynoecium: Pentacarpellary, syncarpous; ovary superior, pentalocular, axile placentation,

two or more ovules per loculus; style simple; stigma simple.

Fruit: Capsule, sub-globose ridged, not breaked.

Page 40 of 158
Floral formula:

Corchorus capsularis L.

Page 41 of 158
 6. Papilionaceae (Fabaceae)
Characters of Papilionaceae
Habit: Annual or perennial. herbs. shrubs, vines, or tree.
Roots: Fibrous tap root often develops nodules in herbs. Nitrogen Fixing bacteria live in
these nodules.
Stem: Herbaceous or Moody; Cylindrical, tendril climbers.
Leaves: Petiolate; alternate: compound of pinnate type. Stipulate, stipules may be modified
into leaves or thrones; parallel venation.
Inflorescence: Racemose or cymose, the flowers are clustered in heads.
Flower: Pedicillate; bracteate: actinomorphic or zygomorphic; regular: complete;
hermaphrodite; pentamerous; hypogynous but slightly perigynous
Calyx: 5 or sometime 4 sepals: free or fused green S. Corolla: 5 sometimes 4 petals; free or
united. colour
Stamens: 10 or numerous stamens; polyandrous, in some cases diadelphous, anther basitlxed.
.Carpel: Monocarpillary: ovary superior, placentation marginal.
Fruits: Legume or sometimes.
Seed: Non-endospermic seed.

Economic Importance of Papilionaceae

Food: Most of the important pulses are belonged to this family. These pulses are used as
food. Pulses are rich in proteins. The common species of pulses are Grain, Pea, and Kidney
bean.
Fodders: Medicago sativa (Alfalfa) is one of the best forage crops. Trifolium is cultivated as
main fodder crops.
Timber: Many plant of this family provide timber for building furniture and fuel. Main
timber plants are Butea, Dalbergia etc.
Vegetable oil: The seed of Archis hypogea (peanut) are edible. They are also used for
extraction of peanut oil. This peanut oil is hydrogenated and used as vegetable oil.
Dyes: Some of its plants give yellow and indigo dyes.
Medicinal plants: Many plants of this family are used inmedicines. Glycyrrhiza glabra is
used for cough and cold. Clitoria ternatea is use against snake bite.

Page 42 of 158
Ornamental plants: Some important ornamental plants are Lathyrus (pea), Lupinus,
Clitoria, Butea etc.
Common Species: . Lathyrus odoratus (Sweet pea), Arachis hypogea ( Peanut), Cicer
arietinu (Chick pea).

Systematic Position
Class : Dicotyledons
Subclass Polypetalae
Seies- Calciflorae
Order: Leguminales
Family- Fabaceae

Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk

Page 43 of 158
Habit: Annual herb.

Root: Tap.

Stem: Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, solid branched, hairy and green.

Leaf: Cauline and ramal, alternate, stipulate, stipules free-lateral, petiolate, compound

trifoliate, pulvinate, leaflets oblong-obovate, entire, emarginate, unicostate reticulate.

Inflorescence: Raceme.

Flower: Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, hermaphrodite, zygomorphic, pentamerous,

perigynous and cyclic.

Calyx: 5 sepals, gamosepalous, valvate, green, odd sepal anterior.

Corolla: 5-petals, polypetalous, papilionaceous, descending imbricate (vexillary)

aestivation, standard, wings and keel; yellowish in colour.

Androecium: 10-stamens, monadelphous (all the filaments are fused to form a staminal tube

in the genus) dithecous, dorsifixed and introrse.

Gynoecium: Monocarpellary, slightly semi-inferior, unilocular, marginal placentation, style

curved, capitate stigma.

Fruit: Legume.

Floral formula:

Page 44 of 158
 7. Caesalpiniaceae (Cassia family)
This family has 152 genera and 2300 species. It has 16 genera and 60 species in Pakistan.
Eg: Bauhinia varigata (kuchnar), Cassia
Habit: shrubs. Some are woody climbers, rarely
Stem: It is erect, woody herbaceous or climbing.
Leaves: The leaves are compound (rarely simple), pinnate and
Inflorescence: It may the axillary or terminal raceme or it may
Flower: Flower is bisexual, zygomorphic (rarely
Calyx: Sepals are 5. They are often coloured and free or connate
Androecium: Stamen are 10 or less (rarely numerous). They
Gynoecium: They have one simple carpel. Ovary is superior and Habit: Mostly tree or
Fruit: Its fruit is legume.
Economic importance of family Caesalpinaceae
1.Medical importance:The leaves of cassia alata are used to cure ring worm and skin
diseases. Oil extracted from the leaves of Cassia senna and Cassia obovata used for skin
diseases.
Vegetables and fruits: The leaves and flower bud of Bauhinia variegate are used as
vegetable. The acidic fruit of Tamarintlus indica are edible. It is rich in tartaric acid.
Tanning and dyes: The bark of Buahinia and Tamarindus indica is used in tanning.

Common plants : Cassia fistula. , Cassia auriculata, Baultinia varigata and Delonix regia

Class : Dicotyledons
Subclass Polypetalae
Seies- Calciflorae
Order: Leguminales
Family:Caesalpinaceae

Page 45 of 158
Cassia fistula L.

Habit: A perennial tree.

Root: Tap, branched and perennial.
Stem: Erect, cylindrical, woody, solid, branched.
Leaf: Cauline and ramal, alternate, petiolate, stipulate, stipules minute, caducous;
paripinnately compound, leaflets 4-8 pairs.
Leaflets: Opposite, subsessile with pulvinus at the base, wavy margin, acute apex, glabrous,
unicostate reticulate venation.
Inflorescence: Raceme.
Flower: Pedicellate, bracteate, complete, hermaphrodite, zygomorphic, pentamerous,
hypogynous.
Calyx: Sepals 5, polysepalous, odd sepal anterior, imbricate aestivation, inferior.
Corolla: Petals 5, polypetalous, yellow, clawed, ascending imbricate aestivation, inferior.
Androecium: Stamens 10, in two whorls of 5 each, 3 posterior ones are staminodes,
polyandrous, filaments unequal in length, anthers basifixed, dithecous, introrse.
Gynoecium: Monocarpellary, ovary superior, unilocular, marginal placentation, style short,
stigma terminal and hairy.
Floral formula:

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Cassia fistula L.

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 8. Mimosaceae (Acacia family)
This famiy 56. genera and about 2800 species. There are 11 genera and in Pakistan
Familiar Plants
Habit: Mosly trees or shrubs. Rarely climbers or herbs. Most of them are xecophytes.
Stem: Mostly woody
Leaves: They have pinnate, compound, alternate and stipulate leaves. The stipules are
modified into thrones.
Inflorescence: It is spike like or head or umbel. It is rarely racemose or globose umbel.
Flowers: The flower is bisexual, actinomorphic, hypogynous to slightly perigynous and
bracteate.
Calyx: They have 5 sepals. These sepals are fused. toothed or lobed.
Corolla: They have 5 petals. These petals may be free or fused.
Androecium: Stamens are living to numerous. They are free. adnate or attached totbase of
corolla (epipetalous).
Gynoecium: Thev have simple one carpel. Ovary is unilocular and superior. It has nianv
Mlles. Placentation is marginal.
Fruit: Fruit is a legume. The legume may be dehiscent or indehiseent.

Economic Importance of family Mimosaceae

1. Wood: Many trees of this family provide commercially important wood, for example,
Acacia, Albizzia and Xylia. Their wood is used for construction, for furniture or for fuel.
2. Gum: Gum is obtained from Acacia nilotica and Acacia senegal.
3. Dye: A dye Katha is obtained from Acacia catechu.
4. Medicinal plants: The tender leaves of Acacia nilotica are used as blood purifier.
5. Ornamental plants: Some common plants are grown for their beautiful flowers. Some
of these are Mimosa pudica and Acacia melanoxylon.
6. Wind breaking: A few species of Prospis are planted in the arid zones for breaking the
wind pressure.
Common species: Acacia nilotica, Albizzia lebbek, Mimosa pudica, Prosopis glandulosa,
Prosopis cineraria

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Systematic Position
Class : Dicotyledons
Subclass Polypetalae
Seies- Calciflorae
Order: Leguminales
Family:Mimosaceae

Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd ex. Deille

Acacia nilotica (L.) Willd ex. Deille

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Habit: Tree.

Root: Tap, branched, deep.

Stem: Erect, cylindrical, solid, woody, branched.

Leaf: Compound, bipinnate, alternate, petiolate, stipulate, modified into spines, leaflet
oblong with entire margin, obtuse, or retuse, opposite, unicostate reticulate venation.

Inflorescence: Cymose head.

Flower: Small, sessile, bracteates, brocteolate, actinomorphic, complete, hermaphrodite,

pentamerous, hypogynous.

Calyx: Sepals 5, gamosepalous, campanulate, valvate aestivation, inferior.

Corolla: Petals 5, yellow, gamopetalous, tubular, valvate aestivation, inferior.

Androecium: Stamens numerous, polyandrous, filament long, anthers small, versatile,

introrse.

Gynoecium: Monocarpellary, ovary superior, unilocular, marginal placentation, style long

filiform and stigma minute.

Floral formula:

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 9. Cucurbitaceae
Characters of Cucurbitaceae:
Prostrate herb bearing tendrils; leaves palmately lobed, surface hispid; flowers pentamerous,
unisexual, monoecious or less commonly dioecious; stamens five, usually less, anthers free or
connate, ovary inferior, trilocular, parietal placentation, Fruit fleshy, pepo. Vascular bundles
bicollateral and in two alternating rows.
A. Vegetative characters:
Habit: Mostly annual or perennial herbs, rarely shrubs (Acanthosicyos) or small trees
(Dendrosicyos), usually trailing, climbing by means of tendrils.
Root: Tap root, branched may be thickened due to storage of food and water.
Stem: Herbaceous, climbing, angular, fistular, branched.
Leaves: Alternate, petiolate- petiole long and hollow; simple, lobed, exstipulate, palmately
veined; tendrils present in the axil of leaf or opposite to the leaf. In Acanthosicyos the
leaves are absent but thorns are present.
Morphological nature of the tendril: Morphological nature of tendril has been a subject of
great controversy. Tendrils have been considered by various authors as roots, stems,
leaves, stipules, shoots, flower stalks .
B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence: There is great variation in the Inflorescence. Flowers are solitary, or
racemose or cymose panicles (Actinostemma).
Flower: Regular, mostly unisexual rarely bisexual (Schizopepon), incomplete, epigynous,
small or large, mostly white or yellow, pentamerous.
Male Flower: Produced in large numbers.
Calyx: Sepals 5, gamosepalous, sepals pointed, rarely petaloid, campanulate, aestivation
imbricate.
Corolla: Petals 5, gamopetalous united at the base (Momordica) or through out (Cucurbita,
Coccinea), polypetalous (Luffa, Lagenaria), may be campanulate, rotate, imbricate or
valvate aestivation.
Androecium: Stamens 5, sometimes free or combined to form a central column, anthers
dithecous extrorse, dehiscence longitudinal or in curves; Androecium may be modified in
one of the following ways:

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1. In Thaldiantha two pairs of stamens are closely approximated in the lower part of their
filaments and the fifth stands apart.
2. In Sincydium the pairs of stamens are united below; in Momordica, Citrullus, the union of
pairs of stamens is complete and apparently only three stamens are present.
3. In Sicyos and Sechium the filaments unite to form a central column and the anthers are very
much curved.
4. In Cyclantliera the stamens are united into a central column with two ring like pollen
chambers running round the top. (Compare with the condition found in Phyllanthus
cyclanthera of the Euphorbiaceae).
5. In Fevillea a polyandrous condition is found with all the five stamens free and alternating
to the five free petals. This is a primitive genus.
Gynecium: Reduced or rudimentary or absent.
Female Flower: They are fewer in number than the male flowers.
Calyx: Sepals 5, gamosepalous, Calyx tube adnate to the ovary wall; imbricate aestivation,
superior.
Corolla: Petals 5, gamopetalous, inserted on Calyx tube; imbricate aestivation, superior.
Androecium: Staminodes 0, 3, 5.
Gynoecium: Tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary inferior, unilocular with parietal placentation,
the intruding placentae make the ovary to appear trilocular.
In Luffa the ovary is narrow and ultimately 3-4 celled and apparently of the axile type. In
Sechium the ovary is unilocular with only a single ovule; ovule bitegmic. Style stout and
columnar and bears a forked stigma for each carpel.
The stigmas are commissural i.e. stand above the dividing lines between the carpels. This is
explained by assuming that each is a joint structure and composed of a branch of the
stigmas of two adjacent carpels.

Fruit: Soft, fleshy, indehiscent and either a berry or pepo. Fruits sometimes very large in
size (Citrullus sp. Benincasa sp., Cucurbita sp.). In Ecballium the Fruit is highly turgid
when ripe and dispersal is by explosion.

Seed: Exalbuminous, flattened, numerous, embryo straight, cotyledons large and oily.

Pollination: Entomophilous.

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Economic Importance of Cucurbitaceae:
This family is particularly important economically because its fruits are edible.
1. Vegetables and Fruits:
1. Cucumis melo :The Fruits are edible and a number of varieties are known. C. melo var.
momordica is Phut and C. melo var. utilissimus is Kakri. Cucumis sativus is Khira.
2. Citrullus vulgaris: The Fruits are large and ripen during summers; it is cultivated on the
sandy beds of rivers. C. vulgaris var. fistulosus is Tinda which is used as vegetable.
3. Cucurbita maxima: Cucurbita maxima and C. pepo are used as vegetable.
4. Benincasa heipida is used as vegetable; Lagenaria vulgaris : the Fruit is commonly used
as a vegetable. From ripe Fruit-shells sitar is made.
6. Trichosanthes dioca: Fruits are also used in vegetable preparations. T. anguina is
Chachinga which is also used as vegetable.
7. Luffa acutangula: This is also a popular vegetable.
8. Momordica charantia:The Fruits are bitter but used in vegetable preparations. It is said to
be useful in gout and rheumatism.
2. Medicine: There are a few plants also important medicinally.
9. Citrullus colocynthis – produces the alkaloid colocynthin from its Fruits. The Fruits and
roots are used against snake bite. The alkaloid is also used in other diseases.
10. Ecballium elatarium Fruits produce elaterium of medicine which has narcotic effect and
useful in hydrophobia.
3. Ornamental: Some plants viz., Ecballium, Sechium, Sicyos are grown in gardens.

Systematic Position

Class : Dicotyledons
Subclass : Polypetalae
Series : Calyciflorae
Orders : Passiflorales
Family : Cucurbitaceae

Cucurbita maxima Duch.

Habit: A cultivated climber.

Root: Tap, branched.

Stem: Herbaceous, prostrate, weak, hairy, angular, fistular, juicy, green.

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Leaf: Alternate, petiolate, exstipulate, simple, palmate, hairy, toothed margin, multicostate
reticulate venation.

Inflorescence: Female flowers solitary axillary but male flowers in cymose clustors.

Flower: Unisexual.

Male flower: Bracteate, pedicellate, actinomorphic, incomplete, staminate, yellow.

Cucurbita maxima Duch.

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Calyx: Sepals 5, gamosepalous, green, hairy, lobes linear or leafy, imbricate aestivation.

Corolla: Petals 5, gamopetalous, campanulate, yellow, imbricate aestivation.

Androecium: Stamens 5, two united in two pairs and one free, anthers twisted spirally mono
and dithecous, extrorse.

Gynoecium: Absent but pistillode present.

Floral formula:

Female flower: Bracteate, pedicellate, pistillate, actinomorphic, incomplete, epiygnous.

Calyx: Sepals 5, gamosepalous, green, hairy, lobes linear, imbricate aestivation, superior.

Corolla: Petals 5, gamopetalous, campanulate, yellow, imbricate aestivation, superior.

Androecium: Absent but staminodes present in three bundles 2 + 2 + 1.

Gynoecium: Tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary inferior, unilocular, parietal placentation.

ovules many on each placentum, style one stigma 3 forked.

Floral formula:

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 10. Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
There are about 200 genera and 2900 species in this family.
Characters of Apiaceae:
Stem fistular, leaves alternate, much dissected mostly decompound, sheathing leaf base;
inflorescence umbel or compound umbel occasionally simple; flowers epigynous,
pentamerous, regular rarely zygomorphic, hermaphrodite; calyx superior, pentafid or 0;
corolla five, polypetalous, often inflexed; stamens 5; carpels 2; syncarpous, bicarpellary with
2 pendulous ovules; honey-disc surrounding the stigmas – stylopodium is present; fruit
cremocarp; seeds endospermic and oily.

A. Vegetative characters:
Habit:Plants are mostly herbs which may be annual, biennial or perennial, the herbs may be
large (Bupleurum, Heracleum, Agelica) rarely shrubs with aromatic odour due to the presence
of oil ducts. Pseudocarum climbs by means of its petioles which are very sensitive to contact.
Root: Tap, branched sometimes swollen for the storage of food material e.g., Carrot (Daucus
carota).
Stem: Erect or prostrate; climbing in Pseudocarum; swollen nodes, sometimes ridged,
usually fistular, glaucous or glabrous.
Leaf: Cauline and ramal; radical in young plants of Daucus, usually exstipulate, stipulate in
Centella; alternate, opposite in some species or Apiastrum; simple or much dissected, often
decompound; petiolate, petiole usually sheathing at the base, venation reticulate unicostate
(Centella), multicostate (Astrantia), parallel in Eryngium and Aciphylla. Palmately lobed
leaves in Sanicula.

B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence: Simple or compound umbel surrounded by thin leafy bracts called involucre;
in some reduced to single flower e.g., in some species of Centella and Azorella; and to a
compact head in Eryngium.

Flower: Pedicellate, bracteate (Centella) or ebracteate (Foeniculum), perfect, complete,

actinomorphic and in some zygomorphic due to the enlargement of the outer petals of the
marginal flowers of the umbel (Coriandrum); hermaphrodite, pentamerous, epigynous, discus
present.

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In Echinophora each umbel has a central female flower surrounded by male flowers. In
Arctopus and Aciphylla the flowers are fully dioecious. In Astrantia an intermediate condition
is found.
Calyx: Sepals 5, gamosepalous, small teeth or scales or absent (Foeniculum), adnate to the
ovary, valvate, green.
Corolla: Petals 5, polypetalous, epigynous often emarginate, tips inflexed, valvate
(Foeniculum) imbricate, coloured.
Androecium: Stamens 5, polyandrous, inserted under the disc, anthers dithecous, versatile,
introrse, filament long, equal in length, bent in the bud but ultimately spreading out.
Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior, bilocular with a single pendulous bvule in
each loculus, antero-posteriorly placed, axile placentation, style two; stigmas two; on the top
of the ovary an epigynous glandular-stylopodium is present.
Fruit: Schizocarpic cremocarp which splits into two one seeded mericarps, which rejnain
attached to a slender often forked axis – the carpophore; mericarps are longitudinally ridged,
in between the ridges are the farrows having oil ducts or vittae.
Seed: Endospermic, embryo small.
Pollination: Entomophilous due to nectar, scent and protandrous nature of flowers.

Economic Importance of Apiaceae:

This family is of considerable importance from economic point of view chiefly because the
plants have essential oil from which condiments or medicine are prepared.
Food: Carrot (Daucus carota), celery (Apium graveolens), parsnip (Pastinaca sativa) and
sowa (Peucedanum graveolens) are chiefly used as pot herbs.
Condiments: Hing {Ferula foetida), Ajwain (Carum copticum), Zira (Cuminum cyminum),
Saunf (Foeniculum vulgare), Dhania (Coriandrum sativum), are used as condiments or
carminatives. Hing is an oleogum resin obtained from the roots. Ferula sumbul and F.
galbaniflua also produce hing. Dorema also produces oleogum resin.

Fodder: Several members as carrot, Heracleum, Angelica provide fodder for cattle and
horses.
Medicinal: Centella is a very good tonic for brain. Hing, Saunf, Sowa, are used in digestive
disorders. Peucedanum, graveolens (H. sowa) is used as Dill water for children. Conium
maculatum is the Hemlock plant. Its poison was given to Socrates; medicinally it is important

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in all spasmodic affections such as cholera, epilepsy, whooping cough, mania etc. Conium
yields the alkaloid coniine.
Apium graveolens produces apiin and used medicinally as cardiac tonic, or in asthma etc.
The fleshy roots of Cicuta and Aethusa are poisonous to all kinds of livestock.
Ornamental: Trachymene, Angelica, Eryngium, Heracleum are cultivated in gardens for
their beautiful flowers.
Systematic Position
Class : Dicotyledons
Sub class: Polyptetalae
Series : Calciflorae
Order : Umbellales
Family : Apiaceae

Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

Habit: Tall annual herb, cultivated for its condiment value.

Root: Branched tap root.
Stem: Herbaceous, aerial, cylindrical, fistular, glaucous, branched, angular, green.
Leaf: Alternate, exstipulate, sheathing leaf base, petiolate, finely dissected-decompound,
segments linear, entire, acute, glabrous, aromatic, unicostate reticulate ventation.
Inflorescence: Compound umbel.
Flower: Ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, pentamerous,
epigynous, yellow.
Calyx: Sepals 5, gamosepalous, small or reduced, teeth like, valvate.
Corolla: Petals 5, polypetalous, petals notched and inflexed valvate yellow.
Androecium: Stamens 5, polyandrous, filaments long, anthers dorsifixed, dithecous, introrse.
Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous, bilocular, inferior, single pendulous ovule in each
loculus, stylopodium present and prolonged into two short styles; stigmas two capitate.
Fruit: Cremocarp, breaks up into 2 mericarps.
Seed: Endospermic.

Floral formula:

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Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

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Excercises

1. Discuss on Bionomial Nomenclature

2. Write a merits and demerits of Bentham and Hookers Classification

3. Write an comparative account on characteristics of Annonaceae and Anacardiaceae

4. Write an Economic importance of family Rutaceae

5. Explain the characteristics of family Leguminosae

6. Write a general account on family Curcurbiaceae

7. Write brief notes on family Apiaceae

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Unit- III: Taxonomy
Rubiaceae, Asteraceae (compositae), Apocyanaceae, Asclepiadaceae, solanaceae,
Convolvulaceae, Acanthaceae, Verbenaceae, Amaranthaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Orchidaceae,
Liliaceae and Gramineae (Poaceae).

Objectives: To study the morphological and reproductive characterists of plant families in

Dicots and Monocots

11. Rubiaceae

Characters of Rubiaceae
Trees or herbs; leaves alternate or opposite; stipules interpetiolar or intrapetiolar,
Inflorescence cymose; flowers tetra or pentamerous, hermaphrodite, actinomorphic,
epigynous, Corolla, gamopetalous; stamens 4-5; epipetalous, introrse, dithecous; ovary
inferior, bilocular with one or many ovules in each loculus; Fruit capsule or berry.

A. Vegetative characters:
Habit: Mostly shrubs (Gardenia, Ixora, Mussaenda, Hamelia); trees (Morinda, Adina) and a
few herbs (Galium, Rubia).
Root: Much branched tap root system.
Stem: Erect, herbaceous or woody or twinning (Manettia), climbing by hooks (Uncaria),
branched, cylindrical or angular, hairy or smooth.
Leaves:Cauline, ramal, opposite or verticillate, simple, entire or toothed, stipulate, stipules
bristle like (Pentas) and leafy (Galium, Rubia), stipules mostly interpetiolar or sometimes
intrapetiolar; unicostate reticulate venation.

B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence:Solitary (Gardenia) usually cymose or globose head (Adina), or panicled
cyme; may be axillary (Coffea arabica) or terminal cyme (Mussaenda glabra).

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Flower:Actinomorphic, rarely zygomorphic (some what bilabiate as in Henriquezia), mostly
hermaphrodite, rarely unisexual, epigynous, pedicellate or sessile (Greenia, Randia),
bracteate or ebracteate, complete, tetra or pentamerous, cyclic, variously coloured.
Calyx:Sepals 4 or 5, gamosepalous, superior, sometimes one sepal modified into coloured
bract like structure (Mussaenda), valvate.
Corolla:Petals 4 or 5, gamopetalous, lobed, generally funnel shaped (Asperula), tubular
(Ixora), valvate to twisted or imbricate, superior.
Androecium:Stamens 4 or 5, rarely many (Gardenia), epipetalous, alternipetalous, inserted
near the mouth of Corolla tube, stamens dithecous, introrse, dehiscing longitudinally,
superior.
Gynoecium:Bicarpellary, rarely polycarpellary, syncarpous, inferior rarely half inferior
(Synaptanthera) or superior (Paganea), sometimes unilocular (Gardenia) with one to many
anatropous ovules in each loculus, axile placentation (parietal placentation in Gardenia),
style one sometimes bifid or multifid, stigma simple or bilobed.
Fruit:Capsular (Anotis), berry (Mussaenda, Hamelia, Ixora).
Seed:Endospermic, sometimes winged.
Pollination:Entomophilous; ant Pollination is well known.

Economic Importance of Rubiaceae:

I. Medicinal plants: Bark of Cinchona officinalis yields an alkaloid called Quinine which is
the best remedy for malarial fever. The roots of Rubia cordifolia are also used as medicine.
Rubiaceae family plants exhibited antimalarial, antimicrobial, antihypertension, antidiabetic,
antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities.
Bioactive compounds including indole alkaloids, terpenoids and anthraquinones have been
isolated from these plants.
Various natural products occur in Rubiaceae plants. Extensive phytochemical investigation
has been realized regarding the natural occurrence of terpenoids, anthraquinones and indole
alkaloids in the family.
II. Beverage plants: The seeds of Coffea arabica, C. liberica and C. robusta are roasted and
ground to give coffee powder.
III. Ornamental plants:Rubia, Hamelia, Gardenia, Ixora, Mussaenda are cultivated in
gardens for their beautiful flowers.

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Systematic Position
Class : Dicotyledons
Subclass: Gamopetalae
Series : Inferae
Order : Rubiales
Family : Rubiaceae

Ixora coccinia L.

Habit An evergreen shrub.

RootBranched tap root system

Stem Aerial, erect, branched, cylindrical and woody.

Leaf Simple, opposite decussate, oblong, stipulate with interpetiolar stipules and unicostate
reticulate venation.

Inflorescence Terminal or axillary dense corymbose cyme.

Flower Bracteate, bracteolate, dichlamydeous, bisexual, complete, tetramerous,

actinomorphic and epigynous.

Calyx Sepals 4, green, gamosepalous showing valvate aestivation, regular and persistent.

Corolla Petals 4, bright red or yellow or white, gamopetalous, showing twisted aestivation,
hypocrateriform, corolla tube long and slender.

Androecium Stamens 4, epipetalous, attached at the throat of the corolla tube, filaments
short, alternate the petals. Anthers are dithecous, basifixed, introrse and dehiscing
longitudinally.

Gynoecium Ovary inferior, bicarpellary and syncarpous. Ovary bilocular with one ovule in
each locule showing axile placentation. Style simple and filiform. Stigma bifid.

Fruit A berry.

Seed Endospermous.

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Ixora coccinia L.

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 12. Asteraceae
Characters of Asteraceae:
Mostly herbs or shrubs or rarely trees; leaves alternate rarely opposite, exstipulate rarely
stipulate; Inflorescence capitulum or head surrounded by involucre of bracts; ray and disc
florets, flower tubular or ligulate, flowers bi- or unisexual or outer male or female,
pentamerous, actinomorphic or zygomorphic, caryxpappus, Corolla gamopetalous, petal
lobes 5, stamens 5, epipetalous, usually dithecous, filament free and anthers united i.e.
syngenesious, introrse, ovary unilocular, inferior, with basal placentation, style slender
stigma bifid; Fruit cypsela.

A. Vegetative characters:
Habit:Herbs (Ageratum, Lactuca, Dahlia, Sonchus), shrubs (Inula, Senecio) rarely trees
(Vernonia arborea and Leucomeris). Many of the plants are xerophytes (Proustia),
hydrophytes (Cotula) some are semiaquatic (Caesulia axilaris).
Root:Tap root, sometimes modified into tubers (Dahlia).

Stem:Erect, or prostrate, herbaceous or woody (Artemisia), hairy, sometimes with latex.

Stem tubers are also present (Helianthus); tubers are edible (H. tuberosus); cylindrical;
glabrous, solid or fistular, stem may be leaf-like (Baccharis).

Leaf:Alternate rarely opposite (Zinnia, Dahlia) or whorled; leaves may be radical, petiolate
or sessile, exstipulate, mostly simple sometimes scale-like (Senecio), unicostate or
multicostate reticulate venation.

B. Floral characters:

Inflorescence:A head or capitulum, consisting of a few or large number of flowers or florets

closely arranged on an axis surrounded by involucral bracts. The whole head or capitulum is
apparently similar to a single flower because the involucral bracts perform the function of
protection.
In Helianthus the outer or peripheral, ligulate and zygomorphic florets are called ray-florets;
whereas inner or central, tubular and actinomorphic ones are called disc-florets.

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Flower: Bracteate, sessile, (Sonchus, Ageratum), complete or incomplete, hermaphrodite or
unisexual, pentamerous, tubular (actinomorphic) or ligulate (zygomorphic), epigynous and
inconspicious.

Ray-florets
Flower: Zygomorphic, ligulate, pistillate, or neuter or sometimes also bisexual, epigynous.
Calyx: Modified into pappus or absent or scale-like.
Corolla: Petals 5, gamopetalous, highly coloured, ligulate, strap-shaped, valvate.
Androecium: Absent.
Gynoecium: Either absent or if present then bicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior, unilocular
with basal placentation, one anatropous ovule; style one; stigma bifid.
Fruit: Absent; if present cypsela.
Seed: Non-endospermic.

Disc florets
Flower: Bracteate, sessile, complete, hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, pentamerous, epigynous
and tubular.
Calyx:Modified into pappus or scale, persistent.
Corolla: Petals 5, gamopetalous, tubular, coloured.
Androecium:Stamens 5, epipetalous, syngenesious, dithecous, introrse, dehiscing
longitudinally.
Gynoecium:Bicarpellary, syncarpous, inferior, unilocular with single anatropous ovule, basal
placentation; style simple, long, stigma bifid.
Fruit:Cypsela.
Seed:Non-endospermic.
Pollination:Entomophilous.

Economic Importance of Asteraceae:

1. Food: Leaves of Lactuca sativa are used as salad. The roots of Helianthus tuberosus are
edible.
2. Oil: The seeds of Helianthus and Artemisia yield oil.
3. Medicinal: Solidago used in dropsy. Artemisia yields santonin which is used as vermifuge.
The roots of Taraxacum used in bowel disorders. The juice of Emillia sonchifolia leaves has

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cooling effect and is used in eye inflammation and also for night blindness. Eclipta alba used
as tonic in spleen enlargement. Centipeda orbicularis is used in cold and toothache.
4. Rubber: It is obtained from Solidago laevenworthii and Taraxacum.
5.Insecticide: The capitula of Chrysanthemum roseum and C. cinerriefolium are dried,
powdered and used as insecticide.
6. Ornamental: Zinnia, Dahila, Cosmos, Chrysanthemum, Calendula, Helichrysium, Aster
Helianthus etc. are well known garden plants.
7. Weeds: Xanthium, Blumea, Sonchus, Vernonia are the common weeds.
Systematic position
Class : Dicotyledons
Subclass: Gamopetalae
Series : Inferae
Order : Asterales
Family : Asteraceae

Tridax procumbens L.
Habit :A decumbent herb. Stem and leaves are covered by hairs.
Root : Tap root system.
Stem : Herbaceous, cylindrical, decumbent and branched.
Leaf : Simple, opposite, exstipulate and margins dentate showing reticulate venation.
Inflorescence : A terminal heterogamous head and receptacle of the head is convex and
surrounded by green involucre. The tubular florets occupy the centre and the ligulate florets
are found at the margins.
Tubular or disc florets :Bracteate, ebracteolate, sessile, complete, bisexual, pentamerous,
actinomorphic and epigynous.
Calyx :Reduced into numerous hairy outgrowths called pappus arranged on top of ovary and
persistent.
Corolla :Petals 5, gamopetalous, regular, tubular and showing valvate aestivation.
Androecium :Stamens 5, epipetalous, syngenesious and alternate with petals. Anthers are
dithecous, basifixed, introrse and dehiscing longitudinally.
Gynoecium :Ovary inferior, bicarpellary and syncarpous. Ovary unilocular with a single
ovule on basal placentation. Style simple with bifid stigma.
Fruit :A cypsela.
Seed :Non-endospermous.
Ligulate or ray florets :Bracteate, ebracteolate, sessile, incomplete, pistillate, zygomorphic
and epigynous.

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Calyx :Reduced into numerous hairy outgrowths called pappus arranged on top of the ovary
and persistent.
Corolla :Petals 5, gamopetalous, irregular, ligulate or bilabiate, the anterior lip is large and 3
lobed, the posterior one is small in the form of 2 teeth like projections showing valvate
aestivation.
Androecium : Absent.
Gynoecium :Ovary inferior, bicarpellary and syncarpous. Ovary unilocular with a single
ovule on basal placentation. Style simple with bifid stigma.
Fruit :A cypsela.
Seed:Non-endospermous.
Floral formula: Br., Ebrl.,%, , K x , C(5), A0, G (2)

Page 68 of 158
 13. Apocyanaceae
A. Vegetative characters:
Habit:Herbs (Catharanthus), shrubs (Carissa, Nerium), twinners (Vallaris), tree (Alstonia)
with latex.
Root:A much branched tap root system.
Stem:Usually herbaceous (Catharanthus) erect, woody, solid, branched, green or succulent
with latex.
Leaves:Simple, opposite (Catharanthus) or whorled (Nerium), petiolate or sub-sessile,
exstipulate, margin entire, unicostate reticulate venation.

B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence: Usually cymose either terminal or axillary, may be cyme (Carissa) or
umbellate cyme (Rauwolfia).
Flower: Bracteate or ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, tetra
or pentamerous, often with corona.
Calyx: Sepals 5, rarely 4, gamo- or polysepalous, deeply lobed, small, often glandular at the
base, imbricate or valvate.
Corolla: Petals 5, gamopetalous forming a Corolla tube which may be long or short, corona
present (hairy scales or outgrowth), usually twisted, sometimes imbricate, rarely valvate.
Androecium: Stamens 4 to 5, epipetalous, alternipetalous, filament short, free, dithecous,
connate to stigma, dehiscing longitudinally, introrse.
Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous ovaries are free below but united by style only,
superior style short, enclosed in a tube formed by the Corolla, stigma thickened distally;
when ovaries are free each ovary is unilocular with marginal placentation but when ovaries
are fused then axile placentation.
Fruit: A drupe (Thevetia), berry (Carissa), follicle (Nerium, Amsonia).
Seed: Endospermic, hairy or winged.
Pollination: Entomorphilous.

Economic Importance of Apocynaceae:

1. Vegetables: The pulpy fruits of Carissa carandus are edible and also pickled.
2. Medicinal: The root of Rauwolfia serpentina (H. Sarpgandha) are used in lowering blood
pressure, sedative, stimulator for uterine contraction and in mental diseases. The juice of

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leaves is used for removal of opacities of the cornea of the eyes. Anti-cancerous drugs are
extracted from Catharanthus roseus.
The bark of Alstonia scholaris is a febrifuga. Holarrhena antidysentrica yields a drug which
is a cure for amoebic dysentery.
3. Rubber: Many species of Hancora, Dyera, Urceola are the sources of rubber.
4. Poisonous: The seeds of Thevetia contain Thevetine a poisonous glycoside. The latex of
Acokanthera is used for poisoning arrows. The bark and wood of Nerium indicum provide
rat-poison.
5. Ornamental: Nerium, Catharanthus , Thevetia, Wrightia, Allamanda are cultivated in
gardens as ornamentals.

Systematic Position

Class : Dicotyledons
Subclass : Gamopetalae
Series : Bicarpellatae
Orders : Gentianales
Family : Apocyanaceae

Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don (syn. Vinca rosea)

Habit: Perennial herb.

Root: Branched tap root system.

Stem: Herbaceous erect, cylindrical, solid, branched, glabrous, and green.

Leaves: Cauline, ramal, opposite decussate, simple, exstipulate, petiolate, ovate, entire
acute, unicostate reticulate venation.

Inflorescence: Solitary axillary or in pairs.

Flower: Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, pentamerous,

hypogynous, pinkish white.

Calyx: Sepals 5, polysepalous, green, glandular, valvate.

Corolla: Petals 5, gamopetalous, salver-shaped, rotate, pink with long corolla tube, throat of
the corolla tube hairy forming a corona, twisted, inferior.

Androecium: Stamens 5, alternipetalous, epipetalous, dorsifixed, dithecous, introrse,

approaching stigma.

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Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovaries free at the base, but united at the stigmatic
region, unilocular with marginal placentation, superior, two large green nectaries antero-
posterior to the ovary; style filiform with dumbell shaped stigma.

Floral formula:

Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don

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 14. Asclepiadaceae
Characters of Asclepiadaceae
Plants herbs, shrubs, mostly twiners and rarely trees; leaves opposite, simple, entire margin
rarely alternate; Inflorescence cymose or racemose; flowers hermaphrodite, pentamerous;
Calyx of 5 sepals, imbricate; petals 5, gamopetalous, corona arising as outgrowth of petals or
stamens; stamens 5, fused with stigmatic disc forming gynostegium; pollens forming pollinia;
carpels bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovaries and style free, only stigma fused to form disc,
marginal placentation, Fruit follicles.

A. Vegetative characters:
Habit: Perennial herbs (Asclepias) or shrubs (Calotropis, Leptadenia), climbers
(Cryptostegia, Daemia), succulent (Stapelia) with latex.
Root: A deep branched tap root.
Stem: Herbaceous, week and climbing or succulent, woody below (Calotropis), erect, twiner
or climbers (Cryptostegia) cylindrical, rarely hairy and solid, latex present.
Leaves: Simple, petiolate, exstipulate, entire, opposite rarely whorled, waxy; in Dischidia
rafflesiana leaves are modified into pitchers, reduced or absent (Periploca), succulent in
Hoya.

B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence: Mostly umbellate cymes (Calotropis) or dichasial cyme ending in
monochasial cyme.
Flower: Bracteate or ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, rarely
zygomorphic (Ceropegia), pentamerous, hypogynous.
Calyx: Sepals 5, polysepalous or gamosepalous-fused near the base, quincuncial aestivation,
sometimes valvate.
Corolla: Petals 5, gamopetalous, 5 lobed, twisted aestivation or valvate, corona may be scaly
or hairy out growth from petals – corolline corona in Cryptostegia, Cryptolepis or form
staminal tube i.e. staminal corona in Calotropis and Asciepias.
Androecium: Stamens 5, synandrous, gynostegium (stamens fused with stigmatic disc to
form gynostegium), anthers dithecous, epipetalous, coherent; the pollen grains of each half
anther usually agglutinated into granular mass of tetrads or waxy pollen called pollinium
(Asclepias, Calotropis). Thus each stamen has two pollinia.

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 The pollinia of two adjacent anther halves are connected together at the black, dot-like gland
called corpusculum by appendages called – retinacula. The two pollinia (of adjacent anther
halves), two retinacula and a corpusculum together form a single translator. So in all there are
5 translators.
Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovaries free, superior, enclosed in staminal tube,
ovules many on marginal placentation, each carpel is unilocular; style 2, free, distinct;
stigmas united to form a pentangular disc with which anthers are fused to form gynostegium.
Fruit: An etaerio of two, often widely divergent follicles; in some one follicle is abortive.

Seed: Many small, compressed with long silky hairs.

Pollination: Entomophilous, translator mechanism.
Economic Importance of Asclepiadaceae:
1. Food: Gymnema lactiferum yields latex which is used as food in Ceylon.
2. Fibres: Some plants like Daemia extensa, Calotropis procera, C. gigantea, Marsdenia and
Leptadenia etc. yield silky fibres which axe used for making ropes, mat, stuffing pillows etc.
3. Medicinal: The source of medicine in the family is latex from which alkaloids are
extracted. The roots of Oxystelma esculentum are specific for jaundice. This roots of
Pentatropis are used in gonorrhoea. Hemidesmus indicus is used in leucorrhoea, rheumatism
and in snake bites. Daemia extensa is used in cough; asthma and diarrhoea.
4. Rubber: Cryptostegia grandiflora is a natural source of rubber in India.
5. Poison: Some species of Asclepias are important as live-stock poison. The sap of Matelea
has been used as an arrow poison.
6. Ornamental: Asclepias, Cryptostegia, Hoya, Huernia, Ceropegia, Periploca etc. are
cultivated for ornamental purposes.

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Systematic Position
Class : Dicotyledons
Subclass : Gamopetalae
Series : Bicarpellatae
Orders : Gentianales
Family : Asclepiadaceae

Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T.Aiton

Habit: A perennial wild, xerophytic shrub of fallow land and waste places.
Root: Tap, branched, perennial and very deep.
Stem: Erect, woody below and herbaceous above, cylindrical, solid, branched, hairy, rough,
latex present.
Leaves: Opposite decussate, simple, sessile, exstipulate, semiamplexicaul, ovate-elliptical,
entire, thick, leathery, covered with hair and wax, unicostate reticulate venation.
Inflorescence: Axillary umbellate cymes.
Flower: Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, hermaphrodie, actinomorphic, pentamerous,
hypogynous.
Calyx: Sepals 5, polysepalous, greenish, quincuncial.
Corolla: Petals 5, gamopetalous, campanulate, inner side purple twisted.
Androecium: Stamens 5, epipetalous, filament connate forming a staminal tube around
ovary; anthers fused to the margins of pentangular stigmatic disc forming gynostegium;
pollen grains aggregated into small ovoid vescicles – the pollinia; each anther possessing 2
pollinia.
Pollinia of adjacent anthers are united by means of 2 retinacula arising from a brownish-black
dot-like the corpusculum . From the back of the staminal column five, fleshy, laterally
compressed coloured coronary outgrowths radiate out. These are known as cuculi.

Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior, ovaries free below and united in stylar
region and finally terminates in a pentangular stigmatic head which is confluent with pollinia
forming gynostegium. Each ovary unilocular, marginal placentation.

Floral formula:

Page 74 of 158
Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T.Aiton

Page 75 of 158
 15. Solanaceae
Characters of Solanceae

Plants herbs, shurbs rarely trees; leaves alternate, flowers solitary or in cymes; axillary or
terminal; flowers pentamerous, actinomorphic, hypogynous, hermaphrodite, Calyx persistent,
gamosepalous, Corolla gamopetalous, campanulate; stamens epipetalous; Gynoecium
bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary obliquely placed, axile placentation; swollen placentae;
ovules many in each locules; Fruit capsule or berry.

A. Vegetative characters:
Habit:Mostly herbs (Petunia, Withania), shrubs and trees.
Root:A branched tap root system.
Stem: Aerial, erect, climbing (Solanum jasminoides), herbaceous, or woody, cylindrical,
branched, solid or hollow, hairy, or glabrous, underground stem in Solanum tuberosum.
Leaves: Cauline, ramal, exstipulate, petiolate or sessile, alternate sometimes opposite,
simple, entire pinnatisect in Lycopersicurn, unicostate reticulate venation.

B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence: Solitary axillary, umbellate cyme, or helicoid cyme in Solanum.
Flower: Bracteate or ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, hermaphrodite, actinomorphic,
pentamerous, hypogynous.
Calyx: Sepals 5, gamosepalous, tubular or campanulate, valvate or imbricate, persistent,
green or coloured, hairy, inferior.
Corolla: Petals 5, gamopetalous, tubular or infundibuliform, valvate or imbricate aestivation,
scale or hair-like outgrowth may arise from the throat of the Corolla tube, coloured, inferior.
Androecium: Stamens 5, epipetalous, polyandrous, alternipetalous, filaments inserted deep in
the Corolla tube, anthers dithecous, usually basifixed or dorsifixed, introrse, inferior.
Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, bilocular, unilocular in Henoonia,
axile placentation placentae swollen, many ovules in each loculus, ovary obliquely placed; in
some cases nectariferous disc is present; style simple; stigma bifid or capitate.
Fruit: A capsule or beery.
Seed: Endospermic.
Pollination: Entomophilous.

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Economic Importance of Solanaceae:

1. Food: Many members viz., Solanum tuberosum (Potato), Solanum melongena (Brinjal),
Lycopersicurn esculentum (Tomato), Capsicum (chilly) etc. are used as vegetables. Physalis
peruviana produces edible berries.

2. Medicinal: Atropa belladona contains alkaloid Atropine; this is used in Belladona plaster.
Atropine is used in eye testing. Nicotiana tabacum (tobacco) yields Nicotine. Hyoscyamus
niger, Solanum nigrum, Datura , Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha) are used medicinally.
3. Narcotics: Tobacco is obtained from leaves of Nicotiana tabacum and variously used in
cigars, bidi, chewing, jarda etc.
4. Ornamentals: Petunia, Cestrum, Lycium, Salpiglossis, Schizanthus are cultivated in
gardens for ornamentals.

Habit: A wild herb.

Root: Branched tap root system.

Stem: Erect, aerial, woody below and herbaceous above, cylindrical with distinct ribs, solid,
branched, green.

Leaves: Alternate, simple, exstipulate, petiolate, ovate, repand, acute, glabrous, unicostate
reticulate venation.

Inflorescence: Extra-axillary helicoid cymes. Extra axillary position is due to fusion.

Flower: Ebracteate; pedicellate, complete, hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, pentamerous,

hypogynous, small and white.

Calyx: Sepals 5, gamosepalous, pentafid, valvate, persistent, green, hairy, inferior.

Corolla: Petals 5, gamopetalous, rotate, valvate, five lobed, white, inferior.

Androecium: Stamens 5, polyandrous epipetalous, alternipetalous, filaments shorts, equal in

length, anthers long and conniving, basifixed, dithecous, and dehiscence by apical pores.

Page 77 of 158
Systematic Position

Class : Dicotyledons
Subclass : Gamopetalae
Series : Bicarpellatae
Orders : Polemoneales
Family : Solanaceae

Solanum nigrum L.

Habit: A wild herb.

Root: Branched tap root system.

Stem: Erect, aerial, woody below and herbaceous above, cylindrical with distinct ribs, solid,
branched, green.

Leaves: Alternate, simple, exstipulate, petiolate, ovate, repand, acute, glabrous, unicostate
reticulate venation.

Inflorescence: Extra-axillary helicoid cymes. Extra axillary position is due to fusion.

Flower: Ebracteate; pedicellate, complete, hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, pentamerous,

hypogynous, small and white.

Calyx: Sepals 5, gamosepalous, pentafid, valvate, persistent, green, hairy, inferior.

Corolla: Petals 5, gamopetalous, rotate, valvate, five lobed, white, inferior.

Androecium: Stamens 5, polyandrous epipetalous, alternipetalous, filaments shorts, equal in

length, anthers long and conniving, basifixed, dithecous, and dehiscence by apical pores.

Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, bilocular, axile placentation,

placentae swollen, ovules many in each loculus, ovary obliquely placed; style simple, hairy;
stigma bilobed.

Fruit: A berry.

Seed: Endospermic.

Floral formula:

Page 78 of 158
Solanum nigrum L.

Page 79 of 158
 16. Convolvulaceae
Characters of Convolvulaceae:
Herbs or shrubs, climbing; leaves alternate, simple, exstipulate, rarely stipulate; Inflorescence
cymose; flowers actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, hypogynous; Calyx 5, polysepalous; colrolla
gamopetalous, campanulate; stamens 5, epipetalous, alternipetalous, disc present; ovary
bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior, axile placentation, generally two ovules per loculus; Fruit
capsule or nut.

A. Vegetative characters:
Habit: Herbs (Convolvulus, Evolvulus), shrubs and climbing (Ipomoea, Argyeria), the plants
may be xerophytic, hydrophytic (Ipomoea aquatica) or parasitic (Cuscuta).
Root: Tap, branched, fleshy (Ipomoea batatus). Cuscuta without ordinary roots but
adventitious haustoria are present.
Stem: Erect, or prostrate, herbaceous, twiner (Ipomoea and Cuscuta), cylindrical, branched,
solid or fistular, tuberous rhozomatous (Convolvulus).
Leaves: Alternate, simple, exstipulate, petiolate, entire or palmately lobed, or pinnately
divided (Quamoclit pinnata), unicostate or multicostate reticulate venation.

B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence: Solitary axillary (Convolvulus, Evolvulus) or cymes.
Flower: Bracteate, bracteolate, pedicellate, complete hermaphrodite, actinomorphic,
pentamerous, (in Hildebrandita the flowers are tetramerous, unisexual) and hypogynous.
Calyx: Sepals 5, polysepalous rarely gamosepalous, persistent, imbricate, inferior.
Corolla: Petals 5, gamopetalous, campanulate, or infundibuliform, imbricate, or valvate
(induplicate valvate in Ipomoea), inferior.
Androecium: Stamens 5, polyandrous, epipetalous, length of the filaments variable in the
same flower; dorsifixed or basifixed, inserted deep in the corolla tube, dithecous and introrse.
Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior, situated on a disc, sometimes tetralocular,
axile placentation, two or rarely one ovule per loculus; style simple, or two (Cuscuta),
filiform, stigma capitate or bifid (Convolvulus, Ipomoea palmata).
Fruit: Capsule (Convolvulus, Evolvulus, Cuscuta) or berry.
Seed: Endospermic.
Pollination: Entomophilous.

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Economic Importance of Convolvulaceae:
1. Food: Tuberous roots of Ipomoea batatus (Sweet potato) are rich in starch and edible.
Root stock of Calystegia sepium are cooked and eaten. The leaves of Ipomoea aquatica are
used as vegetable.
2. Medicinal: Due to the purgative property of latex, several species are used as medicine
(Exogynum purga). Ipomoea hederacea yields Kaladana. Leaves of Ipomoea pescarpae are
boiled and applied externally in case of colic while decoction in used as a blood purifier and
in bilious disorders. Ipomoea paniculata is considered good for rejuvenation, Merremia
tridentata is used in rheumatism, piles and urinary disorders.
3. Weed: Convolvulus arvensis, Evolvulus alsinoides, are the common weeds. Cuscuta is a
parasite and ruins many types of plants.
4.Ornamental: Ipomoea biloba, Convolvulus and Porana are cultivated as ornamentals.
Systematic Position
Class : Dicotyledons
Subclass : Gamopetalae
Series : Bicarpellatae
Orders : Polemoniales
Family : Convolvulaceae

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.

Habit: A perennial herb, leafless, total parasite.

Root: Absent, haustoria present.
Stem: Weak, herbaceous, twining, branched, cylindrical, solid, smooth, yellowish green.
Leaves: Absent.
Inflorescence: Racemose or fasciculate.
Flower: Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, pentamerous,
hypogynous, white.
Calyx: Sepals 5, polysepalous; or slightly fused at the base, green, quincuncial, greenish
white; inferior.
Corolla: Petals 5, gamopetalous, campanulate, corolla teeth or lobes acute, reflexed,
imbricate; corona like scales present at the base of corolla tube, inferior.
Androecium: Stamens 5, polyandrous, epipetalous, filaments short, anthers dorsifixed,
dithecous, introrse, inferior.
Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior, bilocular, axile placentation, 2 ovules per
loculus; style reduced; stigma bifid.
Fruit: Capsule.

Floral formula:
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Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.

Page 82 of 158
 17. Acanthaceae
Characters of Acanthaceae
Mostly herbs, shrubs; leaves opposite decussate, exstipulate, Inflorescence cymose, flowers
bracteate, bracteolate, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, hypogynous; Calyx five or 4
gamosepalous, Corolla pentapartite, gamopetalous, often bilipped; stamens 4 to 2
didynamous, polyandrous, epipetalous; carpels two, syncarpous, ovary superior, axile
placentation, style simple, stigma bilobed; Fruit loculicidal capsule, Seeds non-endospermic
with jaculators.

A. Vegetative characters:
Habit: Plants are mostly herbs, shrubs or a few climbers (Thunbergia), some xerophytes
(Barleria, Blepharis, Acanthus), aquatic (Asteracantha longifolia).
Root: Branched tap root system.
Stem:Aerial, erect, underground (Ruellia tuberosa), herbaceous or woody, branched
cylindrical, node swollen, climbing or twining (Thunbergia), spinous (Barleria).
Leaves:Opposite decussate, simple, exstipulate, petiolate, usually entire, acute apex, hairy,
cystoliths are present in the epidermal cells of stem and leaves.

B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence: Solitary axillary (Thunbergia), spike (Blepharis) racemes, dichasial or
monochasial cymes.
Flower: Bracteate, bracteolate, bracts and bracteolates conspicuous, pedicellate or sessile,
and brightly coloured, hermaphrodite, complete, zygomorphic, pentamerous, or tetramerous,
hypogynous, nectariferous disc present below the ovary wall.
Calyx: Sepals 4 or 5 gamosepalous, mostly bilabiate, hairy, imbricate, inferior.

Corolla: Petals 2 to 5, bilipped, gamopetalous, variously coloured, imbricate or twisted,

inferior.
Androecium:Generally 4, rarely 5 (Penstemon), in some 2 fertile stamens and 2 staminodes,
epipetalous, filaments free, dithecous, dorsifixed, alternate with the Corolla lobes, one anther
lobe may be smaller than the other and unequally placed, anthers sometimes spurred.
Gynoecium:Bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior, bilocular, axile placentation, carpels median,
one or more ovules per loculus, style simple, stigma bilobed, disc present below the ovary.

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Fruit:Loculicidal capsule or rarely drupe.
Seed:Non-endospermic with hooks (jaculators).
Pollination:Entomophilous.

Economic Importance of Acanthaceae:

1. Medicinal: Many plants of the family are medicinal. Adhatoda vasika and Barleria
cristata are used in cough. Roots of Rhinanthus, Ruellia are also used in medicine. Roots of
Ecbolium are used in jaundice. Andrographic paniculata is used for liver diseases. Fruits and
leaves of Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus are used for fever. Leaves of Phlogacanthus tubiflorus
when rubbed in water yields lather which is used like soap for washing purposes.

2.Ornamental: Many plants are cultivated for ornamental purposes viz., Acanthus, Barleria,
Justicia, Thunbergia, Jacobinia, Ruellia, are often used as hedge.

Class : Dicotyledons
Subclass : Gamopetalae
Series : Bicarpellatae
Orders : Personales
Family : Acanthaceae

Justicia adhatoda L. (Syn. Adhatoda vasika)

Plants herbs, shrubs or trees, leaves simple, exstipulate, opposite or whorled; Inflorescence
cymose, racemose or spike, flowers hermaphrodite, zygomorphic, hypogynous, Calyx
gamosepalous, persistent; Corolla 5 lobed, gamopetalous sometimes 2 lipped, stamens four,
didynamous, unequally paired, epipetalous; carpels two, syncarpous, superior, axile
placentation, Fruit drupe.

Habit: A perennial shrub.

Root: Tap, branched.

Stem: Aerial, erect, woody, cylindrical, solid, greenish-yellow, branched, swollen nodes.

Leaves: Opposite, decussate, simple, petiolate, green, exstipulate, lanceolate, entire, acute,
coriacious, unicostate reticulate.

Inflorescence: Racemose, spike.

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Flower: Bracteate, bracteolate, sessile, complete, hermaphrodite, zygomorphic pentamerous,
hypogynous, whitish with pink streaks.

Calyx: Sepals 5, gamosepalous, green, imbricate, inferior.

Corolla: Petals 5, gamopetalous, personate (2/3) posterior lip with 2 lobes, imbricate, white
with pink streaks, inferior.

Androecium: Stamens 2, polyandrous, epipetalous, filaments long, hairy at the base,

basifixed, dithecous, introrse, anther lobes at unequal height and spurred.

Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior, bilocular, one ovule in each loculus, axile
placentation, style long, stigma bifid.

Floral formula:

Page 85 of 158
Justicia adhatoda L.

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 18.Verbenaceae
Characters of Verbenaceae:
A. Vegetative characters:
Habit:Mostly annual or perennial herbs, may be shrubs or trees (Tectona) or rarely woody
climbers or halophyte (Avicennia) in tropical shores.
Root:Tap, branched, pneumatophore in Avicennia.
Stem:Erect, herbaceous or woody, young branches quadrangular, in some branches spiny.
Leaves:Simple or palmately or pinnately (Peronema) compound, opposite or whorled,
exstipulate, entire or divided.

B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence:Cyme or racemose spikes often with an involucre of coloured bracts; cymose
is usually dichasial (Clerodendron).
Flower:Zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, rarely unisexual by abortion (Aegiphila), hypogynous,
pentamerous or tetramerous (Physopsis), rarely actinomorphic (Physopsis) complete.
Calyx:Sepals 5 lobed, gamosepalous, persistent, bell shaped or tubular, rarely 4 to 8 valvate,
inferior.
Corolla: Petals 5 or 4 lobed, gamopetalous petals unequal, tubular or cylindrical, bi-lippod,
imbricate, inferior.
Androecium: Stamens 4, didynamous, fifth stamen may be staminode or absent rarely 5
present (Tectona), epipetalous, bithecous, filaments free, dorsifixed, introrse, dehiscence
longitudinal.
Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous, rarely carpels 4 (Duranta) or 5 (Geunsia) superior in
early stage bilocular but soon divided into 4 or many loculed by false septa, axile placentation
or free central in Avicennia; style terminal, stigma entire or bilobed.
Fruit: Drupe rarely schizocarpic capsule enclosed by persistent calyx.
Seed: Non-endospermic with a straight embryo.
Pollination: Entomophilous.
Economic Importance of Verbenaceae:
1. Timber: The wood of Tectona grandis (Teak, H. Sagwan) is extremely hard and lasting.
The wood is largely used in manufacturing of ships and good quality furniture. Teak is grown

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in forests of Burma, Madhya Pradesh and Assam. The wood of Gmelina arborea is used in
making drums, sitars and other musical instruments.
2. Medicinal: The roots of Clerodendron are used in asthma and cough. The decoction of
leaves of Lantana camara is given in tetanus and rheumatism. The leave‘s juice of Gmelina
arborea is used in gonorrhoea, cough and ulcers.
3. Oils: Lippia alba produces a valuable oil.
4. Tanning: The bark of Avicennia is used in tanning.
5. Febrifuge: The leaves of Vitex negundo serve as febrifuge. The branches of this plant are
kept over stored grains to keep off insects.
6. Ornamental: Lantana, Verbena officinalis, Duranta, Congea tomentosa, Callicarpa,
Clerodendro and Petrea are cultivated in gardens.

Systematic Position
Class : Dicotyledons
Subclass : Gamopetalae
Series : Bicarpellatae
Orders : Lamiales
Family : Verbenaceae

Duranta plumeri Jacq.

Habit: Small shrub.

Root: Tap, deep, branched.

Stem: Herbaceous, woody below, erect, solid, branched, green when young.

Leaf: Ramal and cauline, simple, opposite, petiolate, exstipulate, ovate, serrate, acute,
unicostate reticulate venation.

Inflorescence: Raceme.

Flower: Pedicellate, bracteate, complete, hermaphrodite, zygomorphic, hypogynous,

pentamerous, bluish-white.

Calyx: Sepals 5, gamosepalous, tubular, valvate, persistent.

Corolla: Petals 5, gamopetalous, tubular, lobes, unequal, three anterior lobes are larger, two
posterior ones smaller, corolla slightly curved near apex, quincuncial aestivation.

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Androecium: Stamens 4, polyandrous, epipetalous, didynamous, posterior stamen absent,
bithecous, introrse, basifixed.

Gynoecium: Tetracarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, tetralocular, axile placentation,

two ovules in each loculus; style simple, stigma simple or bifid.

Fruit: Drupe.

Floral formula:

Duranta plumeri Jacq.

A.Part of the flowering twig B. Flower in L.S. (enlarged) C.Floral diagram

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 19. Amaranthaceae
Characters of Amaranthaceae:
Plants mostly herbs, a few shrubs, leaves exstipulate and simple; opposite or alternate, hairy;
flowers small, incospicuous and usually with bracts and bracteoles, actinomorphic, arranged
in spikes or racemes; perianth 2 to 5, uniseriate, green or coloured, free or united; stamens 3
to 5 free, dithecous, antiphyllous (opposite the perianth segments); gynoecium bi or tri-
carpellary, unilocular with a single basal ovule; fruit one seeded nutlet.

A. Vegetative characters:

Habit:Mostly herbs, rarely shrubs or undershrubs (Deeringia), annual or perennial (Bosia,

Ptilotus).
Root:A branched tap root.

Stem:Aerial, herbaceous or woody, erect or straggling, cylindrical, or angular, branched,

solid, hairy, green or striped green.

Leaves:Simple, alternate or opposite, petiolate, exstipulate, reddish in colour, unicostate

reticulate venation.

B. Floral characters:

Inflorescence:Axillary or terminal spikes (Achyranthes, Digera). Some times in cymose

panicles.

Flower:Bracteate, sessile or sub-sessile, bracteolate, bracteoles two, actinomorphic,

hermaphrodite or unisexual hypogynous, small inconspicuous, green or variously coloured.

Perianth:Usually five tepals, free or united, sometimes two or three (Amaranthus), dry
membranous, valvate or twisted, sometime, hairy, green or coloured, persistent, inferior.

Androecium:Stamens 5 or 3 (Amaranthus), free or united, staminodes sometimes present,

introrse, dithecous or monothecous (Alternanthera). In Achyranthes 5 fimbriated scales
alternate with 5 fertile stamens.Gynoecium:Bicarpellary, or tricarpellary; syncarpous, ovary
superior, unilocular, usually one campylotropous ovule; basal placentation; style short or
filiform; stigma 2 or 3.

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Fruit:Dry one seeded achene or several seeded capsule or one to several seeded berry.
Seed:Endospermic with polished testa, kidney-shaped embryo curved.
Pollination:Mostly anemophilous and in some plants entomophilous.

Floral formula:
Economic Importance of Amaranthaceae:
Food:Seeds of Amaranthus caudatus are edible. Amaranthus cruentus and A. frumentacea
are raised as cereals by primitive tribes in Tropical Asia. The leaves of Amaranthus viridis, A.
spinosus and A. tricolor are also used as vegetables.

Medicinal: Achyranthes aspera is diuretic and purgative. Decoction of Aerua tomentosa is

used to remove swellings. The stem and leaves of Alternanthera are used in snake-bite. The
flowers and seeds of Digera muricata (syn. D. arvensis) are given for urinary discharges.
Dye: Leaves of Bosia amherstiana yield a black dye. The fruit juice of Deeringia is a
substitute for red ink.
Weeds:Some genera are weeds e.g. Amaranthus, Celosia, Digera, Achyranthes, Gomphrena
etc.
Ornamentals:Celosia cristata (Cockscomb), Gomphrena globosa (Globe amaranthus) are
cultivated in gardens.

Class : Dicotyledons
Subclass : Monochlamydeae
Series : Curvembryeae
Order : Caryophyllales

Achyranthes aspera L.

Habit:Wild perennial herb of waste places, 30 to 90 cm high.

Root:Much branched tap root.
Stem:Herbaceous above and woody below, aerial, erect, quadrangular, rough, branched,
solid, hairy, green.
Leaves:Opposite, simple, petiolate, exstipulate, obovate, repand, acuminate, both the surfaces
hairy, unicostate reticulate.
Inflorescence:Spike; flowers arranged along a pubescent axis that becomes rigid and much
elongated during fruiting-as much as 60 cm.

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Flower:Bracteate, bracts persistent acuminate, ending in a spine, bracteolate, sessile,
complete, hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, hypogynous, small, green.
Perianth:Tepals 5, polyphyllous, ovate, persistent, green, glabrous, twisted, inferior.
Androecium:5 fertile stamens alternating with 5 sterile and fimbriated scale-like staminodes;
fertile stamens antiphyllous, anthers dithecous, basifixed, introrse.
Gynoecium:Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular, one ovuled, basal
placentation, style filiform, stigma capitate.
Fruit:An indehiscent achene enclosed within persistent perianth.
Seed:Endospermic.

Floral formula:

Achyranthes aspera L.

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 20. Euphorbiaceae
Characters of Euphorbiaceae
Habit: The plants exhibit great variation in their habit. The plants may be herbs, shrubs or
trees.
Root:Tap and branched. The roots of Manihot utilissima and M .palmata are tuberous and
rich in starch.
Stem:Herbaceous or woody, erect, very rarely climbing as in a tropical genus Tragia. The
species of Xylophylla possess flat phylloclades. The stem is branched. It may be cylindrical,
angular or flat.
Leaves:The form and position of leaves are variable. The arrangement is usually alternate but
sometimes they are opposite, e.g., Euphorbia hirta.
Inflorescence:The Inflorescence varies greatly. It may be racemose or cymose or sometimes
complex. In Euphorbia, the Inflorescence is peculiar but very characteristic and known as
cyathium. This is the modification of a cyme. In cyathium Inflorescence a large number of
male flowers each represented by a stalked stamen are found arranged around a central
stalked female flower. The female flower consists of Gynoecium only.

Cyathium inflorescence

Flowers:The flowers are always unisexual. They are much reduced and may be monoecious
or dioecious.
Perianth:Occasionally, both Calyx and Corolla are present, e.g., Croton. In majority of cases
either Calyx or Corolla or both are absent.
The perianth consists of 4 to 5 petals. The Calyx and Corolla consists of 4 or 5 sepals or
petals. The aestivation is valvate or imbricate.

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Androecium:The number of stamens varies from one to many. Usually as many stamens are
present as many perianth leaves. In Euphorbia a single stalked stamen represents a single
male flower. In Ricinus sp., usually five stamens are present, each stamen is profusely
branched. In Jatropha they are arranged in two whorls each of five stamens.
Gynoecium:Three carpels (tricarpellary), syncarpous; the ovary is trilocular, superior. Each
locule contains one or two pendulous, anatropous ovules. The placenation is axile.
Fruit:The Fruits are schizocarpic.
Seeds:The Seed is endospermic.
Pollination: Usually entomophilous,

Systematic Position
Class : Dicotyledons
Subclass : Monochlamydeae
Series : Unisexuales
Orders : Euphoriales
Family : Euphorbiaceae

Ricinus communis L. (Castor)

Habit: Tall annual or perennial shrub or small tree.

Root: Tap and branched.

Stem: Erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, and glabrous.

Leaf: Alternate, simple, petiolate, broad, palmately lobed, lobes usually 7-9, serrate,
multicostate reticulate venation.

Inflorescence: Terminal panicled cyme.

Flower: Pedicellate, ebracteate, unisexual, monoecious, male flowers towards lower portion,
female flowers towards apical portion of inflorescence, actinomorphic, incomplete,
hypogynous.

Male Flowers:

Calyx: 5 or 4, membranous, polysepalous, green, inferior, valvate aestivation.

Corolla: Absent.

Androecium: 5 stamens, each stamen profusely branched, anther cells borne on ultimate
branchlets, anthers basifixed.

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Female Flowers:

Calyx: 3 to few or more, membranous, caducous, spathaceous, valvate aestivation.

Corolla: Absent.

Gynoecium: 3 carpels (tricarpellary), syncarpous, ovary superior, trilocular, covered with

spiny outgrowths, axile placentation, single large ovlue in each locule, three styles, three bifid
stigmas.

Fruit: A schizocarpic capsule or regma, splitting into three cocci, spiny outgrowths on fruit.

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Ricinus communis L.

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 21. Orchidaceae
Characters of Orchidaceae
Perennial herbs, epiphytes or saprophytes may be terrestrial; flowers zygomorphic,
hermaphrodite, epigynous, resupinated; perianth 6 in two whorls, the posterior segment of the
inner whorl developed as lip or labellum; presence of peculiar structures – Labium, column
and Rostellum; Stamens 1-2, one or two staminode pollengrains united into pollinia;
Gynoecium tricarpellary, inferior unilocular with parietal placentation; the fertile stamen is
adherent to the style and forms with it the column or gynostemium, which projects more or
less in the centre of flower; Stigma 2 or 3 lobed, in some two fertile and one sterile and
modified into rostellum.

A. Vegetative characters:
Habit:Perennial terrestrial, succulent, scapose herbs; many are epiphytic or saprophytic,
sometimes climbers Vanilla.
Root: Adventitious, tuberous, (Orchis), fleshy, climbing or aerial. Main roots always absent.
Stem: Erect, sometimes climbing or trailing, annual in terrestrial forms, perennial in
epiphytic forms; generally thickened into rhizome or pseudobulbs (Phajus, Bulbophyllum),
bearing aerial assimilatory roots. (Taeniophyllum).
Leaf: Simple, alternate, sometimes opposite or whorled, usually fleshy, linear to ovate,
sheathing base, sometimes reduced to achlorophyllous scales.

B. Floral characters:

Inflorescence: Solitary or spike, racemes or panicle (Oncidium).

Flower: Flowers are of variable and peculiar, shape, size and colour, often showy, bracteate,
zygororphic, bisexual or rarely unisexual, eipgynous, trimerous, mostly resupinate i.e. twisted
to 180° or upside down.
Perianth: Tepals 6, in two whorls of each, outer 3 tapals (representing Calyx) green; inner 3
tepals coloured (representing Corolla), dissimilar-the 2 lateral or wings like, the third
posterior tepals is lightly modified often projected basally the labellum or lip; broad, shoe-
like spursed, tubular, strap-shaped or butterfly shaped or variously branched and contributing
most to the oddity and beauty of the flower.

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Androecium: Stamens 3, which unite with the pistil to form a column, the gynandrium or
gynostemium opposite to the labellum; functional stamen (Orchis) or 2 (Cypripedium),
bithecous, introrse; pollen granular or coherent in each cell into one, 2 or 4 stalked pollen
masses or pollinia.
Gynoecium: Tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary inferior, unilocular, parietal placentation,
rarely trilocular and axile placentation (Apostasia); stigmas 3, of which 2 lateral are often
fertile, the third stigma is sterile forming a small beaked outgrowth – the rostellum lying in
the centre of column between the anther and fertile stigma.
Fruit: A capsule.
Seed: Small, light (0.004 gm. each), non-endospermic.
Pollination: Entomophilous.

Economic Importance of Orchidaceae:

1. Food: During scarcity the tuberous roots of Habenaria susannae and Orchis latifolia are
used as food.
2. Flavour: The capsules of Vanilla planifolia V. fragrans yield commercial ‗Vanilla‘ a
flavouring agent for chocolate and confectionary.
3. Medicine: The root-stocks of Eulophia epidendraeas are used as vermifage.
4. Dye: The leaves of Calanthe veratrifolia contain a glycoside ‗indican‘, which on
hydrolysis yields ‗indigo blue‘.
5. Ornamentals: Many orchids are cultivated in the green houses for their beautiful sweet-
scented flowers of various forms, shapes with highly attractive labellum of various hues and
bright clours. The orchid flowers are in great demand and are much more sought after than
any other flowers.
Systematic Position
Class :Monocotyledons
Series : Microspermae
Order : Orchidales
Family : Orchidaceae

Zeuxine strateumetia (L.) Schlechtu

Habit: A small 5.25 cm. high, glabrous, terrestrial herb.

Root: Short tuberous.

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Stem: Herbaceous, arise from underground rhizome, erect, unbranched, cylindrical, glabrous
and green.

Leaf: Simple, exstipulate, sessile, alternate, sheathing leaf-base, membranous, linear, entire,
acuminate, parallel veination.

Flower: Bracteate, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, epigynous, small, resupinate at maturity.

Perianth: Tepals 6, in two whorls of 3 each, subequal, polyphyllous, superior, anterior tepal
of outer whorl large and concave; posterior tepal of inner whorl quite distinct, saccate,
forming labellum, adnate to the base of column, inner whorl imbricate and outer valvate.

Androecium: Stamen one, united to the style to form gynostegium, opposite the labellum,
column short with a pair of wings covering the anther, anther modified into one pair of
pollinia, which are attached by a stalk (caudicle) the corpusculum; two staminodes attached
to the base of anther, one on either side; stamen connected to the ovary by rostellum.

Gynoecium: Tricarpellary, syncarpous, inferior, unlocular, parietal placentation, two fertile

stigma on the top of the column, carpel twisted.

Fruit: A capsule.

Floral formula:

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Zeuxine strateumetia (L.) Schlechtu

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 22.Liliaceae
Characters of Liliaceae:
Herbs rarely shrubs, stem underground rhizome, corm or bulb; leaves alternate, flowers
actinomorphic, trimerous, hypogynous, perianth 6 in two whorls of 3 each, free or fused;
stamen 3+3, epiphyllous, antiphyllous; Gynoecium tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior,
axile placentation, two to many ovules per loculus; Fruit capsule or berry; Seed endospermic.

A. Vegetative characters:
Habit: Mostly herbs (Asphodelus), perennating by rhizome (Aloe), bulb (Lilium, Tulipa,
Allium), tree (Dracena), climber (Asparagus, Smilax), xerophytic plants like Yucca, Aloe;
cladodes in Asparagus and Ruscus.
Root: Fibrous adventitious, sometimes tuberous (Asparagus).
Stem: Herbaceous, or woody, solid or fistular, underground; aerial climbing or erect;
underground stem may be corm, bulb or rhizome. In Ruscus and Asparagus aerial stems bear
phylloclades (modified leaf-like branches), corm (Colchicum); secondary growth in Yucca.
Dracaena and Aloe.
Leaves: Alternate, opposite or whorled, radical and cauline, exstipulate, sessile or petiolate,
sheathing leaf base; shape is variable scale-like (Asparagus), thick succulent and
mucilaginous in Aloe, broad in Phormium tenax. In Smilax stipulate and stipules are modified
into tendrils. Venation is usually parallel but reticulate in Smilax and Trillium.

B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence: Variable-solitary (Tulipa, Fritillaria), panicled raceme (Asphodelus), cymose
umbel (Allium, Smilax), solitary axillary (Gloriosa).

Flower: Pedicellate, actinomorphic or zygomorphic (Lilium, Hemerocallis), hermaphrodite

or unisexual in Smilax, Ruscus; hypogynous, complete or incomplete (in unisexual flowers),
trimerous rarely 2 or 4-merous (Maianthemum, Paris).
Perianth: 6, in two words of three each, polyphyllous (Lilium, Tulipa) or gamophyllous
(Aloe, Asparagus) and of various shapes; petaloid or sepaloid; imbricate in bud, usually
valvate aestivation, perianth may be scarious or membranous.

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Androecium: Stamens 6 or 3 (Ruscus), 8 in Paris; polyandrous, epiphyllous, antiphyllous,
filaments long, anthers versatile or basifixed, dithecous, introrse or extrorse. In Ruscus outer
whorl of stamens is reduced to staminodes.
Gynoecium: Tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior or half inferior, trilocular or
unilocular with two ovules, axile placentation, style simple; stigma trilobed or 3-parted.
Fruit: A berry (Asparagus, Smilax), capsule (Asphodelus).
Seed: Endospermic; endosperm horny or cartilagenous.
Pollination: Entomophilous rarely self-Pollination.

Floral formula:

Systematic Position
Class :Monocotyledons
Series : Coronarieae
Order : Liliales
Family : Liliaceae

Allium Cepa L. (Onion)

Habit: Herb with pungent flavour and aroma due to presence of volatile, sulpher compound.
Root: Adventitious, fibrous.
Stem: Underground, tunicate bulb, inner scales, outer dry, membranous and brown.
Leaf: Radial, cylindrical, sheathing.
Inflorescence: Cymes arranged in an umbellate fashion and enclosed by 2-3 membrous,
bract.
Flower: Small, white, regular bisexual, hypogynous, sometimes replaced by bulbils.
Perianth: Six, in two whorls of three each, gamophyllous below campanilate, white, inferior.
Androecium: Six stamens, free, epiphyllous, filaments narrow or dilated at the base.
Gynoecium: Tricarpellary, syncarpous; ovary three-lobed and three celled; Placentation
axile; style short, filiform; stigma minute; ovules usually two in each cell.
Fruit: Membranous capsule.
Seeds: Endospermic.

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Allium Cepa L.

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 23. Gramineae (Poaceae)

Characters of Poaceae:
Mostly herbs, stem jointed, fistular, cylindrical; leaves simple, alternate, sheathing, sheath
open, ligulate; inflorescence compound spike; flowers zygomorphic, hypogynous, protected
by palea; perianth represented by 2 or 3 minute scales (lodicules); stamens 3, versatile; carpel
one, style 2 or 3, stigmas feathery, basal placentation; fruit caryopsis; testa fused with
pericarp.

A. Vegetative characters:

Habit: Herbs, annuals or perennials or shrubs, sometimes tree like (Bambusa,

Dendrocalamus).
Root:Adventitious, fibrous, branched, fascicled or stilt (Zea mays).
Stem:Underground rhizome in all perennial grasses, cylindrical, culm with conspicuous
nodes and internodes, internodes hollow, herbaceous or woody, glabrous or glaucous,
vegetative shoots are arising from the base of aerial stem or from underground stems are
called tillers.
Leaves:Alternate, simple, distichous, exstipulate, sessile, ligulate (absent in Echinochloa),
leaf base forming tubular sheath, sheath open, surrounding internode incompletely, ligule is
present at the junction of the lamina and sheath, entire, hairy or rough, linear, parallel
venation.

B. Floral characters:
Inflorescence:Compound spike which may be sessile or stalked. Each unit of inflorescence is
spikelet. The spikelets are arranged in various ways on the main axis called rachilla. A
compound inflorescence may be spike of spikelets (Triticum), panicle of spikelets (Avena).

The spikelet consists of a short axis called rachilla on which 1 to many sessile or short stalked
flowers are borne. The florets may be arranged in alternate or opposite manner on the central
axis.

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At the base of rachilla two sterile scales, called glumes, are present. The glumes are placed
one above the other on opposite sides. The lower one is called first glume and the upper is
called second glume. Both the glumes are boat shaped and sterile. Above the glumes a series
of florets are present. Each floret has an inferior palea or lemma and above it a superior palea.
The lemma frequently bears a long, stiff hair called awn.

Flower: Bracteate and bracteolate, sessile, incomplete, hermaphrodite, or unisexual (Zea

mays), irregular, zygomorphic, hypogynous, cyclic.

Perianth: Represented by membranous scales called the lodicules. The lodicules are situated
above and opposite the superior palea or may be absent, or many (Ochlandra), or 2 or 3.
Androecium: Usually stamens 3, rarely 6 (Bambusa, Oryza) and one in various species of
Anrostis, Lepturus; polyandrous, filaments long, anthers dithecous, versatile, linear, extrorse;
pollen grains dry.
Gynoecium: Monocarpellary, according to some authors carpels 3, of which 2 are abortive,
ovary superior, unilocular with single ovule, basal placentation, style short or absent; stigmas
two feathery or papillate and branched.
Fruit: Caryopsis (achene with pericarp completely united or adherent with the seed coat) or
rarely nut (Dendrocalamus) or berry (Bambusa).
Seed: Endospermic and containing a single cotyledon called scutellum, which is shield
shaped and pressed against the endosperm.

Economic Importance of Poaceae:

The family stands first and foremost in respect of economic importance in whole of
Angiosperms. The staple food grains of the population of world is derived from Oryza sativa
(Rice) and Triticum aestivum (Wheat). They are cultivated from time immemorial.

The family has been divided on economic basis as follows:

Food: Triticum aestivum, Oryza sativa, Zea mays (Maize), Hordeum vulgare (Jaw),
Sorghum vulgare (Jowar), Avena sativa (Oats), Pennisetum typhoides (Bajra) are cultivated
for cereals and food grains.

Fooder: Many grasses as Cynodon dactylon, Panicum, Cymbopogon, Agrostis, Poa are
grown for fodder.

Sugar: Saccharum officinarum (Sugarcane) is cultivated for gur and sugar.

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Building material: Some species of Bambusa e.g. B. tulda, B. vulgaris are used for
scaffolding, thatching huts etc.

Furniture: Species of Dendrocalamus (H. Bent), Arundinaria, Melocalamus are used in

manufacture of furniture.

Aromatic grasses: Many grasses yield scented oils which are used in perfumery viz.
Vetiveria zizanioides (H. Khus khus) yields vetiver oil from the roots. The roots are also
woven into curtains. Andropogon odoratus (Ginger grass), Cymbopogon citratus (Lemon
grass), Cymbopogon martini (Geranium grass), Cymbopogon jawarancusa etc. also yield oil.

Medicinal: Phragmites karka, Cymbopogon schoenanthus etc. are medicinal.

Secale cereale is cultivated for infection of its inflorescence by Claviceps purpurea for
production of Ergot and for extraction of ergotine. Ergotine is an excellent remedy for uterine
contraction.

Paper: It is manufactured from certain species of grasses and bamboos.

Ornamental: Rhynchelytrum repens, Cortaderia selloana and some species of the tribe
Bambusoideae are ornamentals.

Besides these a number of grasses are grown to form fine lawns, play grounds etc.

Class :Monocotyledons
Order : Poales
Family : Gramineae

Triticum aestivum L.

Habit: A cultivated annual crop plant.

Root: Adventitious.

Stem: Herbaceous, erect, cylindrical, fistular, with distinct nodes and internodes,
unbranched, glabrous, a number of tillers.

Leaf: Simple, alternate, green, exstipulate, entire margin, acute apex, sheathing leaf base, at
the junction of leaf-sheath and leaf-blade membranous ligule present, parallel venation.

Inflorescence: Spike of spikelets.

Flower: Bracteate, sessile, hermaphrodite, zygomorphic, incomplete, hypogynous, flower

lies between superior and inferior palea.

Perianth: 2 membranous scales – the lodicules.

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Androecium: Stamens 3, polyandrous, filament long, anthers dorsifixed when young and
versatile when mature.

Gynoecium: Monocarpellary, theoritically tricarpellary, ovary superior, unilocular, single

ovule, basal placentation, style short; stigma 2, feathery.

Floral formula:

Triticum aestivum L.

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Excercises
1. Write general characters of family Rubiaceae
2. Discuss on the Economic importance of family Graminaceae
3. Write a comparative account on Apocyanaceae and Asclepiadaceae
4. Explain the vegetative and floral characters of family Solaceae
5. Write a comparative account on Liliaceae and Orchidaceae
6. Write a general account on the characters of Euphorbiaceae
7. Discuss on the economic importance of Solanace and Amaranthaceae

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Unit- IV: Economic Botany
A brief study of the following Economic plants and their main economically important
products
v. Food cereals (Oryza), Millts (Pearl millet), Pulses (Black gram), Edible Oil (Sesame),
Root tubers - (Manihot, Sugar beet), Sugar - (Saccharum),
vi. Fibres - Textiles (Gossypium) others (Crotalaria. Agave)
vii. Medicinal – Withania somnifera,Ocimum, Phyllanthus, Solonum trilobatum
viii. Forest products - Timber (Teak ), Tannins, Gums, Resins (Terpentine)

Objectives: To understand the economic importance of plant resources which utilized for the
day today activities.

Economic Importance Plants

Many plants are economically important and useful to mankind in several ways.
Based on their utility, they are broadly classified as food plants, fibre plants, oil plants and
timber plants. Now, we will discuss some of the economically important plants for each
category.

1. Cereals – Rice (Oryza sativa)

 Its binomial is Oryza sativa. It belongs to Poaceae. It is the most important cereal of
tropical climate. This plant is an annual grass. The Inflorescence is panicle containing
a number of branches, each terminating in a single grain.
 Rice is the chief source of carbohydrates. Polished rice is less nutritive.
 Straw is used as livestock feed. In Japan, alcoholic beverages are also distilled from
the grains of rice. Recently, from the husk of paddy, a cooking (rice bran oil) oil is
extracted. Now, bio-diesel is obtained from rice bran oil.
 Rice is the major food of half of the world's population.
 Parched rice (pori) is crisp to eat. It is sold either salted or unsalted. The flattened
parboiled rice is known as flaked rice. Like corn flakes, it is a very good breakfast
food. Flaked rice is also used for preparing different kinds of food items.
 Sake is an important alcoholic beverage in Japan. Sake is prepared by the
fermentation of rice.
 Bran is an important by-product of rice milling industry. It is used as a cattle feed.
 Bran oil is extracted either by expression in a hydraulic press or extra-ction with
solvents. Bran oil is used as edible oil and for preparation of vanaspathi, making
soaps. It is also used in the textile industry, leather industry.

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  Bran wax is a by-product in bran-oil extraction. It is used in chocolate industry and in
the manufacture of lip-sticks.
 Paddy husk is used as fuel, in brick kilns. It is also used in brick making.
 Straw is used as cattle feed, in the manufacture of straw-boards and for making hats,
ropes, mats, etc.

2. Economic importance of Pennisetum glaucum (Pearl millet) Crop

 Pearl millet is an important millet of India, second to sorghum in area and
production
 In South India, crop is called as Sajje or Cumbu and in Hindi it is known as bajra
 It is also known as cattail millet or bulrush millet.
 It is one of the coarse grain crops and is considered to be poor man‘s foodIt is an
important crop in arid regions of Africa and Asia
 In India, it is one of the important millet crops which flourishes well even under
adverse conditions
 It provides staple food for the poor in a short period in the relatively dry tracts of the
country
 It is the most drought tolerant crop among cereals and millets
 The grain of pearlmillet is superior in nutritive value to sorghum grain but inferior in
feeding value
 Bajra grain contains about 11.6% protein, 5%,fat, 67% carbohydrates and 2.7%
minerals
 Bajra grains are eaten cooked like rice or chapattis are prepared out of flour like
maize or sorghum flour
 It is also used as feed for poultry and green fodderor dry kadbi for cattle

3.Economic importance of Vigna mungo (Black gram)

Edible Uses

 Young seedpods - cooked and used as a vegetable

 The dried seeds are boiled and used in a variety of recipes[
 They can also be ground into a flour as a protein enhancing additive to flour when
making bread etc

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  In India they are an essential ingredient of idli and dosa - acid-leavened fermented
cakes make from rice and dhal

Medicinal

 In traditional medicine, the seed is used for its suppurative, cooling and astringent
properties. For example, it is ground into a powder, moistened and applied as a
poultice on abscesses

Agroforestry Uses:

 Plants are grown as a green manure

 In the wet season in India this species is mainly intercropped, with sugar cane, cotton,
groundnut, sorghum or pigeon pea as the main crops. In the dry season it is often sole
cropped on rice .

Other Uses

 The seed flour is rich in saponins and can be used as a soap substitute
 It makes the skin smooth and soft
 It is the chief constituent of papad and also of spiced balls –which make a delicious
curry.

3. Economic importance of Sesamum indicum (Seasame)

 Black sesame seeds are believed to have medicinal properties and contain high levels
of antioxidants.
 They are used to flavor baked goods and they also produce a powder that is very
fragrant and has a bold flavor when the seeds are roasted and grind
 The powder is often used on rice dishes.
 Brown Sesame Seeds have a nutty, slightly sweet flavor and aroma that is enhanced
by toasting.
 They can be added to breads, cookies or stir-fries, or ground into a butter for tahini,
hummus or the sweet Middle Eastern treat called halvah.
 Brown Sesame Seeds are an excellent source of calcium and contain 6 grams of
protein per serving.

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  Brown sesame seeds can be added to vegetable dishes, salads, breads, rolls, buns and
muffins—or use to make tahini
 White sesame seeds often are added to buns and breads and other baked goods,
adding a crispy texture.
 In their powdered form, white sesame seeds are used in curry sauces, chutneys and
rice, producing a milder flavor than the black variety.
 The features of golden sesame seeds are its pleasant aroma and rich taste.
 They are best suited for general cooked food, and fried burdock root and carrot.
 Golden sesame seeds are small tasty, unhulled seeds that are used in cereals, crackers,
spreads, drinks, casseroles, granola, candies, soups, salads, fish and baked goods. Red
sesame seeds Red Sesame Seeds, which has high nutritional content hence proves
beneficial for health.
 Red Sesame Seeds, which are commonly used in various cuisines to enhance the taste
of the dishes.
 Nutritional Value , Good source of manganese , copper , calcium, iron, phosphorus
and zinc Rich source of vitamin B1
 Rich source of dietary fiber

Health Benefits (Seasamum)

• Rich in beneficial minerals

 Provides relief for Rheumatoid Arthritis

 Prevent against Vascular and Respiratory Health
 Helps to prevent Colon Cancer, Osteoporosis, Migraine and PMS
 Good for Bone Health
 Lower at Cholesterol
 High antioxidant content
 Large amount of vitamin E.

Used in

• Food processing industry

• Pharmaceutical industry

• Ayurvedic medicines
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5. Economic importance of Root tubers Manihot esculenta (Cassava)
Edible Uses

 Young leaves - cooked as a vegetable

 Boiled like spinach, or added to stews
 The leaves need to be boiled for about 15 minutes in order to destroy harmful
glucosides
 Some sweet varieties contain little or no glucosides
 Root - cooked and used as a vegetable
 The tuberous root can be sliced and fried like chips, boiled and added to vegetable
dishes, or made into a flour and used in breads and biscuits, or as a thickener in
gravies, soups, desserts etc
 The root is higher in carbohydrate and rather deficient in protein than many other root
crops
 Unfortunately, where cassava is used as the main staple in the diet, it can lead to
malnutrition
 It is a fairly good source of vitamin C
 Starch from the tuber is used to make tapioca

Medicinal

 Cassava is often used in traditional medicine and has a number of applications

 The plant is antifungal, antiviral, mutagenic and
 The roots of bitter varieties can be used to treat scabies, diarrhoea and dysentery
 The juice of the grated tubers is used to treat constipation and indigestion
 A flour made from the roots can be used as a dusting powder on the skin in order to
help dry weeping skin Soaked with Carapa oil, it is used as a poultice on shattered
muscles
 It is mixed with rum and rubbed onto children's skin as a treatment for abscesses and
skin eruptions
 It can be made into an ointment to treat fungal dermatitis
The leaves are haemostatic

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  They are made into a poultice to treat wounds
 The leaves are infused in bath water to treat influenza and fevers
 The leaves are heated and rubbed across sore eyes
 The stem is folded and rubbed across the eyes of people suffering from glaucoma
 The bark of the plant, together with that of Cordyline terminalis, is thought to prolong
life
 Sugar cane and annatto are employed in an antidote to ingested water which has been
poisoned by the soaking roots of this plant

Other Uses

 Insect repellent - a mulch of the leaves and stems repels root knot nematodes
 A glue can be made from the starch
 It is used on postage stamps
 The starch in the root is used as a size for cotton fabrics
6. Economic importance of Beta vulgaris (Sugar beet)
 Spinach beet leaves are eaten as pot herb. The midribs of Swiss chard are eaten boiled
while the whole leaf blades are eaten as spinach beet;
 A large proportion of the commercial production is processed into boiled and
sterilized beets or into pickles.
 Roots and leaves are used medicinally against infections and tumours, and Swiss
chard as a hypoglycaemic agent by diabetic patients.
 Garden beet juice is a popular health food, although it is not important in tropical
Africa.
 Betanins, obtained from the roots, are used industrially as red food colourants, e.g. to
improve the colour of tomato paste, sauces, desserts, jams and jellies, ice cream,
sweets and breakfast cereals.
 Forms with strikingly coloured, large leaves are grown as ornamentals.

7. Economic importance of Saccharum officinarum (Sugarcane)

 Sugarcane is a cash crop and gives ready cash to the farmers.
 It is mainly used for manufacture of Jaggery (gur) and sugar.
 It is used for preparation of juice, syrup, and also for chewing purpose.
 Immature green tops are used as fodder for cattle.
 Molasses is used for preparing alcohol (ethyl & butyl) and other chemicals (eg. Citric
acid).
 Pressmud cake used as manure in alkaline and saline soil. Medicinal value:-

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  For Indigestion. For Jaundice. For Typhoid Fever. For Renal colic. For Bronchial
Asthma. For Headache.

8.Economic importance of Gossypium hirsutum (Cotton)

 The bulk of cotton production is consumed in the manufacture of woven goods, alone
or in combination with other fibres. The principal types of woven fabrics are—print
cloth, yam fabrics, sheetings, fine cotton goods, napped fabrics, duck, tyre fabrics and
towels. Products in the form of yam and cord include unwoven tyre cord, thread,
cordage and twine and crochet yams.
 Unspun cotton finds use in mattresses, pads and upholsteries. Cotton constitutes one
of the basic raw materials for cellulose industries including plastics, rayon and
explosives. Sterilized absorbent cotton finds use in medical and surgical practice.
 Yarns of varying size and fineness are needed in the production of fabrics. Coarse
yarns are spun from short staple cottons and fine one from medium and long staple
types. Long and uniform staples are utilized for yarns of high counts required for fine
fabrics.
 Cotton waste is a by-product of the spinning and weaving mills and consists
principally of short fibres rejected by combing and carding machines, floor
sweepings, odds and ends from weaving and various scraps.
 The amount of waste given by cotton is an important factor in its quality evaluation.
Cotton waste of good grade is employed in making cotton blankets, sheets, towels and
flannelettes. Cylindrical strips from carding machine, which are constituted of fibres
of good strength, are used for warps, twines, ropes and nets; they are also useful for
wadding, padding for upholstery, bed quilts; etc.
 Strips from Egyptian cottons are mixed with wool for making mixed woollen goods.
Floor sweeping and fibres unfit for spinning are bleached and used for gun-cotton,
cellulose and artificial silk. Short remnants and thread waste that cannot be respun are
used as wiping and polishing material.
 The stalks of plant contain a fibre that can be used in paper making or for fuel, and the
roots possess a crude drug. The Seeds are of the greatest importance and every
portion is utilized.
 The hulls are used for stock feed; as fertilizer; for lining oil wells; as a source of
xylose, a sugar that can be converted into alcohol and for many other purposes. The

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 kernels yield one of the most important fatty oils, cottonseed oil and an oil cake and
meal which are used for fertilizer, stock feed, flour, and as a dyestuff

9.Economic importance of Crotolaria

Edible Uses

 The flowers and leaves have a sweet flavour and are edible as a vegetable.
 Their alkaloid content is very low.
 The roasted dehulled Seeds are eaten in Vietnam.
 Some caution is advised, see notes on toxicity.

Medicinal Uses

 The roots are used against coughing up blood.

 The plant is used as a treatment for complaints such as cough, dyspepsia, fever, cardiac
disorders, stomatitis, diarrhoea, scabies and impetigo.
 An infusion of the plant is used to bathe children in order to prevent skin infections and
also to treat thrush.
 The leaves, mixed with those of Crotalaria quinquefolia, act internally as well as
externally against fever, scabies, lung diseases and impetigo.
 A decoction of the flowers and leaves is used to soothe a cold
 The Seeds are eaten raw to act as an analgesic to deaden the pain of a scorpion sting.
 The powdered Seeds, mixed with milk, are eaten in order to increase body strength; they
are also used to treat skin diseases.
 The plant contains hepatotoxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids.
Agroforestry Uses:
 Crotalaria retusa is grown as a green manure and as a cover plant in plantations of
coffee, oil palm etc
 . It is an excellent source of organic matter - its fresh foliage usually contains between
0.5 - 1% nitrogen, which when incorporated into the soil improves fertility and nutrient
retention, while providing structure to the soil by enriching it of humus and retarding
erosion
 Like many other members of the genus, the plant is nematode-resistant

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 It is grown as a green manure in order to reduce nematode infection in the soil - the
growing plant encourages nematodes to hatch, these are then unable to feed on the
Crotalaria and so many of them die.
Other Uses
 A strong fibre is obtained from the bark and stems
 It is used for cordage and making canvas
 Used as a dye plant in East Africa
 A non-edible, non-drying oil of low unsaturtion is obtained from the Seed. It has a
potential for use in the production of hair shampoos, skin cream and shoe polish.

10.Economic importance of Agave americana (Agave)

 Fiber, often called sisal, is extracted from the spiked leaves. Agaves have been exported
around the world. Plantations in South Africa where agaves are grown for sisal fiber.
 Food: leaves was roasted yielding a sweet nutritious food that is slightly slimy
and tastes like molasses. This food could be wrapped in the skin of the leaves and
stored. Cooking is essential because otherwise the heart of the agave is very
poisonous. Flower stalks were also eaten but could not be stored.
 The juice of the agave heart was boiled down into a sweet syrup. Apparently the nectar is
also used Drink
 The juice could be fermented (by spitting into it) into pulque, a beer-like drink.
 Medicine :The juice or syrup also was used medicinally. The agave contains
polysaccharides which are bactericidal, and saponins and sapogenins that have antibiotic,
fungicidal, and antiviral properties. Saponin in Agave schottii is being investigated for
cancer treatment.
 Building materials : The stalks can be used for a variety of building purposes and they
make good, light, strong walking sticks.

11.Medical Uses of Wlithania samnifera (Ashwagandha)

 Ashwagandha is used for arthritis, anxiety, bipolar disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder (ADHD), balance, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), trouble sleeping
(insomnia), tumors, tuberculosis, asthma, a skin condition marked by white patchiness
(leukoderma), bronchitis, backache, fibromyalgia, menstrual problems, hiccups,

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 Parkinson's disease, under-active thyroid (hypothyroidism), and chronic liver disease. It is
also used to reduce side effects of medications used to treat cancer and schizophrenia.
Ashwagandha is used to reduce levels of fat and sugar in the blood.
 Ashwagandha is also used as an "adaptogen" to help the body cope with daily stress, and
as a general tonic.
 Some people also use ashwagandha for improving thinking ability, decreasing pain and
swelling (inflammation), and preventing the effects of aging. It is also used for fertility
problems in men and women and also to increase sexual desire.
Ashwagandha is applied to the skin for treating wounds, backache, and one-sided
paralysis.

12.Medical Uses of Ocimum canum (Thlsi)

 Promotes Healthy Heart : Holy basil contains vitamin C and antioxidants such as
eugenol, which protects the heart from the harmful effects of free radicals. Eugenol
also proves useful in reducing cholesterol levels in the blood.
 Anti-aging : Vitamin C and A, phytonutrients, in Holy Basil are great antioxidants
and protect the skin from almost all the damages caused by free radicals.
 Treats Kidney Stones : Tulsi acts a mild diuretic & detoxifying agent which helps in
lowering the uric acid levels in the body. Acetic acid present in holy basil helps in the
breakdown of the stones.
 Relieves Headaches : Tulsi is a natural headache reliever which can also relieve
migraine pain.
 Fights Acne : Holy basil helps kill bacteria and infections. The primary active
compound of holy basil oil is eugenol which helps fight skin related disorders.
Ocimum Sanctum helps treat skin infections both internally and externally.
 Relives Fever :Tulsi is an age-old ingredient for treating fever. It is one of the prime
ingredients in the formulation of various ayurvedic medicines & home remedies.
 Eye Health :Tulsi's anti-inflammatory properties help promote eye health by
preventing viral, bacterial and fungal infections. It also soothes eye inflammation and
reduces stress.
 Oral Health :Tulsi is a natural mouth freshener and an oral disinfectant. Ocimum
Sanctum can also cure mouth ulcers. Holy basil destroys the bacteria that are

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 responsible for dental cavities, plaque, tartar, and bad breath, while also protecting the
teeth.
 Cures Respiratory Disorders : Due to the presence of compounds like camphene,
eugenol, and cineole, tulsi cures viral, bacterial, and fungal infections of the
respiratory system. It can cure various respiratory disorders like bronchitis &
tuberculosis.
 Rich Source of Vitamin K :Vitamin K is an essential fat-soluble vitamin that plays
an important role in bone health and heart health.

13. Medical Uses Phyllanthus niruri

 P. niruri has been used as an herbal remedy to kidney stones, viral infections, liver
disorders, bacterial infections, and many other ailments. In more recent years,
however, P. niruri has been shown in modern medicine to cure or treat multiple
disorders.
 P. niruri is used for the treatment of kidney stones.
 Anti-liver damage Phyllanthus niruri shows potential to prevent liver damage.
 Anti-tumor activity P. niruri and it caused significant reduction in tumor incidence,
tumor yield, and tumor burden.
 Anti-HIV: Phyllanthus niruri has shown evidence of being anti-hepatitus B, but
according to Dr. A.D. Naik and A.R. Juvekar, this herbal plant also shows signs of
being anti-HIV. Alkaloidal extract of P. niruri showed promising results when tested
on cells infected with HIV. Cells treated with P. niruri extracts were reduced in
toxicity. In addition, the extract provided considerable protection from HIV
destroying the cell. These findings thus confirm that Stonebreaker extracts express
anti-HIV properties.
 Diabetes treatment:Additionally, P. niruri displays evidence of anti-diabetic activity.

14.Medical Uses Solanum trilobatum

 Anti-Inflammatory Properties
 Studies suggest that the leaf and the root extracts of Solanum trilobatum have
significant anti-inflammatory activity on both acute and chronic inflammation.
 It has the anti-inflammatory properties
 It has Pain Relieving Properties
 this herb also exhibited antinociceptive properties in a dose-dependent manner.

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 It may treat Bronchial Asthma
 Since ancient times, Thuthuvalai is extensively used as a remedy for the treatment of
various respiratory diseases.
 Research conducted to know the clinical efficacy and safety of Solanum trilobatum
and another herb Solanum xanthocarpum in treating bronchial asthma had revealed
that either of the herbs are effective in improving several parameters of pulmonary
functions in asthmatic subjects.
 It may protect against Neurotoxicity
 Solanum trilobatum is well known for its protective effects against several toxicities.
 Anti Diabetic Activity: In one experiment, oral administration of S.trilobatum leaf
extract exhibited a significant anti-diabetic activity on alloxan-induced diabetic rats.
 Prolonged treatment of these extracts had shown a significant reduction of blood
glucose levels, urea protein and cholesterol levels in the diabetic rats .
 It may protect your Liver Health
 In Siddha system of medicine, Thuthuvalai is used as a medicine to treat liver
diseases.
 Research had also proven that Solanum trilobatum have potential hepato protective
activity.
 S.trilobatum extract tested on rats subjected to ccl4 induced hepatic damage had
proven that the extract has enhanced the recovery by its liver protecting properties and
antioxidant activity .
 It has Anti-microbial Properties
 Since ancient times Solanum trilobatum has been used as a medicinal herb. Especially
in rural parts of Southern India, and is still valued as a potent antimicrobial source for
various infections.
 In one research it was revealed that aqueous methanol and n-butanol extracts obtained
from aerial parts of the plant were known to possess anti-microbial property. These
extracts were effective against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria .
 Another research indicates that tannins isolated from Solanum trilobatum leaf possess
anti-bacterial property. These tannins were able to inhibit some of the pathogenic
bacteria tested. The antibacterial property of the tannins was also compared with the
antibiotic Streptomycin.
 Antipyretic, antihyperlipidemic , Anticaner and Antihyperlipidemic Activity
 It has Larvicidal and Skin Repellent Properties

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  Solanum trilobatum leaf extracts can be an ideal eco-friendly approach for controlling
mosquitoes.
 Leaf extracts of this plant had exhibited potential larvicidal and pupicidal activity
against Aedes aegypti, Culex quinquefasciatus and Anopheles stephensi that can carry
dangerous diseases like Dengue and Malaria
Forest Products
15.Economic Importance of Tectona grandis (Teak)
 In India, it is used for making furnitures, buildings, cardboards, railway sleepers, etc.
Ships and bridges are also made from this timber.
 Teak wood is durable and it is an important timber in the tropics. As the seasoned
teak, timber does not shrink, crack or alter its shape, it is extensively used in making
household furnitures.
 It is also used in ship building, boats, etc.
 It is used for interior decoration.
 It is used for the manufacture of boards.

16. Gums

16.1 Gum Arabic

 A dried gummy exudate obtained from Acacia senegal and related acacias. These are
small native trees of arid northern Africa and are extensively cultivated in the Sudan.
The trees are tapped between February and May when the fruits are ripe.
 Gum arabic is slowly and completely soluble in cold water and has a high degree of
adhesiveness and viscosity.
 Most has been used in textile, mucilage, paste, polish and confectionery industries and
as a glaze in painting. In medicine it has been used as an emulsifying agent and as a
demulcent.

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 16.2Gum Tragacanth

 Gum tragacanth has been used in calico printing and for other industrial purposes.
 It is one of the oldest drugs and was known since 300 B.C. In modern medicine it has
served as an adhesive agent for pills and troches and for the suspension of insoluble
powders.

16.3 Karaya Gum

Karaya gum has been used as a substitute for gum tragacanth, and several million
pounds were imported annually from India by the mid 1900‘s. It is used in the textile,
cosmetic, cigar, past and ice cream industries. It is obtained from Sterculia urens, a large tree
in central India.

16.4 Other Gums

 There are many other plants, which produce gums of some commercial importance.
Gum ghatti, obtained from Anogeissus latifolia, a large tree native to India and
Ceylon, is used as a substitute for gum arabic. The leaves are used for tanning.
 Feronia limonia and Cochlospermum religiosum in India, Burma and Java yield gums
that are also used in place of gum arabic.
 The Asiatic Cycas ciccinalis is the source of cycas gum. The carob, Ceratonia
siliqua, produces tragasol, a mucilaginous hemi cellulose occurring in the pods.
Mesquite gum in North America is obtained fro Posopis juliflora, P. glandulosa and
other species, while cherry gum is found in various species of Prunus.

17.Resins

 Resins, unlike gums, are insoluble in water, but they dissolve in ether, alcohol and
other solvents. Resin production is widespread in nature, but only a few families are
of commercial importance. These include the Anacardiaceae, Burseraceae,
Dipterocarpaceae, Guttiferae, Hammamelidaceae, Leguminosae, Liliaceae, Pinaceae,

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 Styracaceae and Umbelliferae. The exact botanical origin of a resin is often hard to
trace, especially in the case of fossil and semi fossil types.
 Resins probably serve the plant by preventing decay, which is due to their high
antiseptic qualities. They may also lower the amount of water lost from the plant
tissues.
 Resins have certain characteristics that render them important to industry. Their
ability to harden gradually, as the oil that they contain evaporates, makes possible
commercial varnishes.
 Resinous substances have been utilized for waterproof coatings, and also for
decorative coatings for millennia.
 Ancient Egyptians varnished their mummy cases and the utilization of lacquer in the
arts has been practiced in China and Japan for centuries.
 The Greeks and Romans were familiar with many of the same resinous materials that
are used today (e.g., mastic, amber, sandarac).
 Another property of resins that is of industrial importance is their ability to dissolve in
alkalis to form soap.
 Resins are also used in medicine,for sizing paper,as a stiffening material for mats; in
the preparation of sealing wax, incense and perfumes; and for many other purposes as
well.

17.1 Turpentine Uses

1. Paint, varnish and wood filler thinner

2. Ozonizer for drying oils
3. Solvent for paint wax polishes
4. Ingredient for waterproof cement and some inks for printing
5. Solvent for compositions of some waterproof paint
6. Cleaning oils and paints from fabrics
7. Pharmaceutical purposes
8. Raw material for the production of different items such as medicine, explosives,
synthetic rubber, and others
9. Lubricant when drilling and grinding glass
10. Moth repellant and ingredient in insecticides
11. Cleaning wood stains (Learn how to Remove Water Stains from Wood)

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12.) Cleaning firearms
13.) Pine oil substitute
14.) Solvent for rubber and other similar substances
15.) Prevention of bleeding in print and cotton goods
16.) Laboratory reagent
17.) Oxygen carrier in petroleum illuminating oils
18.) Treatment for sore throat
19.) Treatment for yellow-jacket, bee, and wasp stings
20.) Flavor agents and fragrances
21.) Fuel for oil or gas lamps
22.) Treatment to get rid of lice
23.) Treatment for abrasions and cuts
24.) Treatment for breathing problems
25.) Treatment for the pain caused by pneumonia
26.) Treatment for sprains
27.) Ingredient in cleaning products and disinfectants
28.) Makes up many different chemical compounds
29.) Anti-bacterial agent
30.) Ingredient in some chewing gums, as treatment for tooth pain

Excersies
1. What are the economic importances of Oryza?
2. Write brief notes on economic uses of Peral millet.
3. Discuss on the economic importance of root tubers.
4. Explain the economic uses of fibre yielding plants.
5. Write a general account on medicinal uses of Withania and Solanum.
6. What are the medicinal uses of Ocimum?
7. Write notes on the economic importance of Terpentine
8. Write a comparative account on the medicinal uses of Withania and Ocimum.

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Unit- V : Plant Ecology and Phytogeography
General Ecology - Approaches to the study of Ecology, Autecolory, Synecology.- Climatic,
edaphic and Biotic factors - Ecosystems, Forest ,Grassland, Marine and Desert ecosystems.
Ecological classification ofplants- Morphological and Anatomical features (Hydrophytes and
Xerophytes). Forest conservation- afforestation - rare, endangered, endemic and threatened
species. Vegetational types of India, phytogeographic zones and biodiversity regions in India.

Ecology : the branch of biology that deals with the relations of organisms to one another and
to their physical surroundings.

E.P.Odum (1969) defined ecology as " the study of inter-relationships between organisms
and environment.

Ecological studies are based on three main approaches they are,

i. Taxonomic approach
ii. Habitat approach
iii. Organism approach

1. Taxonomic approach: Exploration of plants or animals living in a broad area is known as

taxonomic approach

Distribution, Topography, Habit, Morphological features, floral characteristics, flowering and

fruiting seasons, pollination characteristics, seed dispersal mechanisms.

2. Habitat approach

Habitat means home or natural environment of organism. The study of living organisms in
relation to environmental conditions of the habitat is known as habitat approach.

Pond ecosystem, lake ecosystem, marine ecosystem, Estuarine ecosystem, Forest ecosystem,
Desert Ecosystem, Grassland ecosystem.

3. Organism approach

The study of living organisms at individual or population or community level in relation to

the environment is called organism approach.

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a)Autecology:

The study of a plant or animal species or population throughout its life cycle in relation to
environment is called autecology.

Eg. Home range of species, seed dispersal, Biomass production.

b)Synecology

The study of community as a whole or part therof in relation to the environment is known as
synecology.

eg: Structure of plant or animal community, distribution and abundance of different species
in the community, Ecological niches.

All living organisms, including human beings live in some sort of abiotic component of
environment, that contains matter and energy. Various environmental factors can be divided
into following two groups:

1. Climatic factors 2. Edaphic factors 3. Biotic Factors. The former two factors are abiotic
components that contain matter and energy.

I. Climatic Factors : These are related to the aerial environment of the organisms e.g. light,
precipitation, temperature, atmospheric humidity, wind, etc.

II. Edaphic Factors :

They include the factors related to the soil. e.g. soil composition, organic matter, soil water,
soil air, soil organisms etc.

I. Climatic Factors :
i) Light :Light is a factor of great physiological importance. It affects structure, growth and
activities of organisms. Sunlight is the source of energy for all organisms. Light is essential
for photosynthesis, a process by which green plants synthesise their food on which rest of the
living world depends.

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Development of photosynthetic pigments, pigments for floral colour, red - far red absorbing
phytochrome pigments which regulate morphogenetic processes, induction and regulation of
many enzymes are all light regulated processes. 'Photoperiod' is an important factor in the
flowering of plants.

ii) Temperature : Most living organisms can survive only in a narrow range of temperature
(50-350C). However, there are notable exceptions to it. Certain bacteria, cyanobacteria (blue
green algae), Seeds, spores and encysted protozoans can occur in hot springs or in very low
temperature. Many organisms have developed physiological and behavioural adaptations to
avoid extremes of temperature.
Temperature varies in various quarters of the earth according to latitute and altitude. It is also
influenced by plant cover, atmospheric humidity, water reservoirs, air current and snow.
According to the change of temperature with the increase of latitude, various vegetation zone
have been recognized. Similarly , on the basis of change in temperature due to altitude, many
vegetation zones can be observed.

iii) Water :Water is an essential requirement of life. No life can exist without water. The
protoplasm of the cell contins 80-90% of water. The requirement of water varies from
organism to organism. The distribution of organisms depend upon the extent of the need and
special adaptations for conserving water. Plants of dry area are called xerophytes. They
develop modifications to increase water absorption, reduce transpiration and store absorbed
water.
Plants of aquatic habitats are called hydrophytes. They possess aerenchyma (air containing
parenchyma) to support themselves in water. The depth, salt content, clarity and water
currents determine the growth and distribution of plants in water.

iv) Air : Air currents determine the weather conditions and also affect living organisms,
particularly plants. Wind helps in Pollination and dispersal of Fruits and Seeds of many
plants. It increases transpiration, which may lead to desiccation and wilting of many plants.
Strong winds uproot the plants and cause lodging (flattening of plants on the ground) of many
crops. Areas frequented by unidirectional winds develop flag trees, which have branches on
one side only. Persistent strong winds restrict the height of plants due to excessive loss of
water by transpiration. The plants of such areas usually possess strong spreading roots and
strong but flexible shoots.

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II. Edaphic Factors
i) Soil : Soil is the upper weathered and humus (organic matter) containing layer of the earth,
which sustains plant life and contains numerous living organisms along with their dead
remains. Soil provides water, mineral salts and anchorage to plants. The characteristics of soil
such as its constitution, origin, temperature range, water holding capacity, aeration, minerals,
etc. determine flora and fauna of a particular place.

A productive, well aggregated soil is composed of mineral matter (derived from parent rocks
as a result of weathering), organic matter, water and air.

ii) Mineral Matter :The physical attributes of the soil are due to the size of the soil particles.
The different particles which are present in the soil vary in their size and depending on this as
the soils have been classified into sandy soils (sand with poor representation of silt and clay),
loam soils (fine sand with well representation of silt and clay), silt soils (more silt than sand
and clay) and clay soils (soils with high percentage of clay).

Sandy soils are porous and hence well aerated but they have very little water holding
capacity and are chemically inert. Clay soils have a greater capacity of retaining water and
are rich in nutritive salts. They are, however badly aerated. The loam soils are ideally suited
for plant growth because they possess appreciable porosity or aeration, sufficient nutritive
salts and good water retaining capacity.

iii) Organic Matter : The organic matter (humus) is highly important for all types of soils
because it increases both aeration and hydration. It maintains the structure of the soil and also
provides inorganic salts and some growth promoting substances to the soil.

iv) Soil Water : Soil water is of paramount importance in the physiology of plants. It occurs
in various forms, such as gravitational, capillary, hygroscopic and combined water. Rain is
the principal source of water for the soil. Water which flows down due to the force of gravity
is known as gravitational water. The gravitational water is not available to the plants.
However, it is a big soil water reservoir and is trapped out through tube wells.

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A certain amount of rain water is retained within the intercellular spaces of the soil particles
in the form of a capillary network. It is called capillary water and is used by the plants. Some
water molecules form a thin sheet of water around soil particles. It is called hygroscopic
water (water of imbibition). The hygroscopic water is also not absorbed by the plants. The
water, which is bound up in chemicals is called combined water or crystalline water. (e.g.
MgSO4.7H2O). It is not available to plants.

The total water present in the soil is called as field capacity. Addition of water beyond field
capacity causes water logging. It excludes soil air and thus inhibits plant growth. The soils
that have poor water holding capacity, cannot afford luxuriant vegetation. In such soils, the
plants generally show wilting of their leaves.
v) Soil air : It is essential for the growth of root and micro-organisms. A badly aerated or
water-logged soil will have more of carbon dioxide and lesser amount of oxygen.
vi) pH (Hydrogen ion concentration): Most organisms thrive in an optimal pH range, pH of
soil and water has a strong influence on the distribution of organisms. Some plants and
aquatic animals require acidic conditions, others need neutral or alkaline conditions.
vii) Mineral elements: A number of minerals are essential for normal growth of organisms.
Their availability and concentration control the distribution of microbes, plants, and animals.
Deficiency or absence of anyone, results in abnormal growth. Excess of mineral is equally
harmfull. Plants growing in nitrogen deficient soils have developed special adaptations for
obtaining it. For example, leguminous plants harbour nitrogen fixing bacteria in root nodules
and the insectivorous plants have devices to trap insects and absorb nitrogen from their
bodies. The salts of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus are most important for aquatic
forms. Salinity of soil and water greatly affects the distribution of organism.

III. Biotic factor

The biotic factor deals with interaction among living organisms. This along with abiotic
component, forms the overall ecosystem. Under natural situations, organisms live together
influencing each other's life directly or indirectly. Vital processes such as growth, nutrition
and reproduction depend very much upon the interactions between the individuals of same
species and different species. Pollination, seeds and fruits dispersal, grazing, parasitism and
symbiosis are the common examples of such interactions.

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Ecosystem
1. What is Ecosystem?
A complex relationship between all the living and nonliving things (plants, animals,
organisms, sun, water, climate etc)interact with each other is known as ‗An Ecosystem‘.
Ecosystems are the foundation of ‗Biosphere‘ and maintain the natural balance of the earth.
For example, let‘s take the relationship between sheep and lion in the ecosystem; for its
survival, the lion eats the sheep. And each relationship like this has an effect on other
creatures and plants living in the same area.
Each organism in the ecosystem plays an important role, so anytime a ‗foreign‘ factor is put
in the ecosystem, it poses a major threat to the ecosystem. This happens because the foreign
factor can deform the natural balance of the ecosystem and harm it potentially.

2.Components of the Ecosystem

The components of an ecosystem are divided into abiotic components, that include all
nonliving components such as minerals, climate, soil, water, sunlight and biotic components,
that include all the living components. These components together make up for the flow of
energy in the ecosystem and the nutrient cycle in the ecosystem.

The gleaming energy from the sun is the basic source of energy in all the ecosystems. The
autotrophs (self-sustaining organisms) absorb this energy and produce photosynthesis where
they can use this energy to convert CO2 and H2O into simple carbohydrates. The autotrophs
store energy in these carbohydrates, which they then use to produce more complex and
organic products like lipids, proteins, and starches that help the organism to survive.

These autotrophs are the producers of the ecosystem.

Organic compounds produced by autotrophs help in the survival of the heterotrophic

organisms. And heterotrophs are the consumers of the ecosystem since they‘re incapable of
making their own food. All organisms like bacteria, fungi or animals are heterotrophs.

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Types of Ecosystems

An ecosystem consists of three types of ecosystems, another term for which is ‗Biomes‘. The
three major types are:

a. Aquatic biomes
b. Terrestrial biomes
c. Lentic biomes

A. Aquatic Biomes:
Aquatic biomes are the ones, one finds in water bodies, such as oceans, rivers, seas, lakes,
springs, etc. This biome is further divided into smaller ecosystems:

i)Pond Ecosystems :
Pond ecosystems are comparatively small and mostly include many kinds of amphibians and
insects. At times one can also find fishes here but they aren‘t capable of moving as easily as
the amphibians.
ii) River Ecosystems: This ecosystem consists of fishes along with plants, amphibians, and
insects. One may also find birds that hunt in and around the water for its food (small fishes).
iii)Shallow water Ecosystem: Here one can only find tiny fishes and corals that live in
shallow waters close to land.
iv) Deepwater Ecosystem: These are kind of ecosystem where one can find gigantic sea
creatures that live at the deep bottom of the sea. Creatures that wouldn‘t be visible to the
normal human eye.

B. Terrestrial Biomes:
Terrestrial ecosystems are ecosystems that are found on land that include forests, deserts,
grasslands, tundras, and coastal regions. There can be more than one terrestrial biome
depending on its climate. This ecosystem further divides into:

a.Rainforests:
Rainforests are the kind of ecosystems that are extremely dense because of a variety of
organisms living in a tiny area.

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b.Tundra:
Tundra is the kind of ecosystem that is a relatively simple ecosystem since only a few life
forms can survive this ecosystem; especially because of its harsh conditions.
c.Deserts:
They are opposite of tundras, yet the have extreme conditions. Animals prefer to live in
extreme heat than extreme cold.
d.Forests:
One can find more forests than any other ecosystem in the world such as deciduous and
coniferous forests. Forests can support many life forms and complex ecosystems.
C. Lentic Biomes:
These are the kinds of ecosystems that support both aquatic and terrestrial life forms such as
swamps. The only requirement is that this kind of ecosystem is the exposure for the
photosynthesis process to happen; since organisms here survive on the carbohydrates made
by photosynthesis.

Water requirement and nature of soils, the plants have been classified as follows:

1. Hydrophytes: Plants growing in or near water.

2. Xerophytes: Plants adapted to survive under the condition of very poor supply of available
water in the habitats.
Xerophilous plants are further classified on the basis of their habitats as follows:
(i) Oxylophytes (on acid soils)
(ii) Halophytes (on saline soils)
(iii) Lithophytes (on rocks)
(iv) Psammophytes (on sand and gravels)
(v) Chersophytes (on waste land)
(vi) Eremophytes (on deserts and steppes)
(vii) Psychrophytes (on cold soils)
(viii) Psilophytes (savannah)
(ix) Sclerophytes (Forest and bushland)

3. Mesophytes: Plants growing in an environment which is neither very dry nor very wet.
The detailed description of only some important ecological groups is given here.

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1.Hydrophytes: (Greek, Hudor = water and Phyton = Plant; water plant):
Plants which grow in wet places or in water either partly or wholly submerged are called
hydrophytes or aquatic plants. Examples are Utricularia. Vallisneria, Hydrilla Chara Nitella
Lotus, Ceratophyllum, Trapa, Pistia, Eichhornia (water hyacinth), Wolffia, Lemna, etc
Aquatic environment provides a matrix for plant growth in which temperature fluctuation is
at minimum and the nutrients occur mostly in dissolved state but light and oxygen become
deficient with the increase m depth of water bodies. Zonation of aquatic vegetation with
increasing depth is a device for maximum utilization of light energy.

The aquatic environment is subject to water movements ranging from small vertical
circulation to strong currents. Streams have a unidirectional movement and m seas the
movement is reversible. The currents of water often abrade the inhabiting flora and varied
modifications are encountered to withstand this abrasive action. Since water makes up a large
proportion of the bodies of plants and animals (70 to 90% water in protoplasm), it affects all
life processes directly.

In plants, the rate and magnitude of the photosynthesis, respiration absorption of nutrients,
growth and other metabolic processes are influenced by the amount of available water. Low
relative humidity increases water loss through transpiration and affects plant growth.
Conversely, plants in the regions with high moisture show reduced transpiration.

Some aquatic groups of higher plants probably originated from mesophytes. In the course of
evolution several changes m the physiology, morphology and behaviour, all related to the
aquatic mode of life, took place and by these evolutionary changes the mesophytic plants
have become adapted to aquatic mode of life.

2.Classification of Hydrophytes:

According to their relation to water and air, the hydrophytes are grouped into the following
categories:

(a) Submerged hydrophytes

(b) Floating hydrophytes
(c) Amphibious hydrophytes.
(a) Submerged hydrophytes:

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Plants which grow below the water surface and are not in contact with atmosphere are called
submerged hydrophytes. Such plants may be free-floating or rooted. Example Vallisneria,
Hydrilla, Potamogeton, Najas. Ceratophyllum Mynophyllum, Utricularia, Chara, Nitella and
a number of aquatic microbes.

1)Submerged Floating Hydrophytes

Rooted Submerged Hydrophytes
Rooted Emergent Hydrophytes with Hetrophylly
(b) Floating hydrophytes:
Plants that float on the surface or slightly below the surface of water are called floating
hydrophytes. These plants are in contact with both water and air. They may or may not be
rooted in the soil. On this ground, the floating plants have been divided into two groups.

(i) Free floating hydrophytes:

These plants float freely on the surface of water but are not rooted in the mud. Examples-
Wolffia arhiza and Wolffia microscopica (a rootless minutes duck weed). Trapa bispinosa,
Lymnanthemum. Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacmth, verna—Jalkumbhi), Salvinia (a fern),
Azolla (a water fern) .

(ii) Floating but rooted hydrophytes:

Some submerged plants are rooted in muddy substrata of Ponds Rivers and lakes but their
leaves and flowering shoots float on or above the surface of water. They are grouped as
floating but rooted hydrophytes. Nelumbium speciosum (Lotus), Victoria regia (water lily),
Ceratopteris thalictroides (a hydrophytic fern of family Parkariaceae), etc.

(c) Amphibious hydrophytes:

These plants are adapted to both aquatic and terrestrial modes of life. Amphibious plants
grow either in shallow water or on the muddy substratum. Amphibious plants which grow in
saline marshy places are termed as ‗halophytes. Roots and some parts of stems and leaves in
these plants may be submerged in water or buried m mud but some foliage, branches and
flowering shoots spring well above the surface of water or they may spread over the land .

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The aerial parts of these amphibious plants show mesophytic or sometimes xerophytic
features, while the submerged parts develop true hydrophytic characters. Some varieties of
rice plants, (Oryza sativa), Marsilea, Sagittaria. Alisma, Jussiaea. Neptuma, Commelina,
Polygonum, Ranunculus aquatilis, Phragmites. Enhydra fluctuans, etc. are familiar examples
of this group of hydrophytes. In some amphibious plants the shoots are completely exposed
to air as m land plants but the roots are buried in water lodged soil or mud. They are called
marsh plants. The common examples of marsh plants are Cyperus, Typha, Scirpus, Rumex,
etc..

Marsh Plants : Rooted Hydrophytes with Floating Leaves

These are listed below:

1. Temperature of water

2. Osmotic concentration of water

3. Toxicity of water

The osmotic concentration and toxicity are dependent upon the amount and nature of
chemical substances dissolved in water. The physiology of aquatic plants is greatly affected
by the change in osmotic concentration of water. The aquatic plants are subjected to less
extremes of temperature because water is bad conductor of heat (i.e., it takes long time m its
heating and cooling). Hydrophytes are less affected as the transpiration from the plant tissue
is completely out of question.

Hydrophytic Adaptations:

As the aquatic environment is uniform throughout, the hydrophytes develop very few
adaptive features.
Important features of these plants are described in the following heads:

A. Morphological:

(i) Roots:
 Root systems in hydrophytes are poorly developed which may or may not be branched in
submerged hydrophytes.
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 Roots are meaningless as body which is in direct contact with water acts as absorptive
surface and absorbs water and minerals. This may probably be the reason why roots in
hydrophytes are reduced or absent. Roots of floating hydrophytes show very poor
development of root hairs.
 Roots in floating plants do not possess true root caps but very often they develop root
pockets or root sheaths which protect their tips from injuries.
 Exact functions of these root pockets, however, are not fully understood. Some rooted
hydrophytes like Hydrilla,
 Roots are totally absent in some plants, e g., Ceratophyllum, Salvinia, Azolla, Utricularia,
etc. In Jussiaea repens two types of roots develop when the plants grow on the surface of
water, some of them are floating roots which are negatively geotropic having spongy
structures The floating roots keep the plants afloat.

(ii) Stem:

In aquatic plants, stem is very delicate and green or yellow in colour . In some cases it may
be modified into rhizome or runner, etc.
(iii) Leaves:

In floating plants leaves are generally peltate, long, circular, light or dark green in colour, thin
and very smooth. Their upper surfaces are exposed in the air but lower leaves are generally in
touch with water.
In lotus plant petioles of leaves show indefinite power of growth and they keep the laminae of
leaves always on the surface of water.
(b) Heterophylly:
Some aquatic plants develop two different types of leaves in them. This phenomenon is
termed as heterophylly. Examples are Sagittaria sagittaefolia, Ranunculus aquatilis,
Limnophila heterophylla, Salvinia, Azolla etc. In this phenomenon, generally the submerged
leaves are linear ribbon shaped or highly dissected and the leaves that are found floating on or
above the surface of water are broad circular or slightly lobed . The occurrence heterophylly
is associated probably with the following characteristic physiological behaviours of these
aquatic plants.

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Free Floating Hydrophytes
1. Quantitative reduction in transpiration.
2. The broad leaves on the surface overshadow the submerged dissected leaves of the same
plant and thus they reduce the intensity of light falling on the submerged leaves. The
submerged leaves require light of very low intensity.
3. Plants show very little response to drought because the necessity of excess water during
drought period is compensated by submerged leaves which act as water absorbing organs.
4. Variation in the life-forms and habitats.
5. Broad leaves found on the surface of water transpire actively and regulate the hydrostatic
pressure in the plant body.
(c) Leaves of free floating hydrophytes are smooth, shining and frequently coated with wax.
The wax coating protects the leaves from chemical and physical injuries and also prevents the
water clogging of stomata.
(d) In floating plants of water hyacinth, Trapa etc., the petioles become characteristically
swollen and develop spongyness which provides buoyancy to these plants.
(e) Leaves in submerged hydrophytes are generally small and narrow. In some case, e.g.,
Myriophyllum, Utricularia, Ceratophyllum, etc., they may be finely dissected. The mall
slender terete segments of dissected leaves offer little resistance against the water currents. In
this way plants are subjected to little mechanical stress and strain of water.
(f) In the Amphibious plants, the leaves that are exposed to air show typical mesophytic
features. They are more tough than the leaves of other groups of hydrophytes.
(g) Pollination and dispersal of Fruits and Seeds are accomplished by the agency of water.
Seeds and Fruits are light in weight and thus they can easily float on the surface of water.
(h) Vegetative reproduction is common method of propagation in hydrophytes. It is
accomplished either through fragmentation of ordinary shoots or by winter buds. In algae,
reproduction is accomplished by zoospores and other specialized motile or non-motile spores.

B. Anatomical Modifications:
The anatomical modifications in hydrophytes aim mainly at:
1. Reduction in protecting structures,
2. Increase in the aeration,
3. Reduction of supporting or mechanical tissues, and
4. Reduction of vascular tissues.

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Various anatomical adaptations of hydrophytes are listed below:
1. Reduction in protecting structures:
(a) Cuticle is totally absent in the submerged parts of the plants. It may be present in the form
of very fine film on the surfaces of parts which exposed to atmosphere.
(b) Epidermis in hydrophytes is not a protecting layer but it absorbs water, minerals and gases
directly from the aquatic environment. Extremely thin cellulose walls of epidermal cells
facilitate the absorption process.
(c) Epidermal cells contain chloroplasts, thus they can function as photosynthetic tissue,
especially where the leaves and stems are very thin, e.g. Hydrilla .
(d) Hypodermis in hydrophytes is poorly developed. Its cells are extremely thin walled.

2. Increase in the aeration:

(a) Stomata are totally absent in submerged parts of the plants . In some exceptional cases,
vestigial and functionless stomata have been noticed.
In these cases exchange of gases takes place directly through cell walls.
In the floating leaves, stomata develop in very limited number and are confined only to the
upper surface. In amphibious plants stomata may be scattered on all the aerial parts and they
develop comparatively in larger number per unit area than those on the floating leaves.

(b) Air chambers: Aerenchyma in submerged leaves and stem is very much developed. Air
chambers are filled with respiratory gases and moisture. These cavities are separated from
one another by one or two cells thick chlorenchymatous partitions. CO2 present in the air
chambers is used in the photosynthesis and the O2 produced in the process of photosynthesis
and also that already present in the air chambers is used in respiration.

The air chambers also develop finely perforated cross septa which are called diaphragms The
diaphragms afford better aeration and perhaps check floating. The Aerenchyma provides
buoyancy and mechanical support to aquatic plants. Air chambers are abundantly found in the
Fruits of hydrophytes rendering them buoyant and thus facilitating their dispersal by water.

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3. Reduction of supporting or mechanical tissues:

(a) Mechanical tissues are absent or poorly developed in the floating and submerged parts of
plants because buoyant nature of water saves them from physical injuries. The thick walled
sclerenchymatous tissue is totally absent m submerged and floating hydrophytes. They may,
however, develop in the cortex of amphibious plants particularly in the aerial or terrestrial
parts Generally elongated and loosely arranged spongy cells are found in the plant body.
These thin-walled cells, when turgid, provide mechanical support to the plants .

(a) The reduction of absorbing tissue (roots act chiefly as anchors and root hairs are lacking).

(b) In water lily and some other plants, special type of star shaped lignified cells, called
asterosclereids, develop which give mechanical support to the plants.

4. Reduction of vascular tissues: Conducting tissue is very poorly developed. As the

absorption of water and nutrients takes place through the entire surface of submerged parts,
there is little need of vascular tissues in these plants.
In the vascular tissues, xylem shows greatest reduction. In some cases, it consists of only a
few tracheids while in some, xylem elements are not at all developed. Some aquatic plants,
however, show a lacuna in the centre in the place of xylem. Such spaces resemble typical air
chambers.

Phloem tissue is also poorly defined in most of the aquatic plants but in some cases it may
develop fairly well. Sieve tubes of aquatic plants are smaller than those of mesophytes.
Phloem parenchyma is extensively developed. Endodermis may or may not be clearly
defined. The Vascular bundles are generally aggregated towards the centre. Secondary
growth in thickness does not take place in the aquatic stem and roots.

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 T.S. of Nymphaea root T. S of Hydrilla stem

Xerophytes:
Plants which grow in dry habitats or xeric conditions are called xerophytes. Places where
available water is not present adequate quantity are termed xeric habitats.
Xeric habitats may be of following types:
1. Habitats physically dry (where water retaining capacity of the soil is very low and the
climate is dry, e.g., desert, rock surface, waste land, etc.).
2. Habitats physiologically dry (places where water is present in excess amount but it is not
such as can be absorbed by the plants easily. Such habitats may be either too salty or too
acidic, too hot or too cold).
3. Habitats dry physically as well as physiologically, e.g., slopes of mountains.
Xerophytes are characteristic plants of desert and semi-desert regions, yet they can grow in
mesophytic conditions where available water is in sufficient quantity. These plants can
withstand extreme dry conditions, low humidity and high temperature.
When growing under un-favourable conditions, these plants develop special structural and
physiological characteristics which aim mainly at the following objectives:

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(i) To absorb as much water as they can get from the surroundings;
(ii) To retain water in their organs for very long time;
(iii) To reduce the transpiration rate to minimum; and
(iv) To check high consumption of water
Xerophytic Adaptations:
Plants growing in the dry habitats develop certain structural devices in them. These structure
modifications in xerophytic plants may be of two types.
(i) Xeromorphic characters:
Xerophytic characters that are genetically fixed and inherited are referred to as xeromorphic.
They will appear in the xerophytes irrespective of conditions whether they are growing in
deserts or in humid regions. Halophytic mangroves and many other evergreen trees, although
growing in moist conditions always develop xeromorphic characters.

(ii) Xeroplastic characters:

These features are induced by drought and are always associated with dry conditions. They
are never inherited. These characters may disappear from plants if all the favourable
conditions are made available to them.

Important xerophytic features are summarized under the following heads:

(1) Morphological (external) adaptations;
(2) Anatomical (internal) adaptations;

1. External Morphology of Xerophytes:

(A) Roots: Xerophytes have well developed root systems which may be profusely branched.
It is extensive and more elaborate than shoot system. Many desert plants develop superficial
root system where the supply of water is restricted to surface layer of the earth. The roots of
perennial xerophytes grow very deep in the earth and reach the layers where water is
available in plenty. Root hairs are densely developed near the growing tips of the rootlets.
These enable the roots to absorb sufficient quantity of water.

(B) Stem: Some of the important characteristics of xerophytic stems are listed below:
(i) Stems of some xerophytes become very hard and woody. It may be either aerial or
subterranean.

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(ii) They are covered with thick coating of wax and silica as in Equisetum. Some may be
covered with dense hairs as is Calotropis.
(iii) In some xerophytes, stems may be modified into thorns, e.g., Duranta, Ulex, etc.
(iv) In stem succulents, main stem itself becomes bulbous and fleshy and it seems as if
leaves in these plants are arising directly from the top of the roots. Example—Kleinia
articulata.
(v) Stems in some extreme xerophytes are modified into leaf-like flattened, green and fleshy
structures which are termed as phylloclades. Many cacti and cocoloba (Muehlenbeckia) are
familiar examples for this. In Ruscus plants, the branches developing in the axils of scaly
leaves become metamorphosed into leaf-like structures, the phylloclades or cladophylls .

In Asparagus plant also a number of axillary branches become modified into small needle-
like green structures which look exactly like leaves. They are called cladodes. A number of
species of Euphorbia also develop succulence and become green. In these plants, leaves are
greatly reduced, so the main function of leaves, the photosynthesis, is taken up by these green
phylloclades or cladodes which are modified stems.

(C) Leaves: (i) In some xerophytes the leaves, if present, are greatly caducous, i.e., they fall
early in the season, but in the majority of the plants leaves are generally reduced to scales, as
in Casuarina, Ruscus, Asparagus etc.

Anatomical features of Xerophyte:

1. Epidermis is covered thick cuticle to reduce the rate of transpiration.

2. Epidermal cells may have silica crystals.

3. Epidermis is multilayered Eg: Nerium.

4. Waxy coating is present on leaves and stem Eg: Calotropis.
5. Stomata are generally confined to lower epidermis of leaves called hypostomatous.
6. Stomata are present in pits called sunken stomata. They are lined with hairs Eg: Nerium.
8. Mesophyll is differentiated in to palisade and spongy parenchyma.
9. Mechanical & vascular tissues are well developed.

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What is Afforestation?
 Afforestation is the process of planting trees, or sowing seeds, in a barren land devoid
of any trees to create a forest.
 The term should not be confused with reforestation, which is the process of specifically
planting native trees into a forest that has decreasing numbers of trees. While
reforestation is increasing the number of trees of an existing forest, afforestation is the
creation of a ‗new‘ forest.
 Our Earth has been constantly trying to cope with the way in which human beings use
natural resources, clear forest lands, cut trees, and contaminate the air, land, and water.
 Industrial revolution, population bursts, and pollution create permanent damage to the
earth, and the result is global warming and climate change. In such situations,something
that can help extend the life of the planet and its living organisms is the increase of
natural resources and decrease of exploitation of these resources.
 By planting trees and creating forests, many of the commercial needs of human beings
are fulfilled, while not destroying what is left of the planet.
 Afforestation is, therefore, a practice that has been propagated by government and non-
government agencies of many countries as a way to stop over-exploitation of nature.

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Importance

 The importance is immense in today‘s scenario because it is mainly done for

commercial purposes. In a natural forest or woodland, the trees are heterogeneous.
Owing to the sensitivity to over usage and slow growths, these forests cannot be used
continuously for commercial purposes like wood products.
 The process of planting trees in empty lands helps promote the fast propagation of
specific types of trees for the wood industry.
 With the increasing demand for wood fuels and building materials, this process helps
to meet these demands without cutting down the natural forests.
 Deforestation can lead to the depletion of trees in water catchments and riverside
zones. Afforestation ensures trees and plants that hold the soil in these sensitive areas
remain protected.
 Many countries have introduced the practice of planting trees along with agricultural
crops in croplands. The benefits of this practice, which is called agroforestry, are:
 In terms of the environmental benefits, planting trees is always beneficial whether it
takes place in a barren land or is used as a method to regenerate a depleted forest.

 Trees help check atmospheric carbon dioxide; large scale afforestation can curb the
problems caused due to burning of fossil fuels, industrialization and so forth.

The major IUCN threatened categories (IUCN Red List Categories, 1995) currently
recognised, together with their definitions are:

(i) Extinct (EX): Species not definitely located in the wild during the past fifty years but
which may survive in cultivation (e.g. Franklinia aloetamha). Some authors suggest that
‗Extinct‘ should denote those taxa that have been totally lost and that the terminology
‗Extinct in the wild‘ should be used to refer to species lost in the wild, while living under
cultivation .

(ii) Endangered (EN): Species in danger of extinction (within a few decades) and whose
survival is unlikely if the causal factors continue to operate (Areca concinna, Euphorbia
obdelkuri). In this category are included those taxa whose numbers have been reduced to a

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critical level or whose habitats have been so drastically reduced that they are deemed to be in
immediate danger of extinction.

The category Critically Endangered (CR) includes species that face an extremely high risk of
extinction in the wild in the immediate future. These are characterized by 80% decline in the
last 10 years, 100 km2 occupancy or 10 km2 in fragmented areas.

(iii) Vulnerable (VU): Taxa likely to move into the endangered category in near future if the
causal factors continue to operate (Ranunculus ophioglossifolius). Included in this category
are taxa in which most or all populations decrease in size because of overexploitation,
extensive destruction of habitat or other environmental disturbances.

(iv) Rare (R): Taxa with small populations that are not endangered or vulnerable at present
but are at risk are included under this category (Lactuca saligna, Salvia saxicola). A species
may be rare because of restricted geographical range, high habitat specificity and small local
population size, or thinly scattered over a more extensive range, or due to a combination of
two or more of these characteristics.

Meaning of Endemism:

Endemism means the confinement of a particular species, genus, or groups of plants and
animals to a particular area. Taxa occurring only a single restricted geographical area is
known as endemics, Endemism normally applied only where there is a considerable
restriction in the area of distribution.

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Characters of Endemics:

1. They are localized in distribution because of their Narrow Ecological amplitude and are
unable to invade in fresh areas.

2. They lack potentially to migrate because of saturate genomes.

3. Real endemics never migrate while Neoendemics have the potential to migrate.

4. The dispersal propagules are not able to sustain during migration to other area. It may be
due to physical barriers.

Types of Natural Vegetation in India

(Vegetation Types of India)

1. Tropical Evergreen Rain Forests

2. Deciduous or Monsoon Type of Forests
3. Dry Deciduous Forests
4. Mountain Forests
5. Tidal or Mangrove Forests
6. Semi-Desert and Desert Vegetations

Different types of vegetation in India

Tropical evergreen rain forests : The Tropical Evergreen rain forests are found in the areas
where precipitation is more than 200 cm. They are largely found in the Northeastern regions
of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Assam, Nagaland, the Western Ghats, the Tarai areas of
the Himalayas and the Andaman groups of Islands. They are also found in the hills of Khasi
and Jaintia. The trees in this area have intense growth.

The major trees found in this area are Sandal Wood, Rosewood, Garjan, Mahogany, and
bamboo. It has a copious vegetation of all kinds – trees, shrubs, and creepers giving it a
multilayered structure. The elephants, monkey, lemur are the common animals found in these
areas.

Deciduous or Monsoon type of forests : The Deciduous forests are found on the lower slope
of the Himalayas, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Orissa, Karnataka, Maharashtra

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Jharkhand and the adjoining areas. The precipitation in this area is between 100 cm and 200
cm. The Teak is the dominant species seen in the area. Along with that Deodar, Blue Gum,
Pal Ash, Sal, Sandalwood, Ebony, Arjun, Khair, and Bamboo are also seen. The trees in this
forest shed their leaves during dry winter and dry summer. On the basis of the availability of
water, these forests are again divided into moist and dry deciduous.

Dry deciduous forests : These forests grow in areas where the precipitation is between 50
cm and 100 cm. These are mainly seen in the areas of the Central Deccan plateau, Punjab,
Haryana, parts of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and South-east of Rajasthan.

Mountain forests : Mountain forests differ significantly along the slopes of the mountain.
On the foothills of the Himalayas until a height of 1500 meters, evergreen trees like Sal, teak,
and bamboo grow copiously. On the higher slope, temperate conifer trees like pine, fir, and
oak grow. At the higher elevation of the Himalayas, rhododendrons and junipers are found.
Further, than these vegetation zones, alpine grasslands appear up to the snowfield.

Tidal or Mangrove forests : The tidal or mangrove forests grow by the side of the coast and
on the edges of the deltas e.g., the deltas of the Cauvery, Krishna, Mahanadi, Godavari, and
Ganga. In West Bengal, these forests are known as ‗Sundarbans‘. The ‗sundari‘ is a most
major tree in these forests. The important trees of the tidal forests are hogla, garan, pasur etc.
This forest is an important factor in the timber industry as they provide timber and firewood.
Palm and coconut trees beautify the coastal strip.

Semi-deserts and Deserts vegetations:This area receives a rainfall less than 50 cm. Thorny
bushes, acacia, and Babul are found in this vegetation region. The Indian wild date is
generally found here. They have long roots and thick flesh. The plants found in this region
store water in their stem to endure during the drought. These vegetations are found in parts of
Gujarat‘s, Punjab and in Rajasthan.

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PHYTOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES
India has been divided into the following botanical zones by D. Chatterjee (1962)

Botanical Zones of India

(1) Western Himalayas,

(2) Eastern Himalayas,
(3) Indus plain,
(4) Gangetic plain,
(5) Central India,
(6) Deccan,
(7) Western coasts of Malabar,
(8) Assam, and
(9) Bay Islands of Andaman and Nicobar.

1. Western Himalayas:
The northern part of our country is bounded by highest ranges of Himalayas and is one of the
important botanical regions of the world with climate and vegetation ranging from truly
tropical near the low altitudes to temperate arctic types at the high altitudes. The northern
mountain division can phytogeographically be divided into western, central and eastern
zones.

Western Himalayas consist of north Kashmir, south Kashmir, a part of Punjab, H.P., Garhwal
and Kumaon. This zone is wet in outer southern ranges and slightly dry in inner northern
zone. The average annual rainfall in this region is from 100 to 200 cm. Snowfall occurs in
this region during winter season. The region may be divided into three subzones.

(i) Submontane zone or lower region or tropical and subtropical belts (up to about 1500
metres altitude from the sea level).
(ii) Temperate zone (from 1500 metres to 3500 metres altitude),
(iii) Alpine zone (above 3500 metres and up to the line of perpetual snow).
(i) Submontane or lower region or tropical and subtropical belts:

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It includes outer Himalayas, particularly region of Siwaliks and adjoining areas where annual
average rainfall is over 100 cm. This zone ranges between 300 and 1500 metres above sea
level. In this zone, forests dominated by timber trees of Shorea robusta are common. Other
important tree species are Salmalia malabaricum, Butea monosperma. Acacia catachu and
Zizyphus species.

In the swampy areas, Dalbergia sisso (Shisham), Ficus glomerata, Eugenia jambolana are of
common occurrence.
In west dry regions sal trees are replaced by xeric plants particularly Zizyphus, Carissa,
Acacia and thorny Euphorbia. At higher elevation, around 1000 to 1500 metre altitude, cheer
(pine) forests are also found at certain places. The common species of pine are Pinus
longifolia and Pinus roxburghii. Ground vegetation is scanty.

(ii) Temperate zone:

It commonly ranges at the altitudes from 1500 to 3500 metres above the sea level. Oaks are
dominant along with Populus, Rhododendron, Betula and Pyrus. Pinus excelsa, Cedrus
deodara, Picea, Abies, Cupressus and Taxus baccata are found in the heavy rainfall region
(between 1600 and 1800 m). Herbs are also common in this region. Common herbs are
Ranunculus hirtila, Polygonum, Pedicularia, Potentilla argyrophylla. Primula, Delphinium,
Clematis, crucifers and many members of asteraceae.

In cultivated drylands of Punjab, wheat and barley are main crops. In Kashmir, Betula
(birch), Salix (cane), Populus (poplar) are of common occurrence. Besides these, Quercus
semicarpifolia, Q. dilatata, Aesculus indica (chestnut) and many conifers are commonly met
within this region. In west Kashmir rice cultivation is common Sar or saffron (Crocus
sativus), apples, peaches, walnut, almonds and other fruits are important economic plants of
Kashmir region.
(iii) Alpine zone:
Above the altitude of 3500 metres and up to snowline (about 5000 m) is alpine zone. The
vegetation consists of evergreen conifers and some low and broad leaved trees. The
vegetation of this region is characterized by cushion habit, dwarf nature and gregarious habit.
In lower alpine region, shrubby forests are common which may be (a) Birch—fir forest which
is fairly dense and is mixed with evergreen shrubby Rhododendron at higher level and (b)
Birch— Rhododendron forests in which silver fir, Betula, Rhododendron and Juniperus are

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common. In the upper alpine region, prominent herbaceous plants are the species of Primula,
Polygonum, Gentiana, Cassiope, Meconopsis, Saxifraga, Potentilla, Geranium, Aster,
Astragalus etc. which form alpine meadows. At about 5000 metre altitude and above snow
perpetuates round the year and plant growth is almost nil. This altitude is called snow line or
ice line.

Populations of Draba, Braya, Cortia, Leontopodium go on increasing with the increase in

altitude. Species of Ephedra, Juniperus, Berberis are also found scattered. Poa, Stipa and
Fectuca are common grasses of alpine zone.

2. Eastern Himalayas:
Eastern Himalayas extend from Sikkim to upper Assam, Darjeeling and NEFA. Vegetation of
this region differs from that of western Himalayas. The chief differences are due to changed
environmental factors as heavy monsoon rainfall, less snowfall and high temperature and
humidity.

This region can also be divided into:

(i) Tropical submontane zone
(ii) Temperate or Montane zone, and
(iii) Alpine zone.

Main Types of Vegetation at different altitudes in the Western and Eastern Himalayas

(i) Tropical or Submontane Zone:

The tropical subzone characterized by warm and humid conditions extends from plain up to
the altitude of about 1800 m. In this zone mostly sal forests, and mixed deciduous forests
consisting of important plants, such as Sterculia, Terminalia Anthocephalus cadamba and
Bauhinia are common. In the savannah forests, common plants are Albezia procera,
Bischofia, Salmelia, Dendrocalamus. Evergreen forests of Dillenia indica, Michelia
champaca, Echinocarpus, Cinnamon, etc. are common.

(ii) Temperate or Montane Zone:

It may be further divided into upper and lower zones Lower temperate zone is the region
between 1800 and 3000 metre altitudes. In the lower temperate zone, Oaks (Quercus).

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Michelia, Pyrus, Cedrela, Eugenia, Echinocarpus are common plants. In upper temperate
zone (3000-4000 metre altitude), Conifers and Rhododendrons are common. Important
conifers of this region are Picea spinulosa, Abies, Larix, Juniperus, Tsuga griffithi, Tsuga
brunoniana, etc.

(iii) Alpine Zone (from 4000 metres up to snow line):

Climate is humid and extremely cold. The vegetation in the alpine zone is characterised by
complete absence of trees and predominance of shrubs and meadows. Important plants of this
zone are Rhododendron and Juniperus. Eastern Himalayan vegetation is considered to be one
of the richest vegetational units in the world and consists of several species of plants which
are native of foreign countries, such as, China, Japan, Burma, Malaya and European
countries.

3. Indus Plains:
It includes part of Punjab, Rajasthan, Cutch, Delhi, a part of Gujarat. Some part of this plain
is now in Pakistan. The climate of this zone is characterised by dry hot summer, and dry cold
winter. Rainfall is usually less than 70 cms, but in certain regions it is as low as 10-15 cms.
The soil of a wide area except cultivated land, is saline. Much of the land has become desert
due to excessive dryness.

Vegetation is mainly bushy and thorny Acacia arabica, Prosopis spicigera, Salvadora
Capparis decidua are very common plants of this region. Salsola phoetida and Lunakh grass
are found mostly in saline soils. Other plants of this botanic province are Anageissus,
Eugenia, Mango, Dalbergia sisso, Albizzia lebbek and Zizyphus nummularia.

Historical evidences indicate that the area was covered by dense forest some 2000 years ago,
but gradual destruction of vegetation cover either by biotic agencies or by any other agency
led to the development of desert in this plain. Saccharum munja, Cenchrus ciliaris, Prosopis
spicigera. Acacia leucophloea, A. Senegal are the important plant species which are grown
for checking the spread of desert.

4. Gangetic Plains:
This is one of the richest vegetational zones in India. This zone covers flat land of a part of
Delhi, whole of U.P., Bihar, and West Bengal and also a part of Orissa. Rainfall in this zone

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is from 50 cm to 150 cm. A great part of the land is under cultivation. The common crop
plants are wheat, barley maize. Sorghum (jowar), Bajra, urad, Phaseolus mungo (Moong),
Cajanus cajan, til (Sesamum indicum), sugarcane. Pea (Pisum sp.), gram (Cicer arietinum),
potato, Brassica, rice.

In western part of U.P. annual rainfall is from 50 cm to 110 cm. Dry deciduous and shrubby
forests are common in this part. Important plants of south-western part of U.P. are Capparis,
Saccharum munja, Acacia arabica. In the north-western part of U.P. near Himalayas foothills
Dalbergia sisso. Acacia arabica are most common plants.

In eastern gangetic plain, the conditions are cold and wet (annual rainfall, 150 cm in West
Bengal). In this part evergreen forests are common. In central part, the annual rainfall is about
100 cm to 150 cm. The vegetation consists mainly of deciduous trees. Sal trees are dominant.
Other common trees are Terminalia tomentosa, T. belerica. Acacia species, Bauhinia,
Diospiros Eugenia sp., neem trees, Madhuca indica (Mahua), Cordia myxa (Lasora),
Tamarindus, Mango (Mangifera indica). Ficus etc.

In Bihar and Orissa hills, Rubus, Potentilla, Fragaria (Rosaceae), Pyrus etc. are common.
Mangrove vegetation is common in tidal regions in West Bengal near Sunder-ban, and
Orissa. Rhizophora mucronata, R. conjugata, Sonneratia, Ceriops roxburghiana and
Acanthus ilicifolius, Kandelia rheedii, Bruguiera gymnorhiza are common mangrove plants
in those regions.

5. Central India:
Central India covers Madhya Pradesh, part of Orissa (now Odisha), Gujarat and Vindhya.
The areas are hilly. The average rainfall per annum may be 100-170 cm. Some places are at
the altitudes of 500-700 m from the sea level. Biotic disturbances are very common in this
botanical province which have led to the development of the thorny vegetation in open areas.
In this region teak (Tectona grandis) and sal (Shorea robusta) forests are very common.
Other trees are Terminalia tomentosa, Bauhinia, Mango, Phyllanthus, Ficus glomerata, etc.
Among common shrubs are Mimosa rubricaulis, Desmodium, Acacia sp., Zizyphus
rotundifolia and other.

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Entire forest vegetation of central India may be divided into:
(i) Sal forests
(ii) Mixed deciduous forests
(iii) Thorny forests.

At Sarguja (M.P.) many species have been reported to occur. Some of them are Pyrus,
Barberis asiatica, Rubus, elipticus, etc.

6. Deccan:
This region comprises whole of the southern peninsular India including Satpura and southern
part of Godawari River. Average annual rainfall in this region is about 100 cm.

It may be divided into the following two subdivisions:

(i) Deccan plateau
(ii) Coromandel coast.

In Deccan plateau teak forests containing Diospiros, Acacia, Prosopis spicigera. Santalum a
hum (chandan tree) and Cedrda toona are common. On rocks, Capparis, Euphorbias,
Phyllunthus are common. Teak, Pterocarpus, Borassus, Foenix silvestris are also common in
this area In Chhota Nagpur plateau, important species are Clematis natans, Barberis,
Thallictrum and also many members of Annonaceae, Rosaceae, Compositae, Araliaceae,
Apocynaceae, Lauraceae, Amaranthaceae, Orchidaceae. Some ferns also common.

In Coromandel coast vegetation consists largely of some halophytic species.

7. Western Coast of Malabar:

This is small botanical province covering Cape Comorin to Gujarat and Western Ghats .This
is a region of heavy rainfall.

In this zone, four types of forests are common:

(i) Tropical forests (occur at 700 m altitude).
(ii) Mixed deciduous forests (found at the altitude up to 1600 m).
(iii) Temperate evergreen forests (occur above 1200 m altitude), and
(iv) Mangrove vegetation.

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In tropical evergreen forest the trees are tall and they have root buttresses. Important species
are Cedrela toona, Dipterocarpus. Mangifera indica, Sterculia alata, Artocarpus hirsuta. In
the mixed deciduous forests, important plants are Terminalia tomentosa, Terminalia
peniculata Tectona grandis, Dalbergia, Lagerstroemia lanceolata and bamboo species,
particularly Dendrocalamus and Bamboosa arundinacea. On the Nilgiri hills sub-tropic and
temperate conditions exist. Important plants of Nilgiri vegetation are Rubus, Rhododendron
arboreum, Barberis, Thallictrum Ranunculus, Fragaria, Potentilla. Many other herbs along
with many grasses are also common.

Temperate forests commonly called as ―sholas‖ contain Gardenia obtusa, Michelia nilgirica
Eugenia species are also common. In Malabar, plants belonging to family Dipterocarpaceae‘
Tihaceae, Anacardiaceae, Meliaceae, Myrtaceae, Piperaceae, Orchidaceae and many ferns are
common. The west coast of Malabar region receives very high rainfall. In the coastal region
mangrove plants grow luxuriantly.

8. Assam:
This botanical province is very rich in vegetation and covers valley of Brahmaputra, Naga
hills and Manipur. This is the region of heaviest rainfall. Cherapunji is one of the rainiest
place in the world where annual rainfall often exceeds 1000 cm. Excessive wetness and high
temperature in this zone are responsible for the development of dense forests. Broad leaved,
tall evergreen angiosperms and some conifers are very common in the forests.

Common plants occurring in this region are Ficus, Artocarpus, Michelia champaca, Sterculia
alata. Morus species. Besides these bamboos canes, climbers, and green bushes are also
common. Prominent plants in the northern forests of this zone are Alnus nepalensis, Betula.
Rhododendron arboreum. Magnolia, Michelia and Prunus. Sal also occurs at Garo hills.
Orchids and fern species are very rich in this zone.

9. Bay Islands of Andaman and Nicobar (India):

Islands:
These are represented by the Andaman and Nicobar islands in the east and Lakshadweep
islands in the west. The Andaman and Nicobar islands are a group of more than 300 islands,
which support many characteristic plants and animals. The forests range from tropical

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evergreen to moist deciduous and even mangroves. The Lakshadweep group of islands
comprise 36 major Islands, which together from an area of 32 sq km. Many varied marine
fauna are present here that include turtles, crabs, molluscs and fishes. Beautiful coral reefs are
also present in this part of India.

These bay islands represent elevated portions of submarine mountains. Climate is humid in
the coastal region. In Andaman, beech forests, evergreen forests, semi-evergreen forests
deciduous forests and mangrove vegetation are of common occurrence. Rhizophora
Mimusops, Calophyllum, etc. are common plants in mangrove vegetation. In the interior
evergreen forests tall trees are common. Important species of trees are Calophyllum,
Dipterocarpus, Lagerstroermia and Terminalia etc. Some part is under cultivation. The
important crops are paddy and sugarcane.

Biogeographical regions of India

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Biodiversity Regions of India
Biodiversity is the collection of flora and fauna of a place. Biodiversity Hotspot is a region
which is a prime location for the existence of rich biodiversity but also faces the threat of
destruction. It is a place which needs our immediate and constant attention to survive and
thrive in the future as well.
This idea of identifying hotspots was put forth by Norman Myers in 1988. By now, a total of
35 biodiversity hotspots have been identified out of which most of them lie in tropical
forests. Almost 2.3% of the land surface of Earth is represented by these hotspots. These also
comprise of around 50% of the world's most common plant species and 42% of terrestrial
vertebrates prevalent. Sadly, these biodiversity hotspots have been losing 86% of their
habitats some of which are still on the verge of extinction due to serious threats posed by
climate change and human intervention.

To be called a hotspot, a region has to be able to fulfil at least two criteria including,

1. It should comprise of at least 1500 species of vascular plants i.e. more than 0.5% of the
world's total plants.
2. It should have lost greater than or equal to 70% of its original habitat.

India has always been on the list of the richest countries in the world for its biodiversity
which can easily be seen in the demography of its land. Though biodiversity and
demographic diversity are two completely different topics, the human population has been
dependant on biodiversity since forever in numerous ways. Also, as a result of exponential
growth in human population, their survival pressure too has increased tremendously on the
biodiversity.

In India, there are approximate-

350 mammals which make up 7.6% of world species.
1224 birds which make up 2.6% of the world species.
197 amphibians which make up 4.4% of the world species.
408 reptiles which make up 6.2% of the world species.
2546 fishes which make up 11.7% of the world species.
15000 flowering plants which make up 6% of the world species.

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BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS IN INDIA /INDIAN REGIONS
1.Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region (and that falling in Pakistan, Tibet,
Nepal, Bhutan, China and Myanmar)
2.Indo-Burma: Includes entire North-eastern India, except Assam and Andaman group of
Islands (and Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and southern China)
3.Sundalands: Includes Nicobar group of Islands (and Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore,
Brunei, Philippines)
4.Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: Includes entire Western Ghats (and Sri Lanka)

HIMALAYA
The Himalaya Hotspot is home to the world's highest mountains, including Mt.
Everest. The mountains rise abruptly, resulting in a diversity of ecosystems that range from
alluvial grasslands and subtropical broadleaf forests to alpine meadows above the tree line.
Vascular plants have even been recorded at more than 6,000 m. The hotspot is home to
important populations of numerous large birds and mammals, including vultures, tigers,
elephants, rhinos and wild water buffalo.
INDO-BURMA
It composses more than 2 million km² of tropical Asia, Indo-Burma is still revealing
its biological treasures. Six large mammal species have been discovered in the last 12 years:
the large-antlered muntjac, the Annamite muntjac, the grey-shanked douc, the Annamite
striped rabbit, the leaf deer, and the saola. This hotspot also holds remarkable endemism in
freshwater turtle species, most of which are threatened with extinction, due to over-harvesting
and extensive habitat loss. Bird life in Indo-Burma is also incredibly diverse, holding almost
1,300 different bird species, including the threatened white-eared night-heron, the grey-
crowned crocias, and the orange-necked partridge.
SUNDALAND
The spectacular flora and fauna of the Sundaland Hotspot are succumbing to the
explosive growth of industrial forestry in these islands and to the international animal trade
that claims tigers, monkeys, and turtle species for food and medicine in other countries.
Populations of the orangutan, found only in this hotspot, are in dramatic decline. Some of the
last refuges of two Southeast Asia rhino species are also found on the islands of Java and
Sumatra. Like many tropical areas, the forests are being cleared for commercial uses. Rubber,

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oil palm, and pulp production are three of the most detrimental forces facing biodiversity in
the Sundaland Hotspot.

WESTERN GHATS AND SRI LANKA

The region faced with tremendous population pressure, the forests of the Western
Ghats and Sri Lanka have been dramatically impacted by the demands for timber and
agricultural land. Remaining forests of the Western Ghats are heavily fragmented; in Sri
Lanka, only 1.5% of the original forest remains. Population levels are also applying increased
stress on the fringes of protected areas where many farms, loggers, and poachers use the
resources illegally. Due in part to the varying effect of the yearly monsoons and the high
mountain regions, this hotspot is home to a rich endemic assemblage of plants, reptiles, and
amphibians. Sir Lanka alone may be home to as many as 140 endemic species of amphibians.
The region also houses important populations of Asian Elephants, Indian Tigers, and the
Endangered Lion-tailed Macaque. Freshwater fish endemism is extremely high as well, with
over 140 native species.

Excercises

1. Explain Autecolory and Synecology.

2. Discuss on the various climatic, biotic and abiotic factors
3. Write an essay on various types of Ecosystems
4. Explain the morphological Anatomical features of Xerophytes
5. Write notes on characteristics of Hydrophytes
6. What is Endemism? Explain it
7. Write biodiversity rich regions of India
8. Write an essay on Phytogeographical regios of India
9. Write a general account on vegetation types of India
10. Explain the rare, endangered, threatened species
11. What is afforestation? Explain it.

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